Lärande och samhälle
Barn, unga, samhälle
Examensarbete i fritidspedagogik
15 högskolepoäng
Play that funky music
Music as a tool for citizenship education in Tanzanian schools
Denise Henningsson
Lärarexamen 180 hp Examinator: Caroline Ljungberg
Grundlärare med inriktning Handledare: Eva Nyberg
mot arbete i fritidshem 2014 – 05 – 26
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Förord
Musik i förhållande till samhällsutveckling kändes lockande att skriva ett examensarbete om. Jag kom på tanken att skriva mitt examensarbete utomlands och frågade runt lite bland lektorerna som var involverade i examensarbetena för min klass. På denna väg blev jag informerad om Minor Field Studies, en möjlighet för studenter att få stipendium från organisationen Sida – styrelsen för internationellt stöd och utvecklingssamarbete, och få stöd och hjälp (bland annat genom en förberedelsekurs i Härnösand) för att arbetet och resan ska bli så trygg och så bra som möjligt. Jag ansökte om att få genomföra en Minor Field Study och min ansökan godkändes. Tanzania är ett land av stort personligt intresse då min mamma har sitt ursprung där och jag har besökt det förr. Tack vare nya och gamla kontakter lyckades jag få tillgång till de redskap jag behövde för att undersöka musikundervisningen i några skolor i Tanzania.
Jag vill i och med detta ge ett extra stort tack till min handledare Eva Nyberg som introducerade Minor Field Studies för mig och som har varit ett avgörande stöd i processen. Givetvis också ett stort tack till Sida som gav mig stipendiet och möjligheten att resa. Vidare vill jag uttrycka stor tacksamhet till min supervisor i Tanzania utan vilken resan inte hade kunnat genomföras, alla skolor som låtit mig ta del av deras verksamhet samt alla intervjuade personer som delade med sig av sina erfarenheter. Till sist vill jag tacka min släkt och familj som visat stor förståelse och stöd under min fantastiska resa.
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Sammandrag/Abstract
Musik är en väsentlig del i identitetsskapandet för barn och unga världen över. Genom globaliseringen har musik, klädstilar och dylika centrala delar i uppbyggnaden av jaget spridits världen över och kombinerats och inspirerats av varandra (Sernhede, 2006). Identitetsskapandet är en betydande del i huruvida ett aktivt medborgarskap tar form eller inte hos olika individer och grupper. Därav är identitetsskapandet en väsentlig del att bejaka vid undervisningen av medborgerlig bildning. Medborgare refererar till en person som reagerar på sin omgivning med medvetenhet om de sociala och politiska funktionerna i samhället (Hartsmar et al, 2013). Vad en medborgerlig bildning specifikt består av beror på vilka system, traditioner och värden som är förekommande där bildningen genomförs. Likheten med all medborgerlig bildning är att det syftar till en bildning som har målet att stärka medborgarnas förmåga att påverka samhällsutvecklingen positivt (ibid.).
Ovanstående resonemang har lett mig till frågeställningarna “Hur används musik i skolor i Tanzania?”, “Hur uttrycker sig lärare och elever gällande betydelsen av musikutbildning utifrån ett individ-och ett kollektivt perspektiv?” samt “Hur kan läroplanen appliceras på medborgerlig bildning för demokrati?”. Anledningen till att just tanzaniska skolor står i fokus är det faktum att Tanzanias läroplan har ett ämne kallat vocational skills, där 12 ämnen ingår. Musik är ett av ämnena inom vocational skills som till störst del står för den medborgerliga bildningen i skolan. Enligt den svenska läroplanen ska medborgerlig bildning vara en del av samtliga ämnen, men skillnaden är att den tanzaniska läroplanen beskriver något mer specifikt hur det ska gå till – i synnerhet när det gäller musikundervisningen. Jag tyckte därför att det kunde vara intressant att undersöka musikens koppling till medborgerlig bildning i skolor i Tanzania. Detta har jag gjort genom en kvalitativ studie innehållande 15 intervjuer, varav tre personer var lärare och resterande elever i åldrarna 12 – 14 år. Det visade sig i mitt resultat att musik ansågs vara en viktig del av identitetsskapandet och det framtida medborgarskapet, men även att detta är en möjlig väg för medborgerlig bildning, bland många andra.
Keywords: active citizenship, citizenship education, identity, music, vocational skills, Tanzania
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Contents
1. Introduction - music, school and society………..7
1.1 The starting point for examining music education………..7
1.2 Tanzania and human rights………..8
1.3 Tanzania and citizenship education……….9
1.4 Purpose and questions……….10
2. Background – the educational system in Tanzania………..11
2.1 Nyerere and education for self-reliance………..11
2.2 Vocational training vs academic education……….12
2.3 The struggle towards Universal Primary Education………...12
3. Theoretical frame – music, society and citizenship education……….14
3.1 Citizenship education – for the individual and the society……….…....14
3.2 Music and citizenship education……….16
3.3 Music and development of individuals and society……….…….……..18
4. Methodology……….19 4.1 Choice of method………19 4.2 Selection………..20 4.3 Implementation………20 4.4 Validity……….22 4.5 Ethical considerations………..23
5. Result – answers to my questions ………..25
5.1 Music as a tool for education………...25
5.1.1 Lyric subjects from the syllabus……….………...26
5.1.2 Music and language development……….26
5.2 Music and identity………28
5.2.1 Building confidence through music………..29
5.2.2 The collective identity……….………..29
5.3 The significance of music in education – recreation and motivation………..32
5.3.1 Concentration and motivation in class……….……….32
5.3.2 Music and motivation………...33
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5.4.1 Music, individuals and an active citizenship………35
5.4.2 Music and social interplay……….36
5.5 Summarizing analysis - music and citizenship education………...38
5.5.1 Sharing knowledge as a way of citizenship education………..38
5.5.2 Practicing democracy in classrooms……….39
6. Discussion and conclusion……….41
6.1 Methodology discussion………..………41
6.2 Music and citizenship education in Tanzanian schools……..……….…….42
6.2.1 School and society……….……42
6.2.2 Fellowship despite different interest……….43
6.2.3 Building identity and an active citizenship………...44
6.3 Conclusion - final words………...………..45
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1. Introduction - music, school and society
I have in this thesis explored how music education is formed in Tanzania and how students and teachers talk about music education and its purpose. By analysing the gathered information I have tried to make visible if, and how, music combined with citizenship education can contribute to develop democracy. In this first chapter of my exam paper I will provide a short insight into Tanzania's background in relation to school and democracy. Furthermore I am going to introduce the concept citizenship education and submit how it can be related to music education, and finally finish this chapter with my purpose and questions. With this said, I wish you a nice reading and hope that you will enjoy “the funky music”.
