Air Pollution. In the City of Örebro

Universitet i Linkoping

Inst. For Terna

A vd. Geografi

Kulturgeografi 3 ht 2000

Air pollution

In the City of Orebro

Forfattare: Bwanika Daniel

Handledare: Per Lindskog

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Tittl Tide Fllrfattarc Author Sammanfatining Abstract ; Air Pollution in the cit"y of Orebro

Bwanika Daniel

Datum

Date

Air polluti0t1. and quality is one of t.11.e major problems in Orebro. Much research has been. done to understand the impact of air polfotion in urban societies and much more needs to be done in order to 1mderstand the imp!icatims of air quality i.mpact on tl-ie region. Social structures in tem1s of environmental

base,.d planning. for good air quality should focus on economic social costs need for new tech.·10logies and attainable

health

c-0sts.

:Society can't survive without a healthy environment therefore understanding air quality and how new structures evolve fur a practical human environmental interaction, is an absolute necessity for the well being and growth of Orebro region. The paper therefore, is an investigation into air quality impact on the existing structures

m

Orebro with air pollution as t.lte major subject. It is based on critical evaluation of air pollution. as derivative of a symbiotic huma.11 interact.ion with her e.rivironme..11t and how contemporary planning

strnctures should be attained. The paper throws

light

on the strategies being undertaken in Orebro region, in

0rd.er to

attl!Ltl good

health

and cheap habitable environment in terms of technological, social and ec.o..'1omic.

development.

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Authors preface

This paper is a study of brebro City as a region with emphasis on the environmental situation focusing on air pollution in general. It is based on the goals, which were made in agenda 21 for a safer environment within a sustainable economic growth. It covers mainly air pollution as the major theme . I have used data material from different sources to throw light on environmental pollution problems with focus on air quality and the subsequent effects, which result from air pollution looking at the problem from a social, economic and geographic perspective. I've to a limited extent touched health problems as a result of toxic gas pollutants, the green house effect and the social, environmental and economic costs as a result of an unclean environment.

The geographical aspect of this paper will basically reorient us into· contemporary urban planning, management of water resources, forests, agricultural land and human settlement which is a redefinition of space within brebro geographical region.

Most of the work is basically multidisciplinary, but due to time and the level of study, the paper is limited in scope albeit with an in-depth study of the underlying problems which are caused by the present state of technology and socio-economic organisation. It should be realised that what takes place in the social sphere affect the natural sphere, likewise what happens in the natural sphere does affect the social sphere.

Special thanks to Per Lindskog, Hans Holmen who tirelessly have helped reading through the manuscript, for the technical input and advice.

IntroductiorL.

l . 2. Background ... 5

j ·~ J ,....J, Prob1c1n and piirpvse ... .. ... , ... , ... , ... '7 ,

1. 3. Iv1ethod and rnate:rial. ... 8

2. lhe Geography of Orebro ... 9

2. L Air quality problem in Orehro.... ... ... ... . ... 10

2 .2. The impact of air quality on people and environment ... .J _l 2.3. LJ\.ir quality irnpact on hurnan health . ... ··· .. ··· ... 12

Gree11 l101.1se effect ... 13

Is air quality an econon1ic probJe1n? ... l 4 2.6. Sc1Cial organisation ·problern ... 15

2. 7. De1v1elopll1g l)C .. vV teci111ologies .. ' .. ' '. ' ... ' ... ' ... '' '' ' ... '.' .... ' .. ' .... ' .. ' ... ' ... ' ... ' ... 16

2.8. Dealing \Vith the air quality proble111 ... 18

\ \1hat is ajr pollution? ... J 9 3.1. Definition of Air ... 20

Sources of i\ir pollutants ... 21

3.3. Traffic pollution~ detcdlecl ... .. . : . ... 21

3.4. h1dustPf ... 23

4 Conternporary Trends in Urban development ... 25

4.1. Econornic geography of air quality ... 26

4 .1.1 Traffic air quality econo111ies ... 27

4.1.2 Cl1a11ges i11 tl1e Biospl1e1·e ... 27

4.1.3. Energy ... 28

4.1.4. Society and hu.tnan habitat. ... 28

4.1.5. Fresl1 Air ... 29

4. 2. A New cit:v and urban space planning ... · ... 29

5. \Vhat can the rnunic:ipa1ity influence? ... 3}

5. l \\7_{ater/l~,..gricultural ]and ... 32}

5.2. St:1face water ... 32

5.3. Reduction of air pollution ... 32

5.4. Sv~ran1ps and increased bio-diversity ... 32

5.5. Air pollution in Orcbro -asscssmrnt and trends ... 33

6. Region and

city

1 plans ... 36

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6.4. Green Transport ... 38

6.5. Population and settlements ... 39

6.6. Ein~romnental aspects ... 40

1. Introduction

The study of geography is subdivided into two distinctive but rather complementary parts human and physical geography. For the purpose of better grasping air problems in the city of Orebro, good understanding of these two disciplines in geography make it possible to understand the complex arrays necessitating good air quality as a precondition for good health and subsequently a sustainable socio-economic structure. Advanced technological innovations and developments are not independent of human action, grasping the properties and mechanisms generating knowledge about how we should live is therefore crucial to this thesis. Good air quality in urban regions, demand of society to be transforrnative and technologically innovative in order to limit the environmental and socio-economic cost. It is within our present social and environmental needs that 'sense of a place' is becoming agent in understanding of the specific geographical configuration of a region thus a regional consciousness. We need clean swimming and fishing places. Environmentally standardise human settlements and communications infrastructures are a necessity more than ever before- therefore a necessity for new technologies. All these variables are what contribute to holistic nature of human nature, which has largely been neglected by economic and political methodologies.

Organising high quality environmental technologies, modem physical urban planning and better socio-economic organising structures are pivot, to a better human and environmental interaction. That too, involves understanding the urban region in space and time, as a derivative of the geography of the present time. It is more crucial than ever before, in understanding the inter-relatedness of the two distinctive fields of geography. How will society be defined, what about space, is human or physical geography independent enough to explain the nature of the present socio-economic and environmental interaction independently or do we have to counterpoise the two, for a better understanding of human-environmental interaction?

