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C H O O LJÖNKÖPING UNIVERSITY
Fostering the Motivational Climate of a Team
A Case Study of the Organisation Environment of a Football Team
Bachelor Thesis within Business Administration Program: International Management Authors: Yufei Dang Matilda Rickard Stephen Rickard Tutor: Francesco Chirico Jönköping, May 2012
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Bachelor Thesis within Business Administration
Title: Fostering the Motivational Climate of a Team Author: Stephen Rickard, Matilda Rickard, Yufei Dang Tutor: Francesco ChiricoDate: 23rd of May 2011
Subject: Football management, team management, organisation environment, motivation and the motivational climate.
Abstract
Football management is a science that has exploded in social and economic relevance in the past years (Morrow, 2003). Management of the football team has become increasingly important and has focused on motivational aspects within a team setting. One key characteristic of a successful football manager is arguably his/her ability to motivate players within a team to often operate at and above their potential (Perry, 2000).
Due to the specialisation of football management in motivational aspects within a team setting, football management offers potential insights for general management practice regarding maximising performance from members of a team. In this investigation, the organisation environment of a football team, which is the managerial formed organisational factors such as team structure, processes and communication patterns, will be assessed in relation to its ability to motivate team members through motivational theories (LaFasto & Larsson, 2001).
This investigation took an explorative nature, aiming to contribute to existing literature within team management practices. Interviews with football managers and surveys with football players contributed with new findings into a science that has experienced limited previous research (Forslund, 2010).
This investigation found that football management employs a number of practical techniques to promote a positive motivational climate within their teams. Members of football teams are largely positively motivated due to management’s ability to clarify roles, responsibilities, expectations, values and goals. Therefore, promoting a collective identity, that is supported by management to constantly improve and develop.
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Table of Contents
1.
Introduction...1
1.1 Background... 2 1.2 Problem... 2 1.3 Purpose ... 3 1.4 Perspective... 4 1.5 Delimitation ... 4 1.6 Definitions ... 4 1.7 Research Questions... 5 1.8 Thesis Disposition ... 62.
Frame of Reference...7
2.1 Team ... 7 2.1.1 Definition of Team ... 7 2.2 Organisation Environment... 72.2.1 Concept of Organisation Environment... 7
2.2.2 The Organisation Environment of a Football Team... 9
2.3 Motivational Theory ... 19
2.3.1 Definition of Motivation ... 19
2.3.2 Individual Motivational Theories... 19
3.
Methodology ...27
3.1 Choice of Method ... 27 3.2 Data Collection ... 28 3.2.1 Participants... 28 3.2.2 Interviews... 29 3.2.3 Questionnaires... 29 3.2.4 Literature Review... 303.3 Validity and Reliability of Data ... 30
3.4 Methods of Data Analysis... 31
4.
Empirical Findings...33
4.1 Interviews ... 33
4.1.1 Interview with the Manager of J-Södra... 33
4.1.2 Interview with the Manager of Norrby IF... 38
4.1.3 Interview with the Manager of Dalsjöfors GOIF... 41
4.2 Results from the Questionnaire ... 43
4.2.1 Summary of Data ... 43
4.2.2 Summary, J-Södra ... 45
4.2.3 Summary, Norrby IF ... 46
4.2.4 Summary, Dalsjöfors GOIF ... 47
5.
Analysis and Discussion...48
5.1 Structure and Processes ... 48
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5.3 Communicational Tools... 54
5.4 Combination ... 56
6.
Conclusion ...59
7.
Contribution and Limitation ...61
7.1 Contribution... 61
7.2 Limitation ... 64
8.
Implications for Future Research...66
9.
Reflections on the Writing Process ...67
References ...68
Appendices...72
Appendix 1: General Definition of Football ... 72
Appendix 2: Interviews ... 73
Interview Guide: Questions... 73
Transcription of Interview with the Manager of J-Södra (Mats, G. 2012-03-15)... 74
Transcription of Interview with the Manager of Norrby-IF (Edenvik, T. 2012-03-22)... 84
Transcription of Interview with the Manager of Dalsjöfors GOIF (Carlsson, J. 2012-03-22) ... 91
Appendix 3: Questionnaire ... 95
Background ... 95
Questionnaire, based on PMCSQ-2 ... 96
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Table of Figures
Figure 1 Model of Organisation Environment.. ... 8
Figure 2 Structure & Processes ... 9
Figure 3 Football Team Hierarchy ... 12
Figure 4 Practices of Management... 13
Figure 5 Roles of a Football Manager... 15
Figure 6 Communication System... 17
Figure 7 The Team Leadership Pyramid ... 19
Figure 8 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs... 20
Figure 9 Herzberg's Two-factor Model ... 21
Figure 10 Effects of Maintenance and Motivational Factors... 22
Figure 11 Continuum of Sport Motives ... 23
Figure 12 Motivational sequence ... 24
Figure 13 Table summarising the responses per team to the questionnaire ... 44
Figure 14 Organisation Environment... 54
Figure 15: The Team Leadership Pyramid ... 56
Figure 16 The Clogs of Organisation Environment ... 58
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1. Introduction
Chapter one introduces the central topic of this report and explains the causes that initiated this investigation. The purpose and research questions of this investigation are specified in this chapter. Moreover, in order to achieve more accurate understandings for the audience, the perspectives and delimitations of this report have been presented, as well as a clarification of key terms.
Business teams, like football teams, are groups of people working interdependently to achieve a common goal (Levi, 2007). Managers of football teams focus on drawing commitment from their teams through motivational techniques and specified performance goals such as winning the match (Perry, 2000). As the practical implementation of teams in the workplace grows, so too does the need for greater understanding into the nature of the team culture (Levi, 2007). Here, arguably, football teams can offer valuable insights into the fostering of a positive motivational climate in the team setting.