1.1 The starting point for examining music education
In history music has been a powerful instrument for a country’s development in the context of creating a sense of participation and active citizenship (Ljunggren et.al, 2002). Music is, according to Cox (2009) and Hargreaves et.al (2005), an important part of all human socialization and development. According to the Tanzanian syllabus for primary school, a substantial part of the singing related education is supposed to give the students education around subjects that are considered as relevant and important in today’s society. The pupils should learn songs containing a useful message on for example road safety and awareness about HIV/AIDS, child labour and other educational issues (Ministry of education and vocational training, 2005). This distinguishes the Tanzanian syllabus from the Swedish one, where the focus is laid on how to sing, not necessarily considering the message in the lyrics. On the other hand, the Swedish syllabus states that citizenship education should be included in every subject (Skolverket, 2011). In other words, both the Tanzanian and the Swedish syllabuses are somehow connected to citizenship education for democracy and music as a subject that can be related to this. I want to accentuate that the Tanzanian respective the Swedish one express citizenship education in different ways. The Swedish syllabus refer to citizenship education in a more abstract way, integrity and freedom for the individual, equality between men and women and similar – meanwhile, the Tanzanian syllabus for vocational training discuss how the citizenship education concrete should be performed,
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among other things through singing about issues with societal importance and gain practical knowledge in purpose of becoming independent, confident citizens (Ministry of education, 2005, Skolverket, 2011). In the vocational skills 12 practical subjects are included, all of them considered valuable in becoming an independent individual in society. To mention some, there are basketry, needle work, cookery, small business, bicycle repair and theatre art.
This is the starting point for examining music education in Tanzanian schools. The focus in my minor field study is the use of music in order to develop citizenship education. For citizenship education to be able to perform in a democracy developing purpose, a generally educative knowledge must be adopted, furthermore the knowledge of using your learning experience in purpose of changing and influence your surrounding world is an aspect of importance (Hartsmar et al, 2013). These aspects point to the connection between citizenship, democratic development and human rights. In order to create democratic development, the citizens need to be educated, and education is a universal human right. With this said, I will move on to a short description of Tanzania's current situation relative to human rights, through a research made by the World Bank (2009) and then move forward to the relation between Tanzanian school, citizenship education and music.
1.2 Tanzania and human rights
Tanzania is according to a World Bank’s (2009) study, one of East Africa’s, measured in BNP, riches countries with 40.4 million inhabitants. The two most widespread languages are Swahili and English, but many other tribal languages are spoken besides the main languages. The population is very young – 44% are under the age of 15 and only 3% are older than 65. Despite the blooming economy and the peace that has come to remain, World Bank ascertains that the significant part of the population is very poor (World Bank, 2009).
As a member of the United Nations, Tanzania must use the Human Rights Declaration as a policy in govern and laws. In the context of this study I wish to illuminate especially two articles from the declaration of the human rights. They denote every
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human being’s right to a living standard enough for the individual, health and wellness including food, clothes and necessary social services and besides this, everyone’s right to education. This education shall rule as an arena where personality, understanding and tolerance are considered on behalf of human rights (UN General Assembly, 1948). In short, the human rights purport an education which also includes an active citizenship. An active citizenship presented by Hartsmar et al (2013) means that you are trying to improve your country through participation on different levels. To be able to perform such citizenship, citizenship education is needed.
1.3 Tanzanian schools, citizenship education and music
In Tanzanian schools you must include a way of citizenship education in the Vocational Skills. As earlier mentioned, citizenship education is especially shown in the music subject. As earlier mentioned, in citizenship education you must not only gain general knowledge but also be given the possibility to influence happenings around you. You also need to know how to use this knowledge in different situations (Hartsmar et al, 2013). The thought of vocational training is:
to guide and promote the development and improvement of the personalities of the citizens of Tanzania, their human resources in bringing about individual and national development; to promote the acquisition and appropriate use of culture, customs and traditions of the people of Tanzania … To develop and promote self-confidence and an enquiring mind, an understanding and respect for human dignity and human right and readiness to work hard for personal self-advancement and national improvement. (Ministry of education and vocational training, 2005:3)
The presentation concerning vocational training from the Tanzanian syllabus can be read as a version of citizenship education. The description shows how the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training wants the citizens to grow at both a personal and a societal level. They also proceed from a human rights perspective. Hartsmar et al (2013) discuss human rights in school. They relate it to the Children’s Convention and its two different underlying descriptions of children, both as participants and objects, as dependent and independent. When using the Children’s Convention, we must therefore above all see to those parts where children are described as acting individuals who develop their knowledge and ability, among other things in the area of human rights
10 (ibid).
The music education in Tanzania is part of twelve different subjects, together called Vocational Skills. Different ages have different purposes with the teaching. The objective for standard one is to help the pupils to “appreciate and develop the spirit of cooperation and active participation in music”. In other words, already in the first standard music is used in a public educational purpose. The pupils are supposed to learn songs with messages that are considered useful, such as road safety, HIV/AIDS awareness, child labour and whatever the teacher finds important for the pupils to learn in order to be prepared for today’s society (ibid). In this thesis I will thoroughly refer to the chapters from the Tanzanian syllabuses that are connected to vocational training since it is the part where music and citizenship education is visible.
1.4 Purpose and questions
With my degree project I want to get an insight into how Tanzanian schools use music as a part of citizenship education. I want to discuss the pupils’ and teachers’ view of music from a human rights perspective that takes into account development on the individual as well as on a societal level. This has led me to the following questions:
• How is music used in schools in Tanzania and in which purpose?
• Which views are expressed by teachers and students regarding the significance of music education in an individual and a collective perspective?
• In which ways can the syllabus and the views expressed be connected to citizenship education for democracy?