It is becoming clear, that air quality studies to which this paper is committed, is a transitive investigation not only of air quality but also how air quality affects human and environmental management and organisation- thus an integrated physical and human geography. There is e.g. much argument about green cities and technologies and apparently there are efforts being made to look for alternative fuels and cleaner transport and communication methods. In major urban regions there are observable variables indicating that greener space in form of, technologies, parks and cleaner urban space is becoming a reality. There is experimentation in garbage sorting and increased techniques in recycling technologies and recycled products. This is important since for the first time we can see societies, which are not entirely detached, from optimal resource utilisation and resource exploitation.

1.1 Background

This paper is essentially a study of air quality management, as a result of the 3rd urban project being pursued in conjunction with several Swedish municipalities, Environmental Research Institute (IVL) and Yrkes and Miljomedicinska kliniken at Orebro region hospital. Their main objective and purpose of IVL is monitoring the environment and generate applied environmental research on atmospheric heavy metal disposition, ozone monitoring, urban air quality and organic compound emissions. In case of Orebro region the aim is to generate an understanding of long and short run planning strategies, based on changes in toxic gas emission in urban planning and solving the problems of air pollution. (Orebro Pa Vag mot en Hallbarutveckling: 1999 Miljopolicy pg. 8) Subsequently the will be mapping Orebro's regional needs for sustainable environmental and socio-economic policies. Since environmental problems are caused by human actions, the purpose of the paper will therefore, further evaluate the effects and influences on economic policies generating environmental problems on both regional and local levels, as Orebro is a growing and expanding regional communication centre. This is thesis based on the principles of Agenda 21 on environmental and development, which

were discussed in Rio de Janeiro, 3- 4 June 1992. (see reference)

Assessment of the environmental problems with focus on air pollution in Orebro urban region (urban -projektet) started in winter 1986-87. Ore bro is among the 30 active participants out of the 60 municipalities participating annually in air quality tests all over Sweden. The project implies there are urban measuring points where tests are done as air quality evaluation on both in and out office and residential space. (see table 19) The purpose of the project is to observe how traffic emissions affect human environment- where there are office spaces and residential areas.

In these urban regions, there is continuous measurement and monitoring of gas (pollutants) emissions. Measuring locations are placed in urban centres where air quality, could be effectively monitored throughout the year. Such empirical studies give a basic knowledge and an insight into the effects and influence of pollution in the inner cities, in correlation to the areas adjacent to the city centre - the suburban areas. Pollution trends are effectively monitored, and variation in concentration levels, in relation to meteorological factors. These tests are made primarily to generate an understanding of the economic impact, in urban road design, air and water quality management and source proximity from pollutants sources and the general health aspect of city dwellers in terms of health costs and the general outlook of our future urban planning. (Luftutslapp ar 1995 I Orebro Lan: 1999)

There is certainly a serious problem with toxic gas emission, in all urban regions. When polluted air is either inhaled directly or mixes with rainwater and fall on earth as acidified water, it hence does contaminate water sources resulting in poisonous solution killing off aquatic and marine organism, plants and causing serious health problems for the human population. (Ulander Arne: 1994) In Luftutslapp ar 1995 I Ore bro Jan report 1999, it is estimated that nitrate dioxide deposition in Ore bro was about 4 350 tonnes as a result of cars and bus emissions. Volatile Organic Compounds pollutants were estimated at 5,013 tonnes of which 45% were hydrocarbons coming from industries as their major source. In the same year it was estimated that, carbon dioxide in Orebro was 416 tonnes, Nora Bergslags Energi AB and Orebro Bofors Airport were named as major contributors. Other sources were heavy traffic, compressors etc. It is therefore apparently clear that the economic costs incurred from purification processes and reclaiming acidified land through carbonation, of water sources and excessively acidified soils, are becoming quite an expensive process and a burden on society. Orebro area has got agricultural land like forest areas and water bodies, which is also at danger of falling into total disuse.

The study establishes air quality in the inner city of Orebro. The study further analyses population concentration in relation to traffic concentration, from energy producing establishments, ventilation systems, and local traffic areas and examination of air quality from the ground to about 4- 8 meters. Urban climatogical studies shows that, dry and warm seasons allow quick dispersion of gases from the atmosphere, whereas cold and humid periods do the opposite, concentrating gases in near proximity of human reach. This is partly due to the closeness of buildings in urban regions, which contributes to varying urban climate.( cf. Mattsson Jan 0., 1979) There are also other factors, which contribute to the concentration of gases in inner cities, for example the intensity of traffic, which of has resulted into increased raising trends ofNOx - emission.

Air quality evaluation in central urban region of Orebro are comparative measurements of N0_2, S0₂

and soot in the, in relation to air quality levels on the outer lying areas. Under the same period, experimental measurements have also been done on levels of hydrocarbon gases in order to determine weekly trends. However these measurements which are in form of raw data are just for a period of 8 years or so, something which does give but not a very clear picture of the results, particularly in regard to health effects on the residents of the city of Ore bro. (Larsson Hallgren Eva: 1998)

The main element in organic compounds is carbon, which unites with many elements to form a great variety of compounds that are found in such substances as coal, petroleum, fabrics, plastics, and rubber. Other carbon compounds include plant and animal tissues, sugars, proteins, starches, and cellulose. It makes carbon compounds to be extremely dangerous since carbon is between metals and non-metals, which implies carbon can react with both elements. It should be noted that compounds like coal, petroleum are not easily degradable hence once inhaled or passed to the body tissues might result in severe health disorders, to which we are becoming familiar today as emergence new disease. However even those carbon compounds, which are easily degradable when highly concentrated, can result into highly complex chemical toxic compounds dangerous to human life. There are three reasons why organic compounds can be extremely dangerous.

Poor human health as a result of poor environment status, like bad air quality cause high economic cost in terms of medical care. In order for a balanced and harmonious human and environmental interaction, there should be good regulations as to how man handles organic substances for preservation of good health of the environment and human life.