In particular, the organisation environment of a football team, which concerns structural aspects within the team culture, is unique in football in regards of its dedication to detail, commitment, collective ambition and focus on learning (Smith & Westerbeek, 2005). The organisation environment of a team shapes and forms the team culture and the manner in which management’s values and goals are communicated. It is therefore highly influential on the motivational climate of the team (LaFasto & Larsson, 2001). Nicholson (2004) argued that it is important for organisations to create a climate for employees to channel their motivation toward pre-determined goals.
From an organisational perspective, the sport of European football, or soccer, has, over the past few decades, exploded in terms of social and financial relevance (Morrow, 2003). As both a business, and as a social institute, a football club has been forced to facilitate the increasing social, media and financial pressures placed on it (Morrow, 2003).
Essentially, the performance of a football club begins on the football field, and the performance of its football team. Unlike general business forms, a football club cannot achieve financial success without the parallel success of its football team (Hamil & Chadwick, 2010). Within football, the key to success lies in the management’s ability to obtain the best performance from its squad of players, or team of employees (Hamil & Chadwick, 2010).
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1.1 Background
All teams share similar dynamics (Levi, 2007). The fact that teams within the sporting setting share similar group dynamics with teams within the business setting, offers an opportunity for gaining insights into team culture.
Keidel (1984) sees football team management as highly strategic within human resource management, claiming that football is people-focused. He sees football as having the ability to utilise forms such as leagues, seasons and game frameworks in practically implementing an overarching human resource management strategy. Most importantly, Keidel (1984) saw the common link between football and business as their shared need to compete and maintain competitive advantage over external competitors or threats.
In addition to this, Perry (2000) encourages research into corporate entrepreneurship to challenge the status quo. He argues that, for organisations to grow and develop, and achieve or maintain competitive advantage, we must seek methods of questioning our beliefs through new perspectives.
Perry (2000) identified football’s potential for new understandings and its ability to reveal certain truths about workplace interaction. It was Perry’s (2000) argument for the use of football as a metaphor for new insights within business management that inspired this investigation. Perry (2000) argued that metaphors should be used in scientific research due to their insightful powers and ability to generate new and creative thinking. Furthermore, Alvesson (1993) argues that two fields need not be cohesively translatable for metaphors to be insightful, instead he suggested, that a successful metaphor can be based on limited similarities. In other words, despite the differences between football teams and general business teams, such as the physical demands and the subsequent differences in motivational practices, the similarities between the two, due to the fundamentals of team construction is enough to argue for the validity of metaphor-like learning between them.
The investigation into this topic was based on the belief that football management can help inspire creativity from business managers in their efforts to establishing motivational working environments for business teams.
1.2 Problem
Despite the worldwide scale of management within football, there seems to be a shortage of generally defined models within team management of football (Forslund, 2010). Furthermore, there is limited knowledge regarding the players’ (employees’)
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perceptions of the motivational climate within a football team, and football management in general (Duda, 1992).
The fact that research into football management is lacking only strengthens the need for a new portrayal of the organisation environment of football teams. The lack of knowledge in this domain and its potential for new insights within business establishes a clear and valuable point of contribution for this investigation.
Considering the value of team management in football, and its potential for motivating and obtaining the highest performance of a team, and the lack of existing knowledge within this field, this report would like to argue the following:
By using the case study of football management and its ability to be used as a metaphor for general team management practice, a new light can be shed on the nature in which teams can be managed in a business context.
This investigation will focus on the organisation environment dimension, i.e. the processes and practices of the team regarding football management. The management of organisation environment within football teams is unique and can arguably have an enormous impact on teamwork (LaFasto & Larsson, 2001). According to LaFasto and Larsson (2001), the main reasons for team failure lies within the organisational factors, such as non-supportive management, non-complementary systems of appraisal and insufficient training and teambuilding.
Our research will not focus on the coaching of the football manager, but will instead focus on the practical processes of establishing a motivational organisation environment. The structure of a typical football team will be assessed and practices not necessarily designed for the primary purpose of motivating team members will be scrutinised in their effects on the motivational climate of the football team.
Cappelli and Crocker-Hefter (1996) argue that if managers are serious about improving the effectiveness of team management then they should focus on being different and how to create a unique process that offers the business a competitive edge over competitors. Our hope is to aid management in portraying a new perspective regarding business team management and the building of an organisation environment within teams through the use of metaphors from football management.
1.3 Purpose
The purpose of this investigation is to portray a picture of the management of football teams for metaphor-like insights into traditional team management.
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This investigation will address the organisation environment of a football team and in which manner it influences the motivation of the team of players. Here the degree to which the organisation environment of a football team motivates its players will form the discussion into its appropriateness as a metaphor for insights into general business management practices.
1.4 Perspective
This investigation will be conducted from management’s perspective, aiming to gain a wider perspective of football management, and the potential insights it may offer. Here motivational aspects within a team setting will prove the basis for learning and insights from a managerial perspective.
1.5 Delimitation
It is important to stress that the organisation environment of the football team will form the basis of the metaphor for team management. The organisation environment of a football team includes the structure adopted by management and the practices they follow. This includes team structure, such as the formal role of the manager, team formation, and practices such as training and goal setting. This investigation will not concern itself with team-specific characteristics such as the coaching style of the manager.
The investigation is limited to semi/professional football teams located geographically within central-western Sweden.
1.6 Definitions
The following definitions are for initial understanding of the topic and are developed further, later in the report:
Football Manager: The Football Manager is the head of the football team and its coaching staff. He/she is solely responsible for all team affairs (Smith & Westerbeek, 2005). In this investigation, the formal description of the role of a football manager will be assessed in accordance to the organisation environment of the team.