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2. Background –
the educational system in
Tanzania
In this chapter I present a description of how the Tanzanian educational system was constructed after independence. The school system is strongly related to the first president of Tanzania – Julius Kambarage Nyerere. He became president of Tanganyika 1962 and when he negotiated a union with Zanzibar 1964, he became the president of the United Republic of Tanzania and stayed in that position until he resigned in 1985. He was a teacher by profession and you can still trace tracks from his pedagogy in the Tanzanian syllabus. The most apparent one is in the syllabus for Vocational skills. I am going to mention both academic education and vocational training and the discussion of these two as contrasts. Finally in the second chapter you can read about Universal Primary Education and the Tanzanian schools’ ambition to reach it.
2.1 Nyerere and education for self-reliance
The philosophy of Nyerere, with strong relations to education for self-reliance, stands for an education in order to “prepare people for their responsibilities as free workers and citizens in a free democratic society” (Lal, 2012). This education was implemented in Tanzania 1967. The purpose of the education was not to prepare pupils for future academic studies. Instead the education aimed towards preparing pupils for a future within agriculture, fishing, and forestry or similar, that is to say “self-reliant rural livelihoods” (ibid). This has to be understood against the colonial background of the country. All citizens were to be given an education helping them to create their own future and economy. Agriculture and similar subjects were considered relevant since these were the most common profession. A study from 2004 presented by Wedgwood (2007) shows that 82,1% of the Tanzanian workers still were included in one or more of the sectors mentioned above. To have a school focusing on the competences needed for the most common professions was considered more relevant, rather than an academic education. Furthermore, there was a possibility that an advance of the competence needed for the working market could, and still can, result in poverty reduction. The
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advance can for example take form in at least four years of study to increase the productivity within agriculture (ibid).
2.2 Vocational training vs academic education
The music education in Tanzania is a part of the Vocational Skills. Vocational training can be related to Nyerere’s Education for Self-Reliance, since the purpose of vocational skills is to prepare pupils for a future profession outside the academic world (Wedgwood, 2007). The current Vocational skills syllabus for primary schools is from 2005 (Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, 2005).
Historically vocational training, or as earlier called study za kasi, has had an extensive place in The Tanzanian school (Kahyarara et al, 2008). Parents and pupils in Tanzania have since long time campaigned for more academic education. The benefits from vocational training have been a controversial subject all since the return to it. Different opinions have been expressed regarding whether vocational skills or academic education is the most favourable for Tanzania’s economic growth, on micro as well as on macro level. According to Kahyarara et al (2008), the academic education is of greater benefit for a country in the long run than vocational training is. Even though they speak of academic education as a winning concept, they admit that there is no basic data proving academic education being better or not in the long run (ibid).
2.3 The struggle towards Universal Primary Education
In the end of the 1980s, Tanzania was close to reach Universal Primary Education (UPE). Wedgwood (2007) reported that a lot of investments were made in order to give all children primary education, which is a significant part of societal development. Something that was not enough considered was the quality of the education. There were simply not enough people with a teaching interest that had finished secondary school. Most of the teachers without post-primary education attended distance training before beginning their profession. Even so, the short school career for most of the teachers led to a lower authority and status for their profession. In the end of the 20th century the situation for Tanzanian school was critical. An inadequate teaching practice was shown, there were not enough teachers, classrooms and books for all children attending school
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and the pupils were often exposed to harassments from the teachers, even of the sexual kind. The parents did not have trust nor confidence in school and therefore the ambition to send their children to school decreased. The pupils own motivation decreased as well, many of them quit school and never returned. Furthermore, teachers had shown non-attendance. With this things going on, the development of the Tanzanian schools was back to square one, and the vision of UPE went further and further away. At present, Tanzania’s new vision is to reach UPE year 2014. It is still a long way to go, considering that more than 40% of the children in school mature age still do not go to school (ibid). To reach UPE it is not enough to make the children attend primary education. The education itself needs quality, and teachers need to be qualified and earn parents trust.
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3. Theoretical frame - music, society and
citizenship education
In this chapter I will describe citizenship education – what it means, and how it can be related to music and society development. I will also give light to citizen’s creation of their identity, both through music and through participating in a democratic society.
3.1 Citizenship education for the individual and the
society
Citizen refers to a person who react to his/her surroundings with awareness of the social and political functions in society (Hartsmar et al, 2013). At present, there is not only a focus on the personal capacity regarding what is considered as a good citizen. Instead, part of the focus is on the knowledge and above all public knowledge that the citizens receive. Citizenship education is a form of knowledge that refers to an active, responsible citizen. What citizenship education exactly consists of can diversify depending on which value-system, traditions and moral aspects that are present in the actual society. An example from a report from the Swedish National agency for higher education is that the citizens “not only should gather different skills and knowledge but also become critical citizens” (ibid).
Another aspect that is being elucidated is the world-citizenship. Hartsmar et al (2013) discuss the importance of being censorious to your own culture and values and look at yourself with a global perspective, instead of being stuck in your local group belonging. This is relevant in relation to the Tanzanian syllabus since one purpose with it is to protect international cooperation (Ministry of education, 2005). The ability to see things from others perspective is equally valued, so is the conduciveness to find tools developing your surroundings. It is important to remember that the public education itself, however it takes form, only is one side of the coin. For citizenship education to function, the citizens need possibilities to use and develop their knowledge and themselves (ibid). A system built on vote (such as the Tanzanian system) cannot develop
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in the best way if the citizens are not educated. If an education is not available to all people in a country, they will experience changes and happenings around them without understanding nor being able to influence, but still be a big part of it with or without their participation. Without an educated population, democracy cannot truly exist: Democracy contains more than a form of government (Dewey, 2004[1916]). This is a basic thought for the citizenship education also according to Hartsmar et al (2013).
There are some similarities between what Hartsmar et al (2013) describes as citizenship education and education for self-reliance. One of them is the purpose with the education. They both aim to educate the citizens in a way that is considered relevant for the country’s development, which will say different kinds of active citizenship. According to Hartsmar et al (2013), the active citizenship is a citizen trying to develop democracy and society to the better. The citizenship that Lal (2012) and the Ministry of education and vocational training (2005) describe is also trying to develop democracy and society to the better, but concentrate more on poverty reduction, economical independence for the population and how to handle issues of societal importance. Both educations contain both an academic and occupational preparing approach but with different focus. Education for self-reliance has more occupational preparing while citizenship education has more of an academic approach (ibid).