It is now known that hydrocarbons derived from volatile organic compounds and Nitrogen oxide gases bind the ozone near the ground exacerbating the green house effect, which is depleting the ozone layer itself. (Jol and Kielland: 1997) It is logical to conclude that in urban regions since there is high traffic and industry concentration, naturally there is a high emission of volatile organic compounds as a result of high concentration of traffic, hence increase in the ozone levels in urban regions. It will be remembered that hydrocarbon reaction with ozone as an oxidant is helped with photochemical processes thus creating a special type of urban microclimate, which is not conducive to human habitation. (Mattsson Jan 0., 1979, Luftutslapp ar 1995 I Orebro Lan: 1999 pg. 8)

1.2. Problem and Purpose

The purpose of the paper is mainly to study air quality in Orebro City in particular, from both a theoretical and empirical point of view and how air quality does affect or influence urban planning strategies and the entire socio-economic organisation structures. The study of geography mainly concerns itself with understanding space in time and how human beings interact within that location. The structure which geography brings out through understanding space and human action within a given location, shows the generative mechanisms of human and nature interaction which is not a speciality of other fields of social sciences for instance political science, history or economics. It will be my major goal to bring out a clearer understanding of what raw data, from which air problems are quantified and how that data could be utilised in socio-economic organising structures and urban planning aspects of geography.

With the help of empirical study of air pollution in Orebro, done between 1986/96, by the Institute for Environmental Research, (IVL) I establish the side effects of air pollution both in urban planning and future human environment interaction. The empirical data is mainly focusing on pollutant gases, for example carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and other organic (photochemical) compounds; I will cite some examples from the medical field.

This is vital, to understand what determines planning methods in an urban region, how society will carry on living a good healthy life, which as of now can only largely be defined from economic and political variables. Besides, it should be realised that impacts of environmentally accrued variables on economic life are largely left out from the economic and political assessment of urban life. Therefore the study of socio-economic and human-environmental interaction, is the major focus of this paper as an antithesis to air quality management.

1.3. Method and Material

The study method will primarily be empirical. However, since what happens in environment geographical field affects human life, I will combine qualitative and quantitative methods in raw data analyses, gathered on different variables. It should be noted that quantitative measurements (raw data) of air quality for Ore bro City are figurative therefore can't be understood if not qualitative analysed, studied and then used in understanding of the human-environmental geography of this Ore bro region. (Holme och Solvang: 1991, 100- 318) These are variables namely: temperature, wind speed, different gas particle quantity concentration from traffic emissions, topology of this region, traffic concentration etc. City planning must follow a given pattern and design or what is termed as environmental engineering and architecture. It is therefore crucially important to understand where flesh wind blows from into the city, the nature the landscape of the city itself or topology so that human settlements, transport communication network, are in rhythm with the environmental and economic aspects within the social realm. All raw data comes from the Institutet for Vatten och Luftvardforskning (IVL), Stadsbyggnadkontoret, Orebro, Orebro Kommuns miljorapport, Yrkes-och Miljomedicinska Kliniken, Regionsjukhuset Orebro, and Sveriges meteorologiska och hydrologiska institutet (SMHI). This will be done with an objective of giving meaning to both physical geographical understanding of air quality in an urban space as well as a human geographical interpretation of contemporary trends in urban development.

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2. The Geography of Orebro

This chapter will be a study of human environmental interaction and what it means for the City of Orebro in terms of socio-economic and environmental organisation. An environmental study is an independent field in geography, which encompasses two distinctive fields of geography. It brings them together, in order to understand the inherent socio-economic and human -environmental phenomena. In understanding how these two fields interact, will unable us to understand the future prospects for physical planning, our technological needs and developments demands of the city Orebro.

Orebro municipality covers 9301 km2 of which 65% is composed of temperate pine forests. Topographically, Orebro can be sub-divided into two main regions one with agricultural production (Narkeslatten), the other with pine forest region (barrskogs region), which dominates Bergslagen and the south pine forest area. A total of 22,000 hectares is protected land in Orebro administrative province of which 19,000 hectares is farmland. This farmland represents 2% of the whole administrative province. The soils are relatively poor, which is a composition of granite and gneiss, which gives sandy soil profiles. Pine forests actually result in acidic soils with a pH value of 4,5%, which becomes more acidic with acidified rainwater as a result of air pollution.

There is a small river, Svartan, which flows from the Southeast of the City of Orebro which is the major region and pours into Lake Hjalmaren on the Northwest of Orebro City. Orebro is not very large demographically, though there is a high potential for growth in the communication and high technology industrial sectors given its location in Sweden. Orebro, is becoming a regional communication centre, linking all several urban centres Stockholm, Goterborg, Oslo etc. Given the fact that major roads to Stockholm, Goterborg and Oslo pass through the city, acidic levels can even become high especially during winter periods, when there is low dispersion of toxic gases mixed with water droplets. This situation might be exacerbated, if nothing is done to seek potential environmental technologies and remedies to an improvement in urban planning.

Air quality depends on many factors, some of which are socio-economic, natural or purely geographical. Therefore, the geographical location of the Orebro region makes it prone to air pollution in many different ways. Firstly, air pollution in Orebro, partly depends on the concentration

of industries and traffic which are major sources of air pollutants. There are also secondary factors,

which can be locally or globally dependent such as pollution-laden air blowing over Sweden from Britain or Poland. Those trends determine air quality and/ or are partly climatically influenced. Those influences are quite visible in local weather patterns in correlation with pollutant concentration zones. Weather changes all the time. Weather describes the variations, which occur in the atmosphere daily. The climate of a place, however, is a generalisation of the typical weather to be found there, based on observations .recorded daily. Climate refers to the expected weather conditions of an area. But on average the pattern of weather, called climate, usually stays pretty much the same for centuries if it is left to itself. This is our problem today, which shows that weather patterns are changing due to human interference. With emission of different gas particle with differing reactivity then we generate mechanism, which result into phenomenal climatic conditions. Human actions can change the earth and its climate in many significant ways through industrial, agricultural as well as communication activities.

Therefore, observation of local climatic changes is focused on the formation of clouds, rain, snow, temperature changes etc,. Temperature tells us the relative warmth or coolness of this locality, in this case Orebro region. This warmth or coolness is actually the average energy of motion of the air molecules in our locality in Orebro. If the case was that of which is found in tropical regions, such observation would be focused on cyclones fronts, tornado tropical storms and hurricanes or

turbulence thunderstonns. Down slope wind stonns, land and sea breezes composition of air, ozone layer, water vapour, etc. are of interest in order to understand pollution levels in Orebro. (Ulander Arne: 1994, 4) In case of Orebro, wind speed, local temperature, snow and rainfall levels are long-tenn weather patterns, which are of pivot interest in this respect and are recorded on a daily basis. Regional and localised activities might also be a contributing factor. Air quality might vary from one region to another according to the changes in the topography of a region, vegetation cover, human settlements, traffic, industrial concentration and /or agricultural intensive regions and other activities on the landscape. The higher the landscape, likewise vegetation cover cleans and purifies air through carbon dioxide consumption, while agricultural landscape exposed to excessive artificial fertilisation, releases gases from soil profiles which in most cases is contaminated with toxic chemical compounds. 2.1. Air quality problem in Orebro

In Orebro, experimental measurements are made on soot and other selected pollutant gases weekly and monthly to detennine pollution levels. There are certain assumptions, which must be put into consideration as we have seen above. For instance cold and wann periods given rise to differing levels of pollution. A colder period delays the process through which polluted air can be dispersed. This is called an inversion process. Thus it can be concluded that during a given period, there is a high concentration of pollutant gases in the inner cities or pollutant producing regions. According to a recent report (station 1880 urban project 1996/97), October, January and March had nonnal temperatures while other months were colder than nonnal. There was correspondingly high concentration of pollutants. The same causal relationship between climate and pollution is documented in the urban project report winter 1997/98, weekly and daily measurements of 24 Jul -1998 and 15/16 June -1998 respectively.

Measurements of pollutant gases are made, to detennine levels of toxicity in air, and the general air quality, acceptable for the environment and for a sustainable good human health. In 1993 Naturvardsverket decided to limit the level of gases emitted into the air. These limits are or were set in accordance to the world health organisation acceptable nonns. The value limit of pollutant gases emitted into the air is detennined, in accordance with the medically acceptable levels. (Forsberg, 1997: 3) High values of these gases cause cancer for instance. Different, gaseous compounds are said to expose the population to certain types of cancers and lung diseases, if human tissue is exposed to high concentration. For instance, high levels of hydrocarbons, for example benzene at 1,3 µg/m3 and toluene, exylene at 44 µg/m3 can cause cancer.

During the period between 1995 /96, measurement of nitrogen dioxide concentration made in Ore bro showed an increase in NOx levels. This implies, there are still high levels of this gas the air despite the fact that mild winters have drastically altered this trend. According to a report from Miljo och Halsoskyyd argues that the trends have not changed much, in the relation to climatic conditions, for example from the periods during very cold to mild winters. This implies there has not been an adequate dispersion of gases trapped in the air. Thus high concentrations still remains high. It is also apparent that during winter periods with very low temperatures, a lot of the gases emitted into the air increase since there is constant wanning of residential and office space, and high traffic activities. This necessitates further technological innovations and research in human settlements, communication infrastructures and better socio-economic structures ..

The concentration of sulphur dioxide is decreasing, but still remains high due to wind activities, laden with high concentrations of the pollutants blowing over the continent. These gases are a result of the constant use of coal and oil products, which is a result of wanning of accommodation facilities, industrial use and vehicle fossil fuels in neighbouring countries like Poland and England.

The table below shows the level of the pollutant gases in Ore bro over a period of ten years.

The progression of gases in Orebro city over a ten year period. 35 II Sot 30 _0s02 25 _{■ No2} 20 15 10 5 0 86/87 87/88 88/89 89/90 90/91 91/92 92/93 93/94 94/95 95/96

Winter average values of soot, SO2 and NO2 in µg/m 3 Source: Miljo och Halsoskydd Nr. 96.280A

2.2. The impact of air quality on people and environment

The concentration of these gases has adverse effect on the local environment in general. There is local and global warming due to excessive carbon monoxide and nitrate oxide emissions today contributing to drastic local, regional and global climatic changes, which are taking place all over the world. In Orebro region such environmental fears are not far fetched. In 1982 it is estimated that about 6 600 kg of fish perished due to aluminium contamination decimating the livelihood of fishermen as a consequence. (Utredning om fishdod in Hjalmaren 1980 and 1982: 1984). About 87 % of the municipality's residents are connected to the municipality's drinking water distribution system. Consequently what happens to the air quality has an adverse effect on water quality hence human health problems. Odensbacken attains its water from Svartan and Hjalmaren. The municipality's groundwater sources are located in Garphyttan, Klismo, Glanshammar and Narkes Nil. Groundwater sources are replenished with surface water therefore it is important to keep groundwater safe by keeping surface water as clean as possible. This is a vital hydrological process.

It had been found that in Orebro there are two factors to groundwater pollution, a human cause and a natural cause but are linked in one way or the other to air pollution through acidic rainwater. People need fresh air and clean water. Air pollution is a contributory factor to high levels of acidity have been registered in 70 of the 100 lakes in Orebro region. Therefore, there is a huge socio-economic cost incurred through carbonation of these lakes. It is also apparent that the irreplaceable biodiversity is declining at a tremendous speed, organism survival in these lakes depends on fresh water sources. Groundwater resources are also in danger of falling into total disuse through the filtration of heavy metal compounds from agricultural land and urban water run off.

Several of Orebro municipality's lakes are found in Kilsberg, surrounded by nutrient poor forests. This makes these lakes more sensitive to acidification. Svartan flows through a region, which is partly under intensive agricultural use, and so it is likewise polluted from nitrate fertilisers. The social and economic consequences are quite clear. The cultural and economic value of this land is declining while the surrounding areas can not be used as recreational spaces, due to their proximity to polluted areas. Low harvests of different types of crab shows a frightening negative ecological trend. Air pollution is forcing the municipality to impose strict regulations on fishing activities in the region, so that these types of fish could replenish themselves in order to avoid their total extinction over a given period of time.