Organisation environment: LaFasto and Larsson (2001) define the organsiation
environment as the organisational processes and practices that exist within a team.
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information and assist in decision-making compose the concept of organisation environment. The organisation environment practically forms and shapes the culture of the team (LaFasto & Larsson, 2001). A successful organisation environment communicates the values of management through the team culture (LaFasto & Larsson, 2001). This term is not to be confused with organisational environment. Motivational climate: Mitchell (1982, p.82) defines motivation as, “the degree to
which an individual wants and chooses to act in a desired manner”. The motivational
climate is the degree to which the climate or atmosphere of a team promotes individual members to want and to choose to engage in specified behaviours.
The definition of football, as formulated by Carmichael, Thomas and Ward (2000) as found in Appendix 1, may be of value to the audience ahead of the forthcoming findings and debate into football management.
1.7 Research Questions
The aim of this investigation is to focus on and answer the following research questions:
1. What organisation environment is employed in the practice of football team management?
2. How does the established organisation environment of a typical professional football team shape the motivational climate of the group of players?
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2. Frame of Reference
Chapter two illustrates this investigation’s frame of reference regarding the definition of a general team and its organisation environment. Secondary research into the nature of the organisation environment of a football team and motivational theory will be presented.
2.1 Team
2.1.1 Definition of Team
“A team is a small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to
a common purpose, performance goals, and approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable” (Katzenbach & Smith, 1993, p. 45)
When it comes to the term team, it is common to observe two types of teams –
interacting teams and coacting teams. Sports teams, like football teams, are good
examples of interacting teams. The largest distinction between interacting and coacting teams is that members in an interacting team usually have complementary skills and work with mutual accountabilities. According to Yukl (2012), members in a coacting team do not depend on each other while performing their role responsibilities.
2.2 Organisation Environment
2.2.1 Concept of Organisation Environment
According to LaFasto and Larsson (2001), Organisation environment is a key dynamic of teamwork and collaboration. Organisation environment is defined as the processes and practices employed by management, within the team, to increase the likelihood of team success.
The organisation environment consists of three overarching organisational dimensions: 1. The structure and processes of the team, for ensuring the best decisions are made by the right person, at the right time.
2. The practices of management for setting direction and aligning effort, and;
3. The systems that provide information to assist in decision making (LaFasto & Larsson, 2001).
The organisation environment therefore forms the practical nature of the team culture regarding team structure, practices and communication. The organisation environment
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can be seen as a manifestation of the norms and symbols of an organisation at play in a team setting.
Figure 1 Model of Organisation Environment. Adapted from (LaFasto & Larsson, 2001).
The organisation environment has been likened to a psychological atmosphere, which inhabits the intellectual and cultural climate of an organisation. It forms attitudes and guides behaviour, ultimately forming how a team communicates, makes decisions, interacts, and celebrates (LaFasto & Larsson, 2001). The Organisation environment is never neutral and it shapes the ideas and perspectives of its members (LaFasto & Larsson, 2001).
A strong Organisation environment is positive and clear. LaFasto and Larsson (2001) argue that a “good” environment creates clarity, which drives confidence, and confidence drives commitment.
Namely, the extent to which an Organisation environment promotes clarity regarding the goals, values, priorities, rewards and standards of the team, influences the confidence the team members have in their ability (LaFasto & Larsson, 2001). A successful Organisation environment sets clear definitions and focuses on priorities, balances resources and demands, and establishes clear operation principles.
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goals of the team (LaFasto & Larsson, 2001). Clear expectations from management are more likely to result in a desire to achieve from team members. Shared responsibility and equal accountability is seen as the key to motivation.
A successful Organisation environment also needs a formal structure, which forms the roles and responsibilities of its members. The structure and processes of a team are the means to which team members can practically act on their desire to achieve. A clear structure creates clarity and stability, and aids in the controlling and coordination of effort (LaFasto & Larsson, 2001).
2.2.2 The Organisation Environment of a Football Team
2.2.2.1 Structure & ProcessesFigure 2 Structure & Processes
The manager’s most important role, according to the production function of football, is the formulation of the team, in the aim of maximising the output of the skills of the team members through collaboration (Dawson, Dobson, & Gerrard, 2000). Here we examine the in-game structure of the football team and the practices and processes used to maximise performance on the field.
10 Structure
Team Formation
Stenling (2010) defines football as a “game-related” organisation, where the manager is responsible for distributing instructions regarding the technical aspects of the team strategy. Here, the management’s ability in the assigning of duties, responsibilities and positions amongst team members is core to the subsequent squad’s culture, competence, motivation and ultimate success (Stenling, 2010). From this aspect, Crust and Lawrence (2006) state that effective leadership must understand the aspect of motivation and develop both task and group cohesion to enable the group to maximise productivity and operate at close to its potential.
In football, tactics such as team strategy and player roles, positions and duties are researched, planned and practiced into great detail. Each player is clear of their role and the responsibility they have in achieving the pre-set goals of the team (Stenling, 2010).
According to Smith and Westerbeek (2005), football is an example of emergent leadership, where leadership emanates from the bottom up, rather than just from the top down. Moreover, Berrone (2010) states, that in football, those at the “coal face”, or front line, deliver key services and form the foundation of the organisation’s competitive advantage.
From this perspective, Katz (2001) discusses leaders in the game such as David Beckham and his ability to understand a game plan, to follow it, change from attack to defence in a moment due to his ability of being aware of what is happening around him on the field of play. Here, the culture of football and leaders such as David Beckham can be used as a benchmark for business managers attempting to emulate emergent leadership (Katz, 2001).
Team Strategy
Berrone (2010) argues that in a successful football team there is a balance between youth and experience. This is to ensure that the team is rejuvenated through the transfer of knowledge and the utilisation of the irreverence of younger members and the wisdom of experienced members.