In summary, citizenship education is an education to strengthen an active citizenship, meaning to try to improve your society through participation. For this participation to function you must gain knowledge, have the will to change and improve but also learn how and in which way development for the better is possible. An active citizenship includes several actions intending to develop the society (Hartsmar et al, 2013). As earlier mentioned, citizenship education and what is considered an active citizenship can be shown in different ways, depending on which countries, groups or religions, you look at, and the values and culture for the group. Maybe it is because of these possibilities for different renditions that the conflict between vocational training and academic education took form. What kind of education should the citizen gain and which areas of knowledge are valued as the best for the society? Through Vocational Training the possibility is given to get a job and become an independent individual through economic freedom. On the other hand, Kahyarara and Teal (2008) confirm that the low
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salaries are a fact and by that the economic freedom is not very big. In the long run, academic education gives more independent citizens. The academic knowledge and how to implement it on reality is only valuable if society give the individual possibilities to adopt those (Hartsmar et al, 2013; Wedgwood, 2007). Citizenship education can be expressed in many subjects both in and outside of the school. Hartsmar et al (2013) give examples as technique, dance and theatre. Also music is mentioned, a connection I now will move on to (ibid).
3.2 Music and citizenship education
Sernhede (2006) discuss the connection between identity formation and society development approach. The aesthetic field with music spearheaded, is described as a seminal arena where the constant need of meaning and safeness is stimulated. The stimulation consists among other things of what Hargreaves et al (2005) named as personal style in the shape of different clothes, symbols and cultural codes. These originations changes and form ourselves continuously. With today’s input from all around the world, there’s always new possibilities and sources of inspiration for our identity and existence (Sernhede, 2006). As a matter of fact, the need of self-actualization is a concrete need in a whole different way in modern time compared to before. An amazingly big part of that self-actualization is on cultural productions such as music. The aesthetic field has come to be a central part of the youth culture. The individual and hers/his self-actualization does not only develop the person but also society over all (Sernhede, 2006). One example is the punk wave that arrived in the late post-war era. Within the punk movement music was being used as a strong, political tool. Suddenly the individuals searching for a fitting identity turned to make changes for a bigger cause than what clothes to wear (ibid). In Italy in the same time, music worked according to Kutschke et al (2013) as a front figure to the class warfare:
In this context, with conflicts erupting and new identities being forged, music had a primary role to play. Its presence in politics was a transverse phenomenon relating to the sense of civic responsibility and ethical conventions shared by many musicians. (Kutschke et al, 2013:31)
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significant part in self-actualization. Shortly, music has been used from both an individual and a societal developing perspective. According to Sernhede (2006), the identity, and therefore also the music use, can be a fundamental part of the active or passive citizenship: your self-image is essential for your actions.
In the syllabus for Vocational Skills summarize called ”competences to be developed in the vocational skill subject”, it says that the music education should ”appreciate, act, enjoy and demonstrate music artwork” (Ministry of education and vocational training, 2005). Nothing in the description of competences is interpreted as a connection between music and citizenship education. If we read the more detailed description of what the music education shall contain, there are strong connections to issues of societal importance. It is furthermore clear in the purpose of vocational skills that the subject aims to guide the pupils to an active citizenship where they affect society in a positive way. By that, the subject becomes a form of citizenship education (ibid). If we look at the aspect of democracy in the citizenship education, a democratic approach in the classroom is included (Hartsmar et al, 2013). School is not only supposed to communicate about democracy, the need to act from without it is as important if a citizenship education connected to democracy can be able to perform (ibid). The syllabus says about music in standard three (which is similar to what we in Sweden call second grade) that the teacher is to ”consider pupils with special needs” (Ministry of Education and Vocational training, 2005). Through this approach the teacher aim to fulfil all pupils special needs. As an example, different proceedings are needed to help all students in their language development (Pinter, 2006). Language development is significant for a democratic classroom to function since that can help individuals to express themselves (ibid). Pinter (2006) refers to music as an effective tool for language and democracy development. Through rhymes, rhythm and melodies the vocabulary develops, and these aesthetic ways of learning claims an interaction between the classmates – an interaction which can strengthen their fellowship and challenge old roles and hierarchies within the group (Jacobsen, 2004; Pinter, 2006 ). That is one of the ways for working with citizenship education in school, through the process in creation of a democratic classroom. Another way of performing citizenship education is through songs with lyrics related to issues with societal importance which through the spreading of knowledge make reflection and action possible – if the surroundings give opportunity
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to apply the knowledge in the society (Hartsmar et al, 2013; Ministry of education and vocational training, 2005).
3.3 Music and development of the individual and society
Cox (2009) establishes music’s and other art form’s ability to motivate students who have grown tired of studying. It can also lower the student’s stress level and consequently create a healthier environment in school (ibid). Music can help you concentrate, regulate your mood and much more (Ljunggren el al, 2002). In summation music can among other things work as a tool for motivation and as subject integrate education such as music and civics. The possibilities in music use that Ljunggren et al (2002) and Cox (2009) make visible, is one way to show the connection between citizenship education and music. What the authors do not mention is that not every pupil has got a music interest to begin with. If they do not like the music they are using in school, how can it help them to get motivated? This is something I will come back to in my discussion.
Research connected to music has shown that musical citizenship can be equal to becoming “tolerant, socially aware and responsible citizens”. The school should according to Stålhammar (2006) encourage pupils to think of the value of music and its many aspects. Music is of great importance in the forming of cultural groups and all around expressions of those norms and values the group and the individuals embrace (ibid). Through this the link appears between music education and the citizenship education. According to Hargreaves et al. (2005) it seems like that this appearing link has increased at the same rate as technology. Now more than ever, music is a great part in our normal daily lives because we have technology that makes it possible. At present, the ways of experiencing music are many more than they have ever been and one of the results is the big influence music has on our identities. Through our choice of music we can regulate our turn on mind and decide what to show others, such as political statements, personal style and much more - in short, who we are and who we want to be. This self-actualization can play a great part in how we act and how we influence our society as active, or passive, citizens (Hargreaves et al, 2005).
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4. Methodology
Before we move on to my result, I am going to describe the method and working process. My study is of qualitative sort which means that instead of asking an enormous amount of people questions, I have done a random sample (Rosengren et al, 2010). My study took form in interviews. I will in this chapter also present how many interviews I collected and who those persons are. In the last two subtitles I will discuss the validity and ethical considerations related to my study.