The landscape of Orebro today has only 5% of the swamps, which existed some 150 years ago. This precarious situation has forced the municipality to start several damming projects, exerting further economic pressure on the population in order to reclaim several of the lost swamps and their bird life. Swamps have a very complex biological, social and hydrological dynamic, which is vital to nature as well as human existence. Today there is a reconstruction of the swamp at Rynninge and Tysslingen, which will also be a cost-effective as a way of solving the transportation and purification of Svartan 's waters. (Kommunfullmaktige: 1999)

Global average temperatures will rise above 2° C over the pre-industrial levels. (Andre and Kielland 1997 :40) Current figures of contaminated air stands at 3 60 ppm, which are quite acceptable according to research done into this area. In Orebro region we have seen increased growth of deadly algae and disappearance of micro-organisms in water sources and channels but also on trees and plants. Fish species are disappearing rapidly or have totally disappeared, while fresh water bodies have increasingly become acidic. There is a growing threat on the bio-diversity of localised eco-systems and some areas have been gazetted as endangered zones here in brebro.

There is a growing concern as results of local, regional and global warming; deserts are spreading rapidly locally and all over the world. Holmen writes that there is an ever- present risk of seeing only 'want we want to see' and he asserts that this is of course a human shortcoming which we will have to deal with to the best of our ability. (Holmen 1995 :59) This might result into the disruption of climatic and hydrological conditions and bring about unforeseen changes in global weather, climatic and hydrological patterns. There might be ecological changes in given regions, with potentially devastating consequences for millions of people. Drought might be a consequence of climatic changes and might become even more frequent and ferocious in its impact. In Orebro water resources are directly derived from snow and rainwater. It does indeed help in replenishing ground water sources and furthermore increasing the level of sweet water in water body sources thus reducing their acidity. This hydrological process has very positive effects on the economy of the region, which ranges from tourism to fish farming activities.

Heat waves might increase in intensity and in number and even their duration may be prolonged. This is a dangerous combination when it comes to pollutant gases i.e. photochemical reaction. In fact it is heat waves which create what is referred to as land surface ozone. Jean Polutikof a climate researcher, says the droughts appear to be linked to the formation of the blocking zones of intense high pressure over the Atlantic ocean that divert rain bearing wind depressions away from the Mediterranean. This blocking, he continues to say, may be related to the cycles of El Nino, the periodic reversal of winds and waves on the tropical Pacific Ocean. (New Scientist: 1996, 9). Due to the effects of toxic gases, it is assumed that southern Europe will warm up by 18

°

Celsius by the year 2030 and rainfall will diminish by 19 % to 20 %.

The environmental effects of air pollution are quite drastic. It had been found that these toxic gases have grave effects on plants as well as people (I will study that in health effects). One of the most toxic gases is sulphur dioxide, which has very negative effects on the flora. Broad leave trees have been observed to loose their leaves on exposure to these gases in urban areas. These gases have causative agents in eliminating other plant life and sustaining certain type of algae and certain types of lichens. However certain lichens are so sensitive to this gas that they are almost disappearing. Sulphur dioxide effects have destroyed vast forests cover in central Europe. Its effects are clearly visible on the construction works , structures and artworks in most urban regional centres.

2.3. The impact of Air quality on human health

Air pollution may be responsible for the many epidemics of hay fever according to a botanist Klironoms John . Increasing levels of carbon dioxide gas in the air, quadruple the number of sneeze

provoking spores released by soil fungi. In his research, he found that there were between 2 to 4 times as many spores in the COi- rich atmosphere as in the normal atmosphere. (New Scientist, 24 Aug. 1996. No. 2044 p5.)

Air Pollution national limit values.

Chemical Compounds Limit Value(µg/m3) Health Effects

Nitrogen dioxide 50 Lung affection

Benzene 1,3 Cancer (leukaemia)

Toluene 38 Central nerve system

Xylene 44 Central nerve system

Source: Luftovervakning I Urban Miljo 25-01599-95, 1994

In MiljoAktuellt pp. 5 1996, it was reported that several diseases, resulting from air pollution are well documented. People become sick in asthma, lung infection, lung cancer, and certain skin cancers due to the high doses of ultra violet ray exposure. This is the result of the depletion of the ozone layer. Skin cancers have increased from 3 % to 4%. Gunnar Bylin has exposed three types of air pollution side effects. There is hyperactivity, which cause asthma, for example from industrial soot, the emergence of allergy, cancer and other diseases. (see also Cable and Cable 1995 :30, The European Respiratory Journal 1998:12, 900-905)

Some gases are said to have carcinogenic effects. That is, they cause cell mutation. These are diseases, which can result into blood cell destruction, destruction of the central nervous system etc., Other side effects have been observed on pregnancy. Many chemical compounds have both odorant and irritant properties. The human body responds to these irritants on or near the body surface i.e. to the eyes, noses, throat, facial skin and other body skin. Effects include irritation, conjunctivitis, sneezing, coughing, hoarseness, a feeling of dryness of mucous membranes, skin erythrema etc. Volatile organic compounds are said to have devastating health effects, on given sectors of the population sensitive to these pollutants. Since VOC are photochemical pollutants they react with other gases such as NOx into the air causing fog. This is termed as secondary pollution. Health effects derived from these types of pollution cause breathing problems and other lung disease. (Hester and Harrison 1995: 117- 119, 125, Forsberg 1997: 9-18)

2.4. Green house effect

The green house effect implies that the temperature in the atmosphere increases remarkably. There is a misunderstanding of how the green house affects people. Mattsson and Swantesson explain this phenomenon in detail in their study of local climate and geomorphological maps for planning purpose studying and understanding thermal belts in cities, which might have far higher temperatures than normal hence generating the green house effects (my emphasis). (Mattsson , Swantesson; 1987) The green house phenomenon is largely due to the depletion of the ozone layer, which hinders ultraviolet radiation, from reaching the earth. Ozone is much less common than the normal oxygen molecule

(02) that humans inhale everyday. Ozone is blue in colour and has a strong odour. Ozone particles are

comprised of three oxygen particles and are denoted as 0_3. The ozone found in our atmosphere is formed by an interaction between normal oxygen molecule (02) and ultraviolet (UV) light. When ultraviolet light hits these oxygen molecules, the reaction causes the molecules to break apart into single atoms of oxygen. That means the reaction generates high heat intensity zones, which are trapped beneath the stratosphere. This makes the atmosphere so warm that there it creates a green house effect, allowing high concentration of ultra violates wave radiation reaching the earth surface. Its effects are highly documented in increased causes of skin cancer. (Nordling Jan: 1990: 49)

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The green house effect has side effects, which might be detrimental to the environment as they can cause the earth to dry up and cause high water lose. Depletion of the ozone layer, which side effects, are grossly responsible for epidemiological problems such as skin cancer today, are said to be derived from aggregated and cumulative concentration of high photochemical compounds. Ozone can be damaging to organic microscopic life in water bodies forming basic food chains for aquatic life, and certain varieties of crops including rice and soya, and polymers used in paints and clothing. It should be remembered, macro and microscopic organism can only take place in given preconditions which is a biological, physical, social and chemical complex.

It is observed that ozone episodes take place almost all over Europe in summer, which can occur over a period of days. Ozone regions and / or belts are results of photochemical pollution or as a result of NOx and enhanced volatile organic compound reaction in those localities many of which are found in urban locations. In this case local pollutants already concentrated into the area are reinforced as these photochemical process create secondary pollutants. (Andre and Kielland: 1997, 72).

Ground-level ozone forms when pollutants called volatile organic compounds and nitrogen oxides react on hot, humid, sunny days. Cars, factories, boats, lawnmowers and other gas-powered equipment release pollutants, as do lighter fluid, oil-based paints, and other household products. It

should be noted that ozone is an aggressive oxidant, which side effects can be devastating for human health and plants. Especially as a result of secondary pollutants high reactivity with other chemical substances into the air. (Luftutslapp ar 1995 in Orebro Lan emissions databas- Luft: 1999, Hester and Harrison: 1995, 126- 129). Because ground-level ozone reacts strongly with living tissues, such as lungs, high concentrations can cause shortness of breath, coughing, wheezing and pain with deep breaths in people who are sensitive to ozone. People who suffer from lung diseases such as emphysema, bronchitis, pneumonia, asthma and colds can have even more difficulty breathing when ozone concentrations are high. (Luftutslapp ar 1995 I Orebro Lan: 1999, Ulander Ame:1994)

Children residing in city centres or along heavily trafficked roads and streets are at increased risk of getting respiratory problems from highly active ozone regions because they play outside for long periods of time during the summer. Therefore, children have greater exposure to high ozone concentrations than do many adults. (cf. Mattsson Jan and Swantesson Jan:1987,7) Also, children physiology necessitates high paced heartbeats thus breathing more rapidly and so inhales more polluted air per pound of body weight than adults. Adults who exercise outdoors on days when ground-level ozone concentrations reach unhealthy limit levels are at increased risk of attracting respiratory problems. Adults breathe more than 10,000 times a day when they are at rest and that number increases when they exercise or work strenuously. As a result, exercising adults may take in 10 times as much air than when they're resting. It implies that the problems of air pollution might be less understood that what this can expose.

2.5. Is air quality an economic problem?

The issue of economic geography has been characterised with industrial geography trajectories, which are basically determined by economies of class rather than a combination of cultural, socio-economic and environment identities. It is within this type of economics logic that social change has remained largely and solely generated by irrational economic attributes. However, this image has changed ever since partly because of the spatial decline in traditional industrial establishment. It is this aspect of economic transformation that environmental aspect of production geography of distribution 1s becoming everi more crucial in reorganisation ofregional differentiation. (Massey 1994)

In this sense human activities in urban regions, unconsciously trigged social actions, which are detrimental to our own existence hence generating densely trafficked urban regions. For instance high concentration of traffic and industry in given locations in proximity to human settlements does affect

a particular group of people. Air contamination is particularly linked to the social structuring. Without given groups of people settling near urban regions there would be a lesser possibility of what has been characterised as air pollution problems since air quality problems do affect given class of people more directly. In fact the working class are far more exposed to the dangers of air pollution. High concentration of particular industries and communication networks in urban regions to cause economies of scale implies, human settlement have given characteristic which are based on class structures. This is important for particular groups of urban dwellers will settle or for a prolonged period of time stay in particular regions, which meet their social and economic status, or simply near their working places but without the quality of air they deserve. Therefore, air pollution derived health problems will in fact affect the lower classes of society at most.

In this respect cities are normally spaces essentially for economic social class structuring. It is apprent that these are spheres independent of inherent social relationships, that the city of Orebro has taken on environmental issues very seriously. It is not only to structure the future of Orebro as an economic region, generating labour and power relations thence correcting regional imbalance but also to cause air quality equality. To move goods and services based on old production forms require high clean technologies from one area to another. In the same spirit Orebro region's economic fortunes only seen from an economic perspective have been on decline hence generating irrational economic policies, which are environmentally detrimental. In the same manner, regional spatiality all over the country in regard to Orebro region and other cities has thus created inequalities within the economy and society. There is an increased demographic problem with the youth moving out of Orebro region and the old remaining behind. Deconcentration or spatial distribution of resources for example that of Orebro municipality can initiate her own development programmes unique to her resources. That is in combination to her cultural, topological and socio-economic needs and will not only create possibilities for the economy but also trigger technological changes focused on preservation of Ore bro' s regional uniqueness- thus 'a sense of a place' feeling among the inhabitants in the region. It

is in line with a reversed process of urban decay, reminiscent of urban America where urban regions have fallen into total decline because of declining industrial economic prospects.

Into the past we have seen more people living Orebro for better job opportunities into bigger cities, for example Goterborg, Stockholm leaving behind a population imbalance in regard to other regions. This form of spatial division of labour, generates regional imbalances I mentioned above. This can't be disassociated from air pollution for it means without becoming innovative in clean air technologies the industrial structure in Orebro will diminish considerably. Hudson (2000) reasons, it is indeed as I have written above that people are active and thinking subjects therefore recognition of the significance of knowledge and learning is the basis of behavioural geography. Social change and transformation can't take place without offering the citizens adequate information in regard to their social and economic opportunities.

In

the 1990's Orebro population had increased by a mere 1000 persons per year but this trend has dramatically gone down since 1994. In the past 19 years, the central parts of Orebro have seen an increase in her population by a mere 0.09 while other parts in the municipality a minimal 0.06 increase was registered. This development shows that there will be grave consequences for physical planning in the municipality. There will be need for small flats for the elderly and need for labour services.

2.6. Social organisation problem

The issue of air pollution since is not well grasped by society in general, requires concerted efforts in participatory activities on the side of the citizens and policy makers. On the one hand, we should realise that air quality problems will change society in many different ways. Urban regions are today characterised with increasing tendencies of growing number of homeless people, besides swelling numbers of empty flats. This implies in return, current social organisation patterns do not conform to

the need for a cleaner and healthy environment for human settlements, as contemporary urban structuring demands. Groups of people who suffer from urban related air quality problems are the majority whose social and economic status in most cases is dismal. Solving the problem requires increased participation of the citizens in democratic and solidarity aspects of social organisation. Moreover, transformation of space and locality can't take place if the citizens concerned do not understand the existing paradigmatic shifts in the social and economic phenomenon. It is evident urban regions are human dwellings and localities which are influenced and curved out of human activities and thinking about those spaces. Therefore the apparent decline in the urban space and the dangers the population is exposed to like emerging new urban diseases requires a sense of agency. There is certainly a diminishing importance of the urban space in an economic sense, but on the other hand, a likely increased vitality in causing social reorganisation. Spatial location and diffusion can't be well understood, without grasping the urban space human- environment interaction and the emerging new rapid communication technologies. On the one hand, there is an increased social grouping of destitute whom can be characterised as urban outcasts facing an ever declining opportunity for self provision like; shelter, food and medicare.

It is prudent therefore, for decision-makers to include the people in decision making processes, which means long and short-term consequences, which will not affect the citizens economic and social security status or create an imbalance in their living standards. This is how air quality management is increasingly becoming more crucial in social reorganisation for both the urban space and locality. Mingione Enzo, 1995 names challenges society is faced with, in what he calls the post fordist era namely; suburbanisation and the consolidation of the metropolitan concentrations; increasing employment in large manufacturing and service firms; the tendential prevalence of standardised production and vertical integration; a persistently high rate of economic growth the crucial importance of nuclear family households with only one breadwinner and the organisation of mass institutionalised interest groups etc. The problem with air pollution implies that society has to follow

and/ or face changes in social structuring head on. The problems mentioned above are a threat to

social and demographic composition as derived from declining rates of marriage and high divorce rates. There is an ever-increased threat from isolation and challenging changes in family composition. Which implies that social values and living conditions will be affected in relation to value judgements of our social, political participation, welfare and public health structures. That alone will create new forms of social, ecological and new economic preconditions hence a new social organisation to meet the looming needs and new developmental demands and needs.

2.7 Developing new technologies

There are some technical problems, which are not easily visible or traceable, but which are brought about through air pollution. Yet we are well aware, the majority population in our region works in the urban locality, therefore they are daily exposed to cumulative air quality problems. This majority population, is an agglomeration of households, firms and agencies disassociated from farming and general agricultural activities. However, as social reorganisation takes place there is diffusion of these spatially clustered cohorts of industrial socio-economic groups hence improving their healthy opportunities.

One of the dangers facing these groups of people, is latent erosion a type of chemical weathering, a result of air pollution problems. It means building structures are gradually destroyed through changing their colour texture and structural nature, hence decreasing their cultural value. Water sources are gradually acidified yet the existing technologies seem not to be improving at the same pace as air quality deterioration, as there is no improvement into the foreseeable future. The existing city transport and communication technologies are in fact the prime suspect as indirect pollutant sources, which requires constant improvement. Healey: 1995, 148 writes that infrastructure network innovations are designed using models of network developments. As urban spaces change, it implies there will be change in social relationships, which does create its own social networks on which advanced communication networks should be founded. It is thought technological developments in

this regard have the capacity to re-integrate the fragments of industrial urban space and societies into new forms of social structures. We are well aware that chemical weathering set off given toxic gases not only in buildings but also in vehicles. A sustainable socio-economic and environment based development should be aware of these issues. Healey et al.: 1995, 6 writes, a modem city has all kinds of potential for innovation and development. He continues to write about the disintegration of old orders allowing new possibilities to be seen- the creative potential of the diversity of social relations and values.

Buildings and communications infrastructures are vital for society's well being, and they contribute to social cultural identity. It is therefore vitally important that the question of air pollution is seen in this light. Building and construction sectoral planning should be organised according to environmental preconditions, demand and necessities. It will be unwise, to have building structures near roads or roads constructed near buildings since it can be a contributing factor to both future social and public health problem. (samradshandling: 2000) Besides the fundamental issue is in respect is technology. Technology must be improved and organised along the sense of time and place.

It doesn't only mean creating new building technologies but increase modernised environmental based research programmes for new ideas in local and natural resource utilisation and management. Building and construction engineering of the environment should be designed more effectively without compromising environmental hygiene. This will further imply energy, water and land use must be improved and changed radically. Already the law as stated in 2 chapter 3§ PBL, must therefore be strictly enforced to protect constructed regions within Orebro.

Erosion via air pollution is very well known today particularly in major cities. However, this problem is also rampant around farming regions as in city areas. 6rebro is composed of an agricultural region, the Narkeslatten as well as water bodies. Soil profiles lose their mineral content through erosive activities, which end up in water streams and bodies. Rich soil profiles are just falling apart loosing their vital mineral composition and nutrient content which can easily lead to poor harvest and increased use of artificial fertiliser which as we have seen above are equally dangerous for our waters. Polluted air has high corrosive potential effects and is highly reactive when it comes into contact with other substances. Since polluted air is a combination of water vapour, forms chemical solutions with high acidic level with a pH of up to 5.6 or lower. Implications in this regard are clear, buildings will lose their colour painting, and monuments start falling apart as corrosive agents eats them up. In other instances pollutants changing to acidic rain water can easily sip into carbonate stones, basically used as building material. (Nordling Jan, 1990: 146)

The high content of acid water can result into high corrosive activities on metal structures like bridges, buildings and other substances with high reactivity with acidic water solution. Through acid rain pollution, acid water acts as an agent in speeding up weathering effects on carbon /chalk soils. Highly corrosive rainwater accumulates in the soil and plants thus creating secondary toxic chemical substances and pollutants in food chains. (Katie, Burtron and Jenks, 1996:223) The effects are not only effecting the degradation of soils but even that of given organisms, which are sustaining a livelihood into such habitats. Soil pollution by these gases; have been observed to kill off plant life. This happens when gases laden with chemical agents react with the vital nutrients, which sustain plant life. Sulphur dioxide pollutants in water, seas and lakes have such highly toxic effects to the extent that biological side effects and balance i.e. that of fish reproduction has been observed to be completely destroyed through cell mutation. (Hester and Harrison 1995:110, Forsumingssituation I 6rebro lans sjoar 1977)

There is a crucial need for better technologies more than ever before. Developing these new technologies is not possible unless those who are involved in their use and the people affected take up environmental and issues aspect in social life very seriously. This is an issue of geography, i.e. for social structures and structuring as well as a technical development aspect. Right now there still exist

the problems of class almost in all production relations, illuminating the spatial structures or the divisions of labour. Development of environmental technologies is partly a proliferation of new social and economic structure in the present state of socio-economic as well as academic institutions. Hemple: 1995 write in his article the environmental technology and the green car: that in the United States for example the Clean Air Act 1970 and its amendments have been the dominant instruments for environmental regulation for vehicles manufacturing and operations. The survival of spatial regions like Orebro is only possible if the economics of the environment becomes a short-term objective, a long-term organising mechanism and a social cultural aspect of daily life.

2.8. Dealing with air quality problem

Forms of spatial division of labour generating geographical regional imbalances as in Orebro region can be better improved with cleaner, faster communication railway network. Orebro traffic planning is geared to decrease the adverse effects of older communication technology in solving air quality problems. In the same way increase the possibility for a sustainable future economy and solving older problems of location theories adopted conception of relationships between social and spatial patterns. Hudson 2000 writes, spatial patterns are deduced from impoverished conception of social process. In industrial terms Orebro is not quite a big industrial region but Orebro has her own habitants and should live on. In the words of Healey et al. 1995, 7 the destructive side of the economic, social and political restructuring which feeds our perceptions of crisis in the urban arena and hindering the flexibility in economic and governance structures means the freedom to discard sites and labour forces which no longer have relevance to company or agency strategies. Orebro has a high potential for advanced organisation structure and can create a production potential which is not environmentally retrogressive. In fact, reclaiming land from air pollution is a huge economy in itself, which requires development in research facilities and new technologies. However, these new economies should be based on environmental social relationships re-emphasising sociality, with a clear understanding and definition of what space is, in Ore bro region. Therefore, Orebro geography is contingent to solve regional imbalance hence setting new strategies for social continuity.

It is estimated, in Orebro alone there is an estimated 400'000 persons in traffic per day in the municipality. 10% of the total persons in traffic are within the service sector while 40% and 50 % are pedestrian/cyclist and personal car owner respectively. (Miljoanpassad Kommunikationplan Maj. 1997, 3)

To tackle the problem, implies first to look at air pollution problem within Orebro region. Air pollution has devastating effects on human health and the economy itself, therefore decreasing or reduction of pollution sources, is one of the solutions to this problem. This will be done through the green structural plan, which is a combination of green traffic, ecological functioning and green structure in public health. In fact this is the only way Orebro has to increase the cultural value of the region thus reducing its depopulation. The green structural plan has to be completed with comprehensive traffic structuring so that the inhabitants of Orebro have access to other regions right from Orebro without moving permanently out of Orebro.

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3. What is air po11ution?

Air pollution should be understood in terms of air quality, brought about mainly as a result of traffic and industrial emission of toxic gases into air. These pollutants are primarily coming from petrol hydrocarbon fuels, which are used in motor vehicles and other related fossil energy burning.

These toxic gases and fumes are rich in lead, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and sulphate dioxide particles, which are very toxic to the environment and human health. Air pollution occurs when impurities called pollutants are released into the air, in amounts that could be harmful to humans and animals, or could damage plants. I said above, air is a composition of gases apportioned in given amounts. Since some gases are highly reactive they will certainly result into secondary compounds hence creating an imbalance into air composition. Pollutants consist of gases and tiny solid or liquid particles, which can occur naturally as a result of chemical reactions or as a result of human activities such as traffic or industrial activities.

The main types of pollution and their effects resulting from traffic and industrial pollution include; smog, acid rain, the greenhouse effect, and "holes" in the ozone layer. Each of these problems has serious implications for our health and well-being as socio-economic well as for the entire ecological system. Photochemical smog or what is referred to, as Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) is the most widely known and perhaps most serious air pollutant. It is formed in the atmosphere by the reaction between gaseous pollutants, nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons in the presence of strong sunlight. We can for example look at the table below to see how toxic emissions can be dangerous to human life given to their life period and concentration levels in the atmosphere.

Concentration present value increase % per yr. Life time in the atmosphere Carbon dioxide 350'000 0,4 3-5 Methane I '800 I 5 - 10 Ozone 40- 80 I month Denitrateoxide 340 0,25 100- 150 Source: miljofakta: 1990: 48 absorption of light rays in relation to CO2

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Some of these gases which are emitted into the air come from traffic as well as industries but industries are more easily transformed to better technologies than motor engines which might require prolonged research and other energy forms.

In

this respect we have to understand what clean air is and what it entails. Some of these gases have a very high reactivity potential. Their lifetime might be long which implies there is a sustained long-term impact on human health. There are other effects such as chlorinated gases, which have got a high solubility in water. Chlorinated gases are primarily a by-product of industrial waste and some house products used in washing and cleaning. Gases emitted from traffic have the potential of destroying the ozone layer in the stratosphere. Gases such as cloromonocarbons, derived from CFC's and other carbon compounds and bromine destroy the ozone layer, which has resulted into an ozone hole in the Antarctic. (Nordling Jan. 1990: 50 -51)

One type of air pollution is the release of particles into the air from burning fuel for energy needs. Diesel smoke is a good example. Air pollution particles are very small pieces of matter measuring about 2.5 microns or about .0001 inches. Pollution of this type is sometimes referred to as black carbon pollution. Exhaust fumes from burning fuels in automobiles, homes, and industries is a major source of pollution in air i.e. soot etc.