Bottom-up approaches within planning of
the cultural landscape; preconditions for
participation and decentralization
i.
Kristina Thorell Ph.D. Human Geography University of Halmstad School of Humanities E-mail: kristina.thorell@hh.se Background
The landscape is changing in an ever ongoing process. During the 20th century, the area of cultural landscape in Sweden has decreased, and has become more monotonous and large-scaled. These tendencies threaten biodiversity and heritage values (Emanuelsson 1996, Kumm 2002, SCB 2000). Nature conservation planning involves societal effort aimed at obstructing these tendencies. Policies have traditionally been formulated by experts and based on top-down approaches. One consequence has been that authorities have experienced reticence and dissatisfaction at the local level (Naturvårdsverket 2003d, Stenseke 2006).
During recent decades, opinions about how nature should be protected by the public sector have changed and have resulted in a better awareness of the important role that local people play in the preservation of valuable areas (Zachrisson 2004). This is expressed in several Conventions, political proposals and policies. For example, the European Landscape Convention stresses that landscape should be preserved through the intervention of local people (Nordiska ministerrådet 2004, Stenseke 2004). Another example is the governmental effort, the “Local Nature Conservation Project”, carried out between 2004 and 2006. The aim in part was to stimulate local participation and decentralization within landscape preservation and conservation (Miljödepartementet 2003).
The importance of involving local actors in policy making and planning also appears in research regarding the implementation of political goals. There is an almost unambiguous conclusion that participation legitimates politics and contributes to effective implementation (Lundqvist 2004, OECD 2001a, OECD 2001b), at the same time as capacity-building takes place among the actors involved (Sandström & Tivell 2005, Stenseke 2001, Wondolleck & Yaffe 2000). The positive effects of
bottom-up approaches are also highlighted in research concerning landscape planning and rural development. The basic argument is that strategies depends up-on the region involved. It also assumes that local actors can contribute to the development of constructive strategies through their unique knowledge (Cloke & Hall 2005, Thorell 2005a). To base policies on the local perspective of landscape is another aspect of bottom-up approaches. This promotes aesthetic values which are important for local actors (Krogh 1995, Natori m.fl 2005), regional adaptation (Moseley 2003, Ronnby 1995) and a better agreement with inhabitants` conceptions.
In the view of this, policy makers need knowledge which supports the development of policy measures that are better adapted to the perspective, attitudes and capacities of local actors. Since this is a rather new field of research, an explorative study is motivated. In this context, two different courses of action may be discerned. “Top-down communication” involves dialogue from authorities to local actors. Employees within the public sector try to affix political goals and measures on the local level through information and education. The thesis focuses on the other method; “the bottom-up approach” that involves dialogue from local actors upwards, towards the political level. Policy measures are thus prepared through participatory processes and decentralization (Thorell 2005a, 2005b).
Purpose and research questions
The overall aim of the thesis is to increase the understanding of preconditions for bottom-up approaches within nature conservation planning in the cultural landscape. In order to fulfill this purpose, three research issues have been formulated.
The first research issue touches upon the significance of bottom-up approaches within nature conservation in the arable landscape. This is dealt with from a local- and action-oriented perspective. Important questions to be investigated are: How do local actors comprehend the rural landscape and its values? Which capacities appear when local groups formulate strategies for the preservation of qualities in the arable land?
The second research issue touches upon the capability of participatory processes within nature
conservation. This is dealt with from a political and authority point of view. The first important question refers to the extent in which a local working group can represent the inhabitants´ views about landscape preservation? The second important research question refers to the capability of the political system to promote local participation. The governmental effort on “Local Nature Conservation Projects” gives the empirical base that enables us to consider the following question: What are the outcomes of the effort with reference to the influence of local people?
The third research issue touches upon the abilities of decision makers to promote a nature conservation planning system which is better adapted to the local level. In this context, the perspective is future-oriented. One important question to investigate is: Which efforts within the political system may contribute to the development of bottom-up approaches?
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework touches upon bottom-up approaches on the basis of research regarding planning, democracy, rural development and landscape. It is concluded that local participation and decentralization are advocated in the interactive planning theory which deals with communicative rationality and social learning (Adams 1998, Khakee 2000, Malbert 1994, Nilsson 2001). It has also an important position in research of local mobilization where the assumption is that planning processes should be carried out upon the initiative of those concerned (Lawrence 2000).
The research overview also draws attention to the complexity of local participation within representative democracy where citizens have accepted that their influence is principally limited to the voting process. Seeing that we have established the system, we have also commissioned politicians to make decisions in our stead (Adams 1998). On the other hand, communication is a precondition for decision-making that corresponds with citizen’s opinions (OECD 2001a, 2001b).
Policy making which initiates from the local level is in many senses different from traditional planning within the public sector. For example, the village is regarded as a complete unit within which several functions, such as economics, social conditions and landscape values, interplay. In addition to this,
actors make use of local insight, rather than of scientific knowledge when formulating policy measures (Adams 1993, 1998, Khakee 2000). These insights have been useful when regarding the significances of bottom-up approaches within nature conservation planning.
A basic precondition for bottom-up approaches is that inhabitants have enough commitment to participate in policy making processes. The theory of social capital explains that people take part in cooperative action if they see it as favorable and when there is a sufficient amount of trust within the society (Coleman 1990, Putnam 1996, Pretty & Ward 2001). Theories of collective action explain the way in which the social atmosphere and structural factors affect possibilities. Experiences from rural development further show that local actors need support and stimulation from the public sector while the work is in progress (Ronnby 1995, 2000).
Another precondition is that participants have the capacity to represent public interests, i.e. long term issues which have some kind of validity for all inhabitants (Johansson 2000). Previous research shows that this capacity depends upon a social psychological dimension. More specifically, this has to do with the different kinds of roles humans play in daily life. We tend to strive for common goals when we act as citizens and for private goals when we act as consumers (Sagoff 1988). The theories of cooperative action for public interests guide the interpretation of local capacities.
Bottom-up approaches are not just a question of making use of the capacities of local actors. The term also includes the integration of the in-habitants’ ways of seeing their landscape. In this thesis, landscape stands for the physical environment which is changeable and understood in different ways by human beings. The significances of different views are illustrated by three conceptions: (1) the biological understanding which is based upon natural science and concerns living organisms and the environment in which they live, (2) the morphological understanding which denotes that humans over time transform the natural landscape into a cultural landscape and (3) the experienced understanding which refers to landscape as something immaterial, subjective and perceptual (Thorell 2005a). Previous research in rural areas shows that local actors generally
appreciate a miscellaneous agrarian landscape, one that embodies natural elements and traces of traditional cultivation (Jones 1998). It also indicates that inhabitants are keen on environments which give rise to feelings of identity, tradition, aesthetics and diversity (Stenseke 2001).
Method
A diverse methodology has been made use of in the research since inter-active- and action-oriented research has complemented questionnaires and interviews. In order to elucidate the first research issue regarding the significance of bottom-up approaches, two study circles with local people were conducted. Sixteen inhabitants took part in the study that took place in the municipalities of Orust and Munkedal, Western Sweden. The first phase consisted of eight focus group interviews and three walking tours. Rural landholders were asked questions in relation to agricultural landscapes and policy measures. The second phase involved action-oriented research. The participants discussed important aspects for the preservation of semi-natural grasslands, examined how these landscapes may be affected by the inhabitants, and formulated a local strategic plan. Finally, the plan was presented at an open meeting to which all inhabitants in the communities were invited.
The second research issue touches upon the capability of participatory processes. From the point of view of authorities, it is important that par-ticipants in local working group are capable of representing the opinions of the community as a whole. Therefore, a questionnaire was sent to a number of the inhabitants of Orust that measured whether the local strategic plan, which had been formulated there, was in agreement with their views. The respondents were systematically random sampled from the electoral roll. It was sent to 143 inhabitants in the parish of Tegneby and a total of 94 people responded to the survey. The other research question touches upon the political system’s capability to promote local participation. In this case, the governmental effort on “Local Nature Conservation Project” was used as an empirical base. Seven employees at the municipalities of Orust, Lycksele, Västervik, Nyköping, Lomma, Tierp and Härryda were interview about their experiences of the effort. More specifically, they were asked to describe significances, actors that participated, outcomes,
possibilities and constrains. The oral statements were complemented by statistics and written sources.
The third research issue touches upon decision makers` ability to pro-mote a nature conservation planning system which is better adapted to the local level. Interactive research was carried out and a mutual learning process between employees at authorities and the researcher took place. 40 representatives from the public sector took part in a seminar where the development of bottom-up approaches was discussed. Thereafter, eight interviews at the Board of Agriculture and the County Administrations were made. These revolved around present policy measures and the development of better relations to local actors.
Results
How do local actors comprehend the rural landscape and its values? Findings from the interviews in group and field tours indicate that the “experienced” and the “morphological” understanding of landscape represent the local perspective. This means that local actors evaluate the land-scape on the basis of experiences and meanings, instilled through interaction. Consequently, aesthetic and emotional values are of great importance for those living in the landscape. Farmers perceive themselves as active transformers of the land as a result of their daily work. In addition, they have a practical knowledge of the land and how it should be managed. This is transferred across generations and produced through the practical work in the landscape.
Which capacities appear when local groups formulate strategies for the preservation of qualities in the agricultural landscape? The study shows three different kinds capacities among local actors: (1) resources related to place, (2) resources related to relations and (3) resources related to the processes. The first group contains local knowledge that implies the awareness of different parts of society and how these are linked to each other. This capacity is essential, since problems appear in a specific social and economic context. Resources that are related to relations include social capital, human links and networks that facilitate co-operation and work for common goals. Resources related to processes are capacities that arise when local actors gather together and formulate a strategy. Particularly it refers to the capacity to
represent public interests, to make use of a contextual approach and to take part in a learning process.
To what extend does a local working group represent the inhabitants´ opinions about landscape preservation? The questionnaire showed a high level of agreement between the visions, goals and actions of the survey participants and the residents who attended the study circle to formulate a strategic plan. More specifically, the majority (more than 90%) of the survey participants supported the opinions which the working group ex-pressed and the local strategic plan which had been formulated. One should, however, take into consideration the fact that the opinions which were expressed appear as being relatively obvious. To what extent do local actors influence the implementation of Local Nature Conservation Projects? In the seven investigated municipalities, 37 projects which aimed at preserving biological and recreational values were carried out during 2004 and 2005. This was achieved through direct efforts (improvement of physical areas) and indirect measures (development of strategic plans, pedagogical efforts etc.). Local actors only partly influenced the implementation. This is a result of the fact that the Government had formulated detailed descriptions of the attempts that were entitled to subsidies. In addition, the authority level had an important position through coordinating and reporting projects. It was also common that municipalities carried out project by themselves. However, bottom-up approaches did occur to a certain degree since there was a pronounced ambition that local groups should participate and contribute with project ideas or suggestions.
Which efforts in the political system may contribute to the development of bottom-up approaches? In the investigation, bottom-up approaches were defined as participatory and communicative processes between authorities and local actors. The term also referred to organizational structures which harmonize with the integrated perspective of local actors and flexible policy measures that support regional adaptation. The results show that the development of bottom-up approaches is dependent bottom-upon normative conditions. This means that society in general must strive for a planning system which is in better agreement with the local level. The study further
highlights the necessity of general structural changes within the public sector. This relates to making the economic, juridical, organizational and administrative structures compatible to bottom-up approaches. In addition, the importance of expanded social interaction between authorities and local actors was pointed out. This could be supported by the development of tools for participatory processes and communication. These can be in the form of written documents that describe principals for the selection of participants, methods, rules and so on.
Conclusions
With bottom-up approaches, nature conservation policies will have a different nature. This will entail a greater emphasis on the specific land-scape which humans experience with all senses and transform through their daily actions. There will also be efforts that are formulated, to a higher degree, on the basis of insights into the specific community and the contexts in which landscape values exist. The major driving forces are social capital, entrepreneurship, commitment and the capability to represent public interests.
Decentralized planning processes within nature conservation may con-tribute to the preservation of aesthetic, heritage, biological and recreational values in the landscape on the bases of local conditions. However, when environmental goals are to be fulfilled it is mainly organizations whose activities relate to nature conservation that become integrated. This shows the importance of relatively liberal rules when the ambition is to incorporate a diversity of local actors.
It is possible to integrate bottom-up approaches into the nature conservation planning system if the normative preconditions exist, i.e. that society demands a higher degree of bottom-up approaches, decentralized work and participatory processes. Extensive efforts in the form of comprehensive structural changes, as well as practical efforts to expand the social interaction between the authority level and local actors, are then needed. Implementation should be carried out in a continuous process.
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i The summary has earlier been published in:
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University and is financed by FORMAS.