4.1 Choice of method
My study took form as a qualitative methodology. That is because I wished to gather qualitative data, also known as soft data. Information of this kind shows something concerning the investigated persons that quantitative methodology cannot measure. The function of qualitative and quantitative studies is among others described by Burell et al (2003), Larsen (2012) and Eliasson (2006). A qualitative method goes under the surface instead of getting an overall generalized picture of the situation. This has been done with an abductive approach - that is to say not get the overall picture through an obvious question formulation and hypothesis but using formulations that create more open questions (ibid). This took form in eleven interviews and two observations. The used method has been chosen since it was the most effective way to answer my purpose and questions. The reason why I did not use question formulas and made a quantitative study was because I wanted, just as Larsen (2012) describes it, to investigate occurrence that quantitative studies cannot access (Larsen, 2012:22). Burell et al (2003) hold that the result from interviews consists of the people’s apprehensions of themselves and their surroundings grounded of their subjective observations. Through the interviews I could get closer to their perspective, partly due to the possibility of asking follow up questions (ibid). A positive fact with the use of qualitative methodology is that a minimum loss of interviewed occurs. If I were to produce a questionnaire, and by that adopt a quantitative method to the Tanzanian schools I explored, there would have been a risk for a large falling off. Larsen (2012) confirms that the difficulty with finding people increase with the absence of personal contact. It is far easier to ignore a letter or a mail compared to a person standing in front of you. Another advantage is that it is partial a greater chance of
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a good validity in interviews since the person being questioned was not forced to choose between already settled answers. Also misunderstandings were easy to solve with follow up questions or clarifying the asked question (ibid). A major emphasis was placed on the last mentioned part from my side, inasmuch almost all involved, including myself, have been using our second language.
4.2 Selection
I have interviewed students who experience the way music is being taught at the present in school. Moreover, teachers have been interviewed to find out how their perceptions of knowledge influence music as civic education. Peer reviewed articles, the Tanzanian syllabus for Vocational skills and other parallel documents have also been used as basic data in my fieldwork collection.
I have interviewed nine pupils between 12 and 14 years old. I have named the 4 schools with numbers and cities with letters to keep their integrity. Since five pupils came from a national school, I let them use their mother tongue - they do not have their lessons in English like the private international schools. If the students have difficulties in understanding the spoken language, an unwanted insecurity might come up. Despite that, the students will not be able to do what Larsen (2012) describes as a vital part of making the interviews valid: the earlier mentioned possibility to speak freely (ibid). The other four students come from an international school. This made it easier to understand each other during my interviews since we were not disturbed by a translator. A couple of years ago, the international school had a special music profile, but nowadays they do not have a music teacher at all. I have also interviewed three teachers. In my paper I call the teachers Mr. Richard, Mrs. Victoria and Mr. Nicolas. All the teachers worked at international schools and two of them worked at the same school. None of them worked at the same schools as the interviewed pupils were attending. That is because no teacher that sometimes used music in their teaching had time for an interview during the time I spent in town Y and Z.
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Victoria 40 Teacher 4. international X
Richard 35 Teacher 4. international X
Nicolas 42 Teacher 3. international X
Anna 12 Pupil 1. national Y
Joseph 12 Pupil 1. national Y
Patricia 12 Pupil 1. national Y
John 13 Pupil 1. national Y
Sophie 13 Pupil 1. national Y
Gregory 14 Pupil 2. international Z
Joanne 14 Pupil 2. international Z
Maria 14 Pupil 2. international Z
Denis 14 Pupil 2. international Z
4.3 Implementation
I arrived to city X and stayed there for four days to plan my journey and meet my supervisor. My interview questions were looked over and I practiced them on a friend to see how they worked out. After these days I travelled to city Y in order to arrange a meeting with the school I was aiming to visit. Everything took a lot longer than expected, resulting in being unable to spend as much time as I wished for in the national school. Never the less, after collecting the interviews I travelled to the secondary school, where I was able to spend more time with the students before the interviews took place. I was also allowed to observe a choir practice led by students without teachers. After that I travelled to my supervisor’s school. My first visit there I was only there to feel the surroundings and prepare for the interviews. On the next visit I observed a lesson with the teacher I later on interviewed. The visit-time on the last school was a bit shorter. On the other hand, all three teacher interviews were made under very relaxed forms. All interviews were recorded with a Dictaphone and safe copied to a universal serial bus (usb). I transcribed the interviews and complied the answers with different categories
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and related them to relevant literature - through this process my analysis was produced.
4.4 Validity
Pertaining the validity there are some risks that are not wished for. The culprit is what Larsen (2012) and Eliasson (2003) describes as the interview effect or the control effect. It means that the interviewed answers what he or she thinks that the interviewer wants to hear. Maybe the source wished to make a good expression or unconsciously is confirming stereotypes (ibid). To avoid the happening to the extent possible, I aimed to take time in making the interviewed person relax and feel as comfortable as possible. In the national school this was very difficult since I was not in position to choose where the interview would take place. The principal found it suitable to let me work in his waiting room. To make the students comfortable there was truly a challenge. I had a translator with me so that those who wanted to could speak their mother tongue, since it was not an international school. There were both good and bad sides of that coin though. When you have a translator helping you, you cannot be sure that the questions are formed exactly the way you want them to. In my case it went so far that some of my opened questions suddenly were yes or no questions. Even though the translator was not as professional as I wished, I have decided to use those interviews because of the interesting answer that I got and also that I would not be able to find those pupils again in time for my study to be done.
I wished to have more time for interviewing students in Mr. Nicolas' school since the children were very relaxed with me and I was there on a visit two times before my observation and teacher interview. But the time was not enough to be able to do so. Thanks to my experience of the different schools I got a picture of whether any differences was prevented between the four schools regarding the construction of the music education. The only demand retained the teachers that I interviewed was that they in some way used music when they teach. The reason for that was that I had difficulties in finding an educated music teacher or someone who at least has got music or vocational skills as a head subject. Therefore I need to count in an external falling off, of music teachers. The meaning of extern falling off is that I did not found one, or some, of those specific people that I wanted to meet (Rosengren et al, 2010). On the other hand, since the interviews took form in three different cities, I could reach a larger
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extent than if I’ve been in the same town all the time (ibid).
4.5 Ethical considerations
To make my research ethically correct, a reflection regarding my data and methodology is useful. I have been using the Council of Sciences’ (2012) four demands that contain information, consent, confidential and usufruct. By doing so, I have informed all assisting people of the purpose with my Minor Field Study, that it is volunteer to participate, what role they have in it and what rules I follow. I have also tried to make sure that no one is forced to participate and that all parts (including parents) have been informed. This was difficult since the principal was my first contact in all schools but one. Furthermore, I have made sure that no original names have been used in order to respect their privacy. Finally, all information that I have gathered will only be used in the purpose of science.
Burell et al (2003) present a checklist in order to challenge the reliability. It contains preparing and speculations regarding if the same result can be reached even if someone else would operate my minor field study. I have visited four different schools with dissimilarity in economical standards and in three different towns. There were surprisingly small differences in the answers from the different schools, which makes me believe that if someone else would operate my minor field, they would get a similar result. On the other hand, I was not able to visit any school that had someone working full time as a music teacher. If I had, the answers from teachers and students might have been different concerning the way of using music. The considerations have also included if the same result can come into existence during another time. One thing that is unfortunate is that all students that I have spoken to were chosen by their teachers. Even though I said that the students did not have to be interested in music at all and that I wanted them to be chosen pretty randomly, it is possible that the teacher chose the students he or she thought would be best in order to represent the school, as students with high grades. Finally the measure instruments as well as gathering homogenous material have been taken into consideration (ibid.).
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5. Result – answers to my questions
In this chapter I do my best to answer my questions with help from interviews and relevant research. The first two subtitles are related to my first question “How is music being used in Tanzanian schools and with what purpose?”, where I to begin with present music mostly as a subject-interacting tool. Under the second subtitle though, I get closer to a discussion concerning identity and active citizenship both on an individual and a collective level. The subheadings 5.3 and 5.4 have to do with my second question, “Which views are expressed by teachers and students regarding the significance of music education in an individual and a collective perspective?”. This is where I put light on teachers and students expressed thoughts of what they believe is important and useful within music education. Finally a summarizing analysis takes form, in which I discuss how Tanzanian schools use music as a part of citizenship education. I discuss the pupils’ and teachers’ views of music as a tool for citizenship education from a human rights perspective that contains music, education and democracy – which is where my last question is being answered.
5.1 Music as a tool for education
Two questions from my interviews are answered here, concerning music use in Tanzanian schools: How is music used in your school? How does it work for the music education to follow the Vocational Skills syllabus – are there any difficulties? Before mentioning the last question I shortly describe what the music education should contain according to the Ministry of education and vocational training (2005). I asked both questions to teachers and pupils but only the teachers got the last part of question two about difficulties. It is clear that some parts of the syllabus is not visible in all schools music education. Music education is frequently rather used as a tool to emphasize other subjects. The goals settled from the syllabus that are implemented, are above all music as a tool for citizenship education, meaning songs with messages concerning issues of societal importance and how we can approach these.
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5.1.1 Lyric subjects from the syllabus
The only school that has organized music lessons is school number 2, the national one. The students are familiar with studi za kasi, simply said an older version of vocational skills. It might be that they still call it studi za kasi. They have music lessons twice a week. During these lessons there is a focus on the part from the syllabus that is about songs and lyrics. The syllabus says that ”The pupil should be able to sing and play musical instruments using appropriate techniques” (Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, 2005). Other instruments are, according to the students, a scarce commodity in school since the school only owned drums. As a result of that, instrument practice outside the drums' section is suffering. Then again, the syllabus encourages teachers to be creative if they do not have work material which normally is needed in teaching (Ministry of education and vocational practice, 2005). The main principle seems to be that teachers should do what is possible to transfuse without instruments. As an example the pupils in the national school learn to sing songs giving them knowledge concerning road safety, good behaviour, and how to avoid different kinds of diseases as HIV/Aids and malaria.
5.1.2 Music and language development
Music is moreover used in other subjects, above all in religion and language. According to Pinter (2006), students who use rhythm, rhymes and music get a larger amount of words than those whose teachers do not include this in the education. The reason why is that words and sentences and the meaning of them are easier to remember when using melodies, but above all rhythms and rhymes (ibid). According to the teachers this is more vital on the younger generation of students, mostly from nursery school, lower class and early primary school. It is in the language lessons that the music education related to issues of societal importance is most frequent. The pupils get poem practice for homework and are also encouraged to write own poems and take them back to school. In school they teach their classmates the poem or the song and after that they discuss the message within. The messages can be to treat your fellow citizens with respect, to take care of your elders or simply questions concerning issues of societal importance such as why there are rich and poor people and what it truly means to be
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rich with other things than money. Some of the students mentioned that music sometimes was used in other subjects than vocational skill as a tool for education concerning issues of societal importance.
We use educational songs most of the time in class; maybe after class the teacher will say we have to sing the songs for the subject maybe or sing about road safety or HIV try to make the songs concerning road safety education. Most of the songs are in that purpose. (Gregory)
The singing practice was only applied during shorter moments and the focus was laid on the message in the song more than the singing techniques, because the purpose with the songs was to use them as a tool for something else than how you play instrument and sing clean. Another subject integrated with music in school number one is mchesa, a part of the vocational skills subject just like music is. When having mchesa students are practicing singing in choir and working together as a group to reach a mutual artistic goal - to perform in church as an example.
We have music in study za kasi but in other subjects to, like English and religion. Also in mchesa. It's fun because then we learn how to sing nice and work together. (Anna)
Two of the interviewed teachers are not familiar with the syllabus for Vocational skills and the only one who has knowledge of it has not yet applied it, despite the fact that the new version of the syllabus has been available for eight years. He ascertains, however, that there are other schools that have applied it. The problem is the lack of control and follow up systems:
The problem starts with the ministry of education. And with those who are giving authority. Because you know if they say something, it isn’t being followed. They are not putting much emphasize on teaching music in the school. There are so many things which are being set up by the country… but there is nobody who’s behind and follow. In school, it can take two years for an inspector to come. (Mr. Richard)
Concluding remarks
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Ministry of education and vocational training want the students to reach is sometimes defective. The parts of music education that are related to issues of societal importance and how to approach it are on the other hand much more visible in the education. There is a lack of instruments in all schools that I have visited, and none of the schools give lessons in instruments such as piano, bass or guitar. The only mentioned instrument that was integrated in lessons was drums and, in school X, a keyboard. The keyboard is only used to accompany the students while singing – it is not for them to play on. All visited schools have in other words difficulties reaching all goals for music education from the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training (2005). It is worth to ask if this is depending on if vocational training is of priority or not according to the headmasters, or that the subject is so wide that it is difficult to have time for all parts of it. Also, a big subject as such also demands many different kinds of materials that together are expensive. Kahyarara et al (2008) establish that at the moment there are a lot of discussions about vocational skills being an important part of school or not, in relation to academic education. In a formal way, the national syllabus is to decide what is important or not to teach in school (ibid.). The interviewed teachers confirm on the other hand, that there is not much of an organized follow up system. They mean that the Ministry of education and vocational training do not know how the schools are acting right in relation to the syllabus.
5.2 Music and identity
According to Sernhede (2006) and Hartsmar et al (2013), music is mostly a central part in young human beings creation of identity. Under this subtitle you can read about music in relation to different identities and music for building confidence. The identities I will lay focus on is the national and the civil one. I am still focusing on the question “How is music being used in Tanzanian schools with a purpose?” but with the interview question: “How would you describe music in relation to identity?” Once again, the teachers communicate a collective discourse while pupils express themselves more from an individual perspective. The pupils discuss music performance as a possible way to increase confidence. Even so, this possibility is only reachable for those who have an interest of singing or playing. As for the teachers, the first president Mr. Nyerere, is discussed as a great part of the national identity.
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5.2.1 Building confidence through music
In school number 2, there is a longer moment of prayer on Saturdays where they sing psalms and listen to a speaker and to the choir. Those who wish to perform a psalm or other worship song without help from the whole choir are welcome to do so, even if they normally do not sing in the choir. If a student wants to sing solo it is no problem, nor if they rather sing a duet or in a group. One student describes the performances as a way of boosting their self-confidence, simply not to care about what others might think of you and just sing, and also with outreaching eventual feelings of being nervous. As long as you do your best, you should always be satisfied with yourself.
When you sing, really sing deep from your heart, I believe you will have a confidence because there you don't look at the people and think 'what are they thinking, what do they say about me?’ You just stand in front of them, you don't have to look at them. You know, other people who saw you perform might think you were bad. But the thing is you should not care. What I've sang I have sang … but not all people can sing in front of other people. (Joanne)
Inasmuch as some students do not perform even once, they do not gain experience of building confidence in that way. Mr. Richard confirms that it is important that those pupils can build their confidence in other ways in school.
5.2.2 The collective identity
According to the teachers, music (above all the traditional one) is a great part of the collective, national identity. Music can work as a mutual gathering point, for example through songs that the majority learn when they are children, and songs from different tribes. Mrs. Victoria supposes that a large part of the collective identity has disappeared with the school reform in 1967 since the national school started to teach in Swahili instead of the many different tribal languages. It can be said that one collective identity disappeared to make room for another one; instead of a collective identity within the tribes, a national identity took form. The result of that change is that the new generation is not very familiar with their tribal language and some do not even know which tribe
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they belong to. Another change is according to all interviewed teachers that conflicts between tribes decreased. Mrs. Victoria says that other countries might have got a strong national collective identity. On the basis that Tanzania hardly has had independence for one generation, she experiences that the unity of the country, their new, national identity, is week. Historically they had their collective identity within their tribe, with own dances, language, songs, culture and living area. Mrs. Victoria gives both critique and a positive perspective to the little attention the citizens and the school give their tribes nowadays:
You know, Africa used to be one continent. Then Germany divided it. We were Tanganyika at that time. So our tribes are very important … Because imagine not to have your own identity. You're not American, you're not European, not Tanzanian, so who are you? That is very bad. But, this has helped us in the globalization; you can go to China, you can go anywhere. (Mrs. Victoria)
Hartsmar et al (2013) describes citizenship as a vital part of our identity. The feeling of participation has an impact on our political engagement in society. What Mrs. Victoria describes however, is that the diverse collective identities that existed long before independence are damaged because of the new, national collective identity since a significant part of the cultural heritage is not being taken care of in school. The Ministry of Education and Vocational Training (2005) want the vocational skills to ”promote the acquisition and appreciation of culture, customs and traditions of the people of Tanzania”, which includes the heritage from different tribes. It is rare that people only should have one identity (Hartsmar et al, 2013). Through the globalization with all the new networks and social networks, music, fashion and similar gain a central part in creation of identity. Compared to the older generation, the national identity is of not as great importance. In a community you do not have to live in the same neighbourhood. People can feel community with someone on the other side of the planet, if they share the same interest. On top of this, there are many different kind of identities, such as civil identity and national identity. These can both be related to music use (ibid). Sernhede (2006) holds that music and other aesthetic expressions are of importance for young citizens’ civil identity. Which clothes you wear, what music you listen to, can be the safe underwork you can rest on while you keep building and developing your identity (ibid).
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Even though Mrs. Victoria believes that the tribe related identities have disappeared she confirms that some new elements in the collective identities are appearing, just as Sernhede (2006) calls attention to. Thanks to independence and a common language for all citizens, the national identity has grown stronger. All interviewed teachers refer to the first president as Mwalimu Nyerere, which means Nyerere the teacher. The nickname of the first president can be a part of strengthening national identity; we were all taught by the same teacher. In this fellowship there are a couple of songs to share. Mr. Nicolas sang one of them for me, translated it to English and told me more about Mwalimu Nyerere’s importance for the Tanzanian identity:
“Nyerere is there, Nyerere is there. If you see the politicians, Nyerere is there”... we sang it in school when we were very, very young. That man was very unique... And he's the one who brought freedom to our country. He contributed very much to our freedom. He was the first president. He has written many books. When you go to University of Dar, you'll find so many books in author catalogue from Mwalimu Nyerere. He was such a good writer. Any idea he had he put it in a book. So, he was a man. Very unique. (Mr. Nicolas)
The song about Mwalimu Nyerere can be used as an educating song for the younger children. According to Nicolas, the purpose of the song is to teach the children that “Mwalimu Nyerere was a great and good man” that was active in many different political contexts. Plenty of verses can be added where you change the lyrics by switching out “Nyerere” to other famous politicians such as Mandela and Kikwete (the current president of Tanzania).
Concluding remarks
The two most discussed identities during the interviews are civil and national identity. The teachers mostly communicate from a collective perspective while pupils use a civil one, which reappear in the following subtitle. Music was of importance for the national identity in relation to the cultural legacy from the tribes, but also kin to the cultural legacy from the independence where songs were made to celebrate Mwalimu Nyerere. Of course, critique has also been lodged regarding Mwalimu Nyerere’s rough methods and use of authority disciplining among other areas in school (Lal, 2012). Even so, the first president is being seen as a the father of the people and can in that way be a part of
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the common interest that Hartsmar et al (2013) refer to as a help in creation of a collective, national fellowship.
5.3 The significance of music in education, recreation and
motivation
In this chapter I proceed from my second question, ”Which views are expressed by teachers and students regarding the significance of music education in an individual and a collective perspective?”. My question from the interview that is being answered is: ”when is music most effective as a tool?”. The answers are focused on recreation and motivation. I present recreation in a more forward-looking discourse, as an example, to participate in an evening choir to gain strength to manage school every week. Above all, recreation is connected with the individual perspective in my second question. Concerning motivation, it lies within a short term, collective discourse, as an example of how to regain concentration during a lesson. In this forum, the teachers take the floor. Motivation is in this context being discussed by both teachers and pupils.
5.3.1 Concentration and motivation in the classroom
All teachers agreed that music is useful as a starter or finish-line in lessons, independent of the subjects. Music is according to Cox (2009) a well working resource to regain motivation and focus. The teachers experience that pupils in nursery, lower class and the beginning of primary school easily get tired. With a song they can get alert again, it awakens their interest and participation, thereby also their concentration. One of the teachers describes it in the following way:
There is a need of involving songs, things like poetry, poems, in teaching. First of all the terms of making the mind, just like relaxing, it's very important. Because sometimes you teach pupils, and in the end you'll find that now they're tired. But if you start to sing, they start jumping, they sing… Two things are being done at the same time: First of all, make their minds active, and in the same time there is another message which is being delivered so it is a coin with two sides... yes, it is very
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important. (Mr. Nicolas)
As for the teachers, concentration and motivation are put together – if the pupils have an interest of what happened during the lesson, it helps them to stay concentrated and alert. Mr. Nicolas notice a positive difference in lessons with younger students in primary school, when music is included in teaching. Pinter (2006) establishes that rhymes and music increase vocabulary and develop your ability to remember. What Mr. Nicolas sees is exactly what Pinter (2006) is describing, with the difference that he speaks more of the pupils as a collective while Pinter (2006) rather lay focus on music and rhymes to reach the individual.
5.3.2 Music and recreation
In school number 2, music is sometimes used in the same way as Mr. Nicolas describes it. Even so, music is most of all used by pupils at their spare time for keeping concentration in a forward-looking way. At the school yard lies a church where preaching takes form every Sunday. The school choir, led and organized by pupils themselves, use the church for practice, every week-day evening. Some students practice music in church even outside the choir hours. The pupils who play music in church refer to it as a way of recharging their batteries, to refresh the mind.
When I play music I refresh my mind. Because if we are studying, we have some difficult subjects so we need to refresh our minds. That's why you found me yesterday, I was already finished with my studies so I wanted to play piano to refresh my mind. (John)
To manage school and homework, it is important to have pauses from it (Cox, 2009). Those whose interest for music was not as big, they can find other ways of recreation such as football or basket. Also some of the pupils from school number 1 enjoy taking a break from their surroundings a while when they get home from school, by listening to music. For some of them, this is a way to regain strength before doing homework. By that, those pupils, just as the teachers, use music to get a temporary concentration to hold on a little longer.
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When I come home from school I eat and then I listen to music…that makes me calm so I rest. Then I can go and do my homework. (Sophie)
It is clear that the 14 year old pupils use music to withstand rough days in school. Music use in order to catch pupil’s interest is mostly being used in lower primary school, while the 14 year old pupils express a need of concentration through recreation. On the other hand, there is only 14 year olds with a music interest that are participating in my study. Those who do not want to participate in choir practice need to find recreation somewhere else.
Concluding remarks
Teachers and pupils both refer to motivation and recreation when I ask when music is most effective as a tool. According to Cox (2009), music and other artistic activities can help pupils regain concentration and also create a healthier, less stressful school environment. Music as a tool for concentration is expressed in two ways by the interviewed; from a general forward looking aspect and from a short term perspective. This is mostly shown when dialoguing with the 14 year old students about their recreation-time after school. What Cox (2009) do not mention is that if there are any differences in affects regarding music for recreation, depending on if the person is interested in music or not. The short term perspective, to use music in order to keep concentration during lesson, is described by the teachers as a common tool in lower primary school. Rhymes and music are helping them to remember what they have learned and teachers can, just as Pinter (2006) points out, see a difference in learning when this was used compared with teacher-centred teaching and similar.
5.4 The significance of music education - music, moral
and society
I do now aim to discuss music as an effect on society. I focus on political music with protesting lyrics. A moral aspect is also mentioned since all pupils mention what they think is “good” and “bad” music in relation to society development. The national and
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international identities and their strengths and weaknesses are challenging one another. Furthermore, educational music, how music can effect society and how it can lead to an active citizenship are discussed, also in relation to what kind of citizenship one is aiming for. The interview question that is being answered is ”If you believe it can; How can music education affect society?”.
5.4.1 Music, the individual and an active citizenship
The educational music is valued by teachers and pupils, both in and outside of the school context, partly because not every citizen in Tanzania has experience of going to school, as mentioned by Wedgwood (2007). Therefore the pupils think it is good that the unschooled population can get education somewhere else instead of in school. The radio is one possible way of education since some stations play civic educational music almost all day long, including different songs for public education. It is of importance to listen to “good” music in order not to let the “bad” one get influence over your behaviour. Even if you as a listener are aware of the “bad” music’s' lack of importance many pupils believe that it still can affect you if you listen, and that you can be unaware of it. The rhythm in the song may be pleasant and easy to follow but the message in the songs is only about getting money and having love affairs. The reason why it still can be tempting to listen to, except for pleasant melodies and rhythms, is that the “bad” music genre is influenced by western music. It is to be showed on the other hand, that there are some differences in the opinions of what encourages bad behaviour and not. Some students are sure that hip hop and other west-influenced music is entertaining but in the end not very healthy.
People in this environment, in the development of this time, most of the people look to the foreign countries. Most of the foreign in Tanzania came with bad manners and they spread what effected the people, what they liked. And they copy that manner, and their music, their styles so they also like that style and bad music. I think in Tanzania people listen and learn the messages, they know this is a bad message and this music is bad, but then they like the behaviours from the outsiders, most will listen to hip hop and they like that music so they will change their behaviour. Day to day. So they like most of the bad music at the present. (Denis)