Football managers are defined by their dedication to their strategy and the tactics in which they train their team to follow (Smith and Westerbeek, 2005). The manager’s strategy regards the installing of a team playing style, or even culture, such as the
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tiki-taka style used by the Spanish national team (Smith and Westerbeek, 2005). The competitive advantage here is perceived as the strengths of the team’s playing style, which must be given time to be developed and installed within the culture of the team. The playing culture of the team is not just theoretical, but a practical element of their existence, by which they live by (Berrone, 2010).
Due to the player turnover of football teams, managers have been quick to identify key roles and to structure the team around the needs and skills of team members (Smith and Westerbeek, 2005). Six features of the team structure in football, that are decisive in relation to team success, have been identified by Smith and Westerbeek (2005). Firstly, they address the advantages of having experienced players, who have experience from “big games”. Here veterans can lead the younger generation of players, as it is important to have a balance between experience and youthful naivety. Secondly, the role of captains in enabling teams to solve problems quickly is identified. Thirdly, team members thrive best under pressure, and respond well to the demands placed on them. Fourthly, they are action focused, prepared to take risks in the right circumstances. Fifthly, creative players, also known as playmakers, whom “think” and unlock play, are a key feature to a successful team. And finally, communication on the field is everything. Collaboration cannot be achieved without communication (Smith & Westerbeek, 2005)
Processes
Training
Crust and Lawrence (2006) develop the idea of training and its potential value to all business, including its evident value to football. They state that, in sport, performance represents only a fraction of the time taken in training and preparation, therefore promoting responsibility for personal and team improvement. Sport forces business leaders to consider training as key to a long-term plan, as well as day-to-day activities, due to its ability to expose weaknesses in the team climate (Crust & Lawrence, 2006). Football management, through its focus on human capital, places learning and personal development as a key aspect of developing the skills in the team in which to utilise. Here learning forms the basis for eventual competitive edge that will be difficult to emulate (Katz, 2001).
Competition
Competition for places within the team is a key and unique characteristic within football teams, and is seen as a method of motivating players to improve and impress (Katz, 2001). Nevertheless, Katz (2001) argues that encouraging an optimal mix of
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cooperation and competition between team members is a fundamental challenge to managers in motivating a team. Here team members need to be encouraged to invest in one another, but at the same time pushing each other to strive and to perform their best in outperforming the other (Katz, 2001). Katz (2001) believes that management can tap into the benefits of both cooperation and competition by openly and positively acknowledging that competition is healthy for all. The manager must control how, when and around what competition occurs.
The Captain
Football managers assign the role of “captain” to the strongest on-field leader of the team. Smith and Westerbeek (2005) stress the importance of the captain in sharing the beliefs and strategy of the manager with the rest of the team and his/her ability to act quickly and dependently in crisis. To this end, captains are involved in the planning process and are empowered by management.
Usually, the best managers and captains have an understanding of the players in their team, which determines how they manage them (Katz, 2001). Understanding of the personality, nature, skills and weaknesses of each player underlines the tactics and positioning of the team (Katz, 2001).
Football sees drawing gains from having both on and off field leaders from this perspective. The off field manager is able to make judgements on tactics and players from an outside perspective, and his/her decisions are respected, despite the fact he/she is not on the field sharing the experience (Katz, 2001). Moreover, the on field manager can relay back to the off field manager regarding the situation as he/she experiences it on the pitch, as well as influencing the surrounding players in the moment in the heat of battle (Katz, 2001).
This relationship is modelled in Figure 2 below.
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Half-Time
Katz (2001) scrutinises the value of “half time” within football matches. It is argued that the phenomenon of half time is a crucial moment in the game that can heavily affect the result of the match. Half time, and its potential for being used as a midpoint for the team’s work and achievements of the day, is seen as considerably valuable (Katz, 2001).
Furthermore, Katz (2001) was of the view that the midpoint, or half time, could be a valuable opportunity for reflection amongst other teams, not just in football. When questioning team members, the midpoint in a project proved to be the only point when the team was open to questioning and revising group strategy.
2.2.2.2 Practices of Management
Football management concerns the processes and practices of the football manager and his/her colleagues in preparing, motivating, training and protecting their team of players (Forslund, 2010). The role of the football manager is central to the management of a football team, and involves great pressures (Forslund, 2010). The market of football is constantly changing, where past results are irrelevant. Every game is a new game, decided within 90 minutes of play (Forslund, 2010). The role of the management of football teams is to prepare structure and motivate their players to believe that victory is possible prior to each new game (Berrone, 2010).
14 The Role of the Football Manager
Formal Roles
Perry (2000) describes the job of the football manager as unique in its peculiarities. One remarkable characteristic of the football manager is that the large majority of men/women in these positions are former professional players (Perry, 2000). Clubs seem to identify with the experience of professional footballers, rather than the feature of preparation and experience in management (Perry, 2000).
Within the isolated culture of the football club, the manager is in control of all team matters. One common feature of the role of the manager is the sine qua non, or his/her right to pick the first team (Perry, 2000).
As accountable for team performance, the football manager must adapt to the roles of both entrepreneur and manager, principal planner and co-ordinator of the team (Dobson & Goddard, 2001). The manager is held responsible for team success or failure from external parties, therefore enabling the manager to organise the core product, in this case the team, in relative isolation from external influences (Perry, 2000).
Mintzberg (1973) defines three general managerial functions that can be used to describe the role of the football manager. These involve interpersonal relations, information processing and decision-making.
The decision-making role involves organising the formation of the team and the role of individual players both through pre-match, half time team talks and strategic substitutions (Mintzberg, 1973). Managers are therefore responsible for the selection, supervision and coaching of playing staff, and the ultimate formulation of the team’s strategy and game tactics (Mintzberg, 1973). The manager can delegate responsibility to staff such as coaches, scouts, and physiotherapists, and employs a “captain” to lead the team on the playing field (Dobson & Goddard, 2001). The management team aid the manager in organising the team, but the manager is ultimately responsible for the team’s performance.
The role of the football manager can be seen as a set of four principal managerial functions – planning, organising, leading and controlling (Audas et al., 1997).
The planning function involves constructing the organisational objectives (e.g. winning promotion), establishing a broad strategy to achieve these objectives (e.g. acquiring a player on transfer, focusing on youth policy) and then developing a hierarchy of plans to co-ordinate these activities (Audas et al., 1997). In addition, the
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manager is responsible for maintaining the image of the club and to uphold its heritage and culture. This involves the conduct of the staff heavily, as player actions on and off the field represent the actions of the club as a whole (Audus et al., 1997). The players’ actions are ultimately the manager’s responsibility as he/she is “directly, visibly and publicly accountable for collective successes and failures” (Audus et al., 1997).
In practical terms, the job specifications of the football manager can be shown as in the diagram below. Here it is vital to witness the point that the role of the football manager encompasses the roles of an organiser and a visionary leader.
Figure 5 Roles of a Football Manager (Perry, 2000)1 Manager Turnover
The football culture is in the belief that the manager is the key to unlocking the potential of the team and the skills it possesses within its members (Stenling, 2010). Due to the belief that the manager is key to team success, the football manager has become generally accountable for team success or failure.
“In association football, the position of manager represents a stressful and turbulent
occupation where individuals are publicly held responsible for a team’s performance. In 2004-2005, more than half of the 92 managers that started the English professional
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league season had been fired by the end of the season, thus reflecting the precarious nature of the position. The average length of tenure per managerial position during this period averaged at just 2 years, a feature seldom conductive to the successful management of a complex business. However, the goal of an effective and successful manager is arguably the ability to select, retain and develop the best people; this may ultimately be the key to longevity in the role” (Crust & Lawrence, 2006, p.28).
Audas (1997) argues that managers often take the blame due to the lack of figureheads, making the manager a convenient fall guy. In a larger business sense, Koning (2003) found that, due to the limited amount of in-firm data, the value of firing a manager is difficult to assess. It is, arguably, difficult to measure the performance of a manager as results must be analysed in relation to the strength of the squad, and the resources available to the manager, from within the club (Koning, 2003).
One outcome of the turnover of managers in the football manager labour market is the consequence that the manager’s role has become job-specific and not firm specific (Dobson & Goddard, 2001). This has lead to a high degree of transferability within the market and the domain of football management (Dobson & Goddard, 2001).
Passion
Football is a passionate sport, both for the players and supporters (Perry, 2000). Football has the ability to inspire great motivational intensity and emotional desire that is rarely found within other business settings (Smith & Westerbeek, 2005). The nature of football, and its potential for inspiring passion, adds a new facet to traditional management. Here, managers need to respect the existence and influence of passion, and establish methods of tapping into its potential for maximising motivation and performance of players (Perry, 2000).
The management team of football teams, headed up by the football manager, is widely known for the passion they bring to their assignments, and the benefits they hope to draw amongst their players through the example and effects of their dedication (Smith & Westerbeek, 2005).
On the basis of research into the practices of managers, four characteristics of general team management have been established. The first characteristic involves the management’s approach to membership and their focus on the importance of team construction and composition, such as positional structure, player roles and key members. The second characteristic concerns football management’s success in generating strong feelings of membership and common responsibility amongst team members. Thirdly, football management’s dedication to detail regarding structures and
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systems has been identified as key to following the manager’s intentions for the team. The fourth, and final, characteristic concerns football’s focus around rituals and the value of training to management.
Perry (2000) identifies football managers to inhabit a love for the game, and a managerial focus on motivational techniques. This is assigned to the responsibility placed on the manager and the subsequent freedom he/she is given to pursue their strategy (Perry, 2000). Furthermore, the football setting seems to inspire such passion that employment in this domain seems to encourage the commitment of all of one’s being to the cause of the team (Morrow, 2003).
2.2.2.3 Communicational Tools
Figure 6 Communication System
Communicating through culture: Goal Setting
The third aspect of organisation environment is the process of communicating values and information through the team culture. Here, values that mirror the wishes of management, are preached and modelled to the team, and therefore manifest themselves in the team culture (LaFasto & Larsson, 2001).
One motivational factor of football resides in the simplicity and clarity of goal setting (Duda, 1992). Goal setting is simple in football, and extremely practical, therefore effective in manifesting itself within the mind-set of the players (Duda, 1992). Duda (1992) claims that an individual or team experiences a higher degree of motivation
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through clear and practical goals that can easily be understood and related to in regards to the demands set on them.
Take for example the goal of a football team in a football match, here the aim is to win, nothing more and nothing less in most cases. The fact that a team can either win or lose provides very clear definitions of their performance, which therefore inspires a greater desire to achieve the appropriate result (Duda, 1992). Generally speaking, a win is “good”, a big win is “very good” and a loss is “poor” (Duda, 1992).
With clear expectations through the organisation environment of the team, an individual or team is more aware of the demands placed on them and have practical goals to strive towards (LaFasto & Larsson, 2001). Football management establishes match goals, the goals of the season and beyond such as five year plans (Duda, 1992). Season-by-season results are equally practical in their effectiveness in goal setting due to the nature of league positioning (Dobson & Goddard, 2001). A team can either desire to avoid relegation, qualify for European competition or win the league or cup. Dobson and Goddard (2001) support this view by arguing that one full season provides a basic unit for observation and comparison, and that output can be measured by matches one and league standings.
If the team climate, leans towards clear, practical goal setting with the establishment of effective support in driving personal growth and improved competence, the member will interpret his/her performance and competence thereafter (Duda, 1992). Duda (1992) emphasises that the environment around the team member influences their behaviour and the results of an achievement based goal approach, as an individual achieves nothing in a social vacuum. The structure, expectation and values of management and the team therefore heavily influence the behaviour pattern chosen by the team member (Duda, 1992).
Team Values
Perry (2000) stresses that football managers build their team culture around shared beliefs, which are vital in player – manager relations and in sharing the strategy of the manager amongst the team. These shared beliefs circle around two principal features: solid leadership from the manager, and respect and collectivism from the team (Berrone, 2010).
Duda (1992) saw that football managers are role models, and in doing so reflect their values of task mastery, passion and learning onto the team culture. Management’s focus on performance and goals helps to build team belonging and meaning, creating a collective identity in the football team around the common goal (Berrone, 2010).
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The values of the manager underpin the importance of the pre-determined goal and aid in building a collective and self-motivated environment, from which team membership and success derives pride (Berrone, 2010). This is portrayed in the Team Leadership Pyramid in Figure 7.
Figure 7 The Team Leadership Pyramid (Berrone, 2010)
2.3 Motivational Theory
2.3.1 Definition of Motivation
Motivation is a term that has been widely used in many different scientific fields, such as psychology, sociology, pedagogy and so forth. Thus, a variety of definitions of motivation are given according to different applications of the term in each field. This investigation has chosen to build on the definition formed by Mitchell (1982, p.82), where motivation is described as, “the degree to which an individual wants and
chooses to engage in certain specified behaviours”.
2.3.2 Individual Motivational Theories
2.3.2.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsAn American professor in psychology, Abraham H. Maslow, originally developed the theory of a hierarchy of needs. According to Maslow, human needs can be arranged into five levels (Kressler, 2003). These five levels of human needs are as follows:
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Level 5: Self-Actualization, is an ongoing process of realizing one’s potential. Level 4: Esteem Needs, are needs to be respected and valued by others and to
gain recognition, knowledge, power, status and prestige.
Level 3: Love/Belonging Needs, are human social needs to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance from social groups or connections.
Level 2: Security Needs, includes the need for physical and financial security. Level 1: Physiology Needs, are basic requirements for human survival, like water,
air, and food.
The first two levels of needs, physiology and security needs, are called lower-order
needs and are primary needs for a human being to live; the needs for love, esteem and
self-actualization are higher-order needs (Newstrom, 2011). The higher-order needs will never be reached unless one has met all levels of needs under it. Maslow’s theory can be expressed as a pyramid as shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow’s theory argues that people always have a variety of needs that they would like to be satisfied. From a motivational perspective, these unfulfilled needs are strong motivators. The goal is to fulfil one’s needs and achieve self-actualisation (Maslow, 2000)
21 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Model
Herzberg developed the Two-Factor Model by carrying out research in the aim of identifying, which situations and conditions would bring employees positive experience and enthusiasm towards their work, and which could frustrate them (Kressler, 2003). Through this research, two separate sets of factors are concluded that can influence work enthusiasm, maintenance and motivational factors (as seen in Figure 9).
Figure 9 Herzberg's Two-factor Model (Adapted from Newstrom, 2011, p.114)
Maintenance factors are a set of factors that are necessary but not sufficient to motivate employees. The absence of maintenance factors would lead to unsatisfied employees while the presence of these factors generally would not satisfy employees, instead, it will only bring employees to a neutral state; Motivational factors are really motivators (Newström, 2011). The absence of motivational factors rarely causes strong unsatisfied feelings amongst employees as the absence of maintenance factors does, while the presence of motivational factors would motivate employees enthusiastically (Newström, 2011). The effects of maintenance and motivational factors can be illustrated as in Fel!Hittar inte referenskälla.10.
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Figure 10 Effects of Maintenance and Motivational Factors (Adapted from Newström, 2011, p.116)
Herzberg’s two-factor model provides a more straightforward way of explaining work motivation (Newström, 2011). Newström (2011) concluded that maintenance factors are mostly related to job context, which means these factors are more about the surrounding environment than the job. As shown in Figure 6, take one of the maintenance factors, say “peer relations”, as an example. How an employee feels about his/her co-workers is not about the job per se but more considered as one aspect of the working environment. On the other hand, motivational factors are more about the job itself, in other words, they are more related to the job content.
For example, the achievement an employee gets from the job is a job-centred factor. Herzberg’s research shows that employees are primarily motivated by what a job can do for them, which means factors related to job content would motivate employees much more than those related to job context (Newström, 2011). Thus, the model may give managers an insight into the implication that the fulfilment of maintenance factors is essential, but if a manger wants to motivate one’s employees, motivational factors should be considered (Newström 2011).
Compared to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, Herzberg’s two-factor model does not only explain motivation from an individual-needs perspective, but also puts working environment (job context) into consideration (Newström, 2011). Both Maslow’s theory and Herzberg’s model imply that it is necessary to satisfy lower-order needs before moving on to higher-order needs.
2.3.2.2 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation and Amotivation
The development of motivational theories can be traced back to the study of distinguishing intrinsic motivation from extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation refers to “doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable”, while
extrinsic motivation entails “doing something because it leads to a separable
outcome” (Ryan & Deci, 2000a, p. 55).
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between job content and job context concepts. The key to distinguishing intrinsic from extrinsic motivators is to determine whether the motivator is related closely to the activity itself or not (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). For example, a student learns new knowledge because he/she finds it is interesting to learn or because he/she has to learn in order to achieve a good grade. In this example, the former reason of learning is an intrinsic motivator because it explained the inherent satisfaction of learning, which relates to the nature of learning. While the latter one is an extrinsic motivator because one performs the activity due to external reasons, in this case, the pressure of achieving a good grade (Ryan & Deci, 2000a).
Unlike intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, amotivation refers to the absence of motivation. The concept of amotivation can be explained by using the same example as above. If the student expresses no desire to learn the new knowledge, he/she is deemed to be amotivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000a).
Based on previous research into differentiating types of motivation, Vallerand and Losier (1999) constructed a Continuum of motives as shown below.
Figure 11 Continuum of Sport Motives (Vallerand & Losier, 1999)
According to Vallerand and Losier (1999), the continuum comprises of 7 types of motivation. Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation include three types respectively. More specifically, three forms of intrinsic motivation are labelled as “intrinsic motivation toward knowledge” (engaging for the pleasure of learning new things), “toward accomplishment” (engaging for the pleasure of reaching personal goals) and “toward experiencing simulation” (engaging for experiencing). In addition, extrinsic motivation consists of three forms, “external regulation” (engaging in a sport because of external rewards or punishment), “introjected regulation” (engaging because of the introjection of some external factors) and “identified regulation” (engaging because of the importance of achieving some personal goals regardless of the pleasure brought) (Vallerand & Losier, 1999).
On this scale, the level of self-motivation increases from left (amotivation) to right (intrinsic motivation). In other words, one is least self-motivated when one experiences amotivation whilst one is highly motivated when one experiences
24 intrinsic motivation (Vallerand & Losier, 1999). 2.3.2.3 Self-Determination Theory, S.D.T.
According to Ryan and Deci (2000b, p. 68), Self-Determined Theory, “S.D.T.”, is based on the belief that human self-motivation/-regulation and personality development are based on ones’ inner resources, or “inherent growth tendencies” and “innate psychological needs”. Three innate needs of a human being are identified in S.D.T.’s framework; autonomy (the desire for initiating an action by oneself), relatedness (the need for connecting with others) and competence (the need for self-efficacy on interacting with environment surrounded). When these three psychological needs are satisfied, self-motivation will be enhanced (Ryan & Deci, 2000b).
Vallerand, Deci and Ryan’s (1987) research showed that intrinsic, as well as extrinsic motivators could motivate a human being. A hierarchical model of intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation proposed a motivational sequence, which illustrates how social
factors determine self-motivation (See Figure 12).
Figure 12 Motivational sequence (Vallerand & Losier, 1999)
This motivational sequence is developed based on the belief that the “social
environment can have potent effects on one’s motivation” (Vallerand & Losier, 1999,
p. 146). It explained how social factors (inherent three social factors, competition/cooperation, success/failure, and practices of management) influence one’s perceptions of competence, autonomy and relatedness (psychological mediators), which in turn determines one’s motivation (intrinsic/extrinsic/amotivation).
Vallerand and Losier (1999) proposed the hypothesis that positive impacts from social factors on psychological mediators will affect one’s motivation positively. Likewise, social factors that influence psychological mediators in a negative manner will undermine one’s motivation.
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environments can affect one’s intrinsic motivation profoundly. In a competitive condition, the focus of a team is, for instance, to beat the opponents and to win the game. In contrast, a cooperative condition offers the team a chance to focus on the activity itself. Team members are able to focus on skill improvement, strategy development and try their best in the game.
A competitive situation may undermine one’s intrinsic motivation while participants in cooperative situations show higher levels of intrinsic motivation than those in competitive condition (Vallerand & Losier, 1999).
2.3.2.4 Achievement Goal Theory (A.G.T.) and Perceived Motivational Climate (P.M.C.)
Achievement Goal Theory (A.G.T.) was developed in response to Self-Determination Theory (S.D.T.) and is constructed by a three-pillared framework: goal orientations, motivational climates and goal involvement (Elliot & Dweck, 2005).
Goal orientations suggest that individuals have proneness towards adopting certain perspectives of goals/orientations (Elliot & Dweck, 2005). The distinction between task-involving and ego-involving orientations is revealed in this approach. The difference is centred on the conception of competence, concluded by Elliot and Dweck (2005).
When people focus on ego-involving orientation, differentiated conception of competence is perceived (Elliot & Dweck, 2005). Normative standards (public perceived standards of success and failure) would be used to evaluate performance when people are ego-involved and they tend to strive for the superior performance against others; while if people focus on task-involving orientation, undifferentiated competence is perceived (Elliot & Dweck, 2005). People who are task-involved tend to evaluate performance via measuring the value of personal improvement (self-referenced) and learning criteria from an activity (Elliot & Dweck, 2005). The Perceived Motivational Climate (P.M.C.) approach examines the situational circumstances and various social contexts that affect how individuals define goals for achievement. Two major facets of P.M.C. are identified, a perceived performance climate (ego-Involving climate) and a perceived mastery climate (task-Involving climate) (Elliot & Dweck, 2005).
In a mastery climate, individual players’ personal efforts, learning, and improvement of skills are emphasized. Comparisons are not encouraged by the team leader in task-involving conditions and the development of new techniques or strategies to master the task is very welcome (Elliot & Dweck, 2005). In contrast, performance of
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a team in a performance climate is more evaluated by normative standards, which requires a great deal of concentration on “winning the game” and gaining the recognition of performance from the public. Interpersonal comparison is therefore encouraged in ego-involving conditions (Elliot & Dweck, 2005).
According to the study of A.G.T., goal involvement, which indicates individuals’ cognitive and behaviuoral responses in a particular situation, is determined by the joint influences of an individual’s goal orientation and motivational climate (Ntoumanis & Biddle, 1999).
It is widely accepted that the environment around a team and the climate within a team are normally created or affected a lot by one or two individuals who act as leaders within the team. Whether a team has a positive motivational climate or organizational environment, therefore, depends heavily on the leaders of the team (Ntoumanis & Biddle, 1999).
Ntoumanis and Biddle (1999) provided a critical literature review of research on manipulating P.M.C. and concluded that in general, a mastery climate could influence participants positively on their cognition and behaviour, while a performance climate can cause negative influences on self-motivation.
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3. Methodology
Chapter three is a representation of the chosen method of this investigation in answering the research questions. Here the methodology nature and validity and limitations of this investigation will be scrutinised.
3.1 Choice of Method
In order to achieve the purpose of portraying the motivational aspects of the organisation environment of a football team, our research is designed in three steps. The first step is aiming to identify organisational practices and structures that are being used within football teams. The second step entails carrying out primary research to both question and enforce secondary findings. And, step three involves analysing findings in regards to motivational theory.
With an explanatory perspective on the gathering of data, this investigation will acknowledge and build on the work of others (Nordqvist, 2012). Existing literature, research reports, articles, books, theses and other material regarding motivational structures and practices in football organisations and football teams will be identified and analysed.
When the foundation of knowledge within this academic field is built, a second part of research will be entered. Primary research will be designed in order to obtain a further look into the effects of the motivational practices and structures of a football team. Interview questions will consult and be grounded on the suggestions found in the research literature (King & Horrocks, 2010).
This investigation has found gaps in previous research (Forslund, 2010) and primary qualitative research will therefore be used to create further knowledge and clarity (Jacobsen, 2002). Here an explorative point of view will be applied (Jacobsen, 2002). This investigation will be flexible and prepared to follow the results, as it is important in qualitative research to be flexible, objective and open-ended (King & Horrocks, 2010). Findings will build on the interpretations and understandings of our participants.
Qualitative research is broad and holistic, attempting to interpret the whole picture, and by focusing on a multiple of individual cases, this investigation aims to portray an accurate picture of general patterns (King & Horrocks, 2010).
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Furthermore, statistical data, in the form of questionnaires, will be formed in the hope of strengthening the reliability of the qualitative research and the secondary findings (Cooper & Schindler, 2011). Statistical data, for this part of the primary research, has been chosen due to its ability to limit findings, in the aim of more easily encompassing the reality investigated. Quantitative data always interprets the subject matter with precise measurement in order to test theory. Quantitative data intends to develop in-depth understanding of theory through detailed description, and interpret instead of test it (Cooper & Schindler, 2011). However, quantitative research methods are often criticized of their lack of consideration regarding social consensus, for example the fact that individuals often take part of a group (Jacobsen, 2002).
This method must be seen as a plan that can be adapted in accordance to the constraints of the investigation, such as the limitation of time, the permission from the football club managers and possible low responsiveness.
3.2 Data Collection
To reach deeper understanding regarding the organisational structure of football clubs and its effect on the motivation of football teams, this investigation will take on a holistic approach (Nordqvist, 2012). This investigation’s primary research will therefore build on multiple case studies, i.e. football teams (Jacobsen, 2002). Through multiple case studies this investigation can stay flexible and alert and the research questions can be adjusted according to findings throughout the research (Nordqvist, 2012).
Multiple case studies will enable this investigation to focus on the phenomenon of motivation instead of the chosen clubs or geographical areas (Jacobsen, 2002). Furthermore, it will enable this report to focus on the need to generalise from the results of this investigation. Interviews with football managers will deepen our understanding regarding different motivational practices used. Moreover, secondary materials about the chosen football clubs will be researched and analysed.
Three football clubs will be assessed, for the possibility of comparisons and therefore deeper understandings, and will be selected in consideration to geographical constraints and approachability. Our chosen football clubs must contain a football team consisting of professional football players for us to be able to draw conclusions and arguments applicable to a professional business context.
3.2.1 Participants
Three managers and their football team members will participate in this study. The chosen football teams will be playing on a professional level and will have been part of the team for a considerate amount of time to be deemed knowledgeable of the team
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structure and practices. The primary research will involve both male and female football teams, therefore gaining a wider perspective of management, as seen by both genders, as in a normal business setting.
For this investigation J-Södra, Norrby IF, and Dalsjöfors GOIF’s women’s team will participate in our study.
3.2.2 Interviews
Interviews with team managers of the chosen football clubs will be used to fill the previously mentioned information gap in secondary sources. The managers’ answers will be compared with the answers of the team members in the subsequent questionnaires.
The interviews will be semi-structured but performed with consistency in order to receive low variability and allowing discussion (Williamson, 2002). The interviewer will be trained to minimize interviewer variability.
An interview guide will be used in all interviews as a tool for comparison (King & Horrocks, 2010). The interview guide will include questions that will be scoped and piloted as to not be leading, and the interviewer will use probes. The interviewer will utilise a variety of questions concerning the background, experiences, opinions and feelings of the managers. The interview will be selective to allow sufficient opportunity for the interviewee to portray his/her experiences and perspective (King, N., et. al. (2010)).
The interview setting will involve a neutral, private and comfortable physical environment. The interviews will be fully recorded through an audio recording (King & Horrocks, 2010).
See interview guide in Appendix 2.
3.2.3 Questionnaires
To gain knowledge about the effects of the motivational practices and structures of a football club and the football player's level of motivation, we will use self-administered questionnaires (Williamson, 2002) answered by the members in our chosen football teams. Through questionnaires this investigation will receive a breadth of data, which then can be used to generalise a population.
The questionnaires will be formed based on secondary findings, motivational and team theory and the interviews of football managers. With both interviews and questionnaires this report expects to receive a picture of both sides of the motivational practices and structures.
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The questionnaire will be built on the previously piloted “Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire”, PMCSQ-2. This PMCSQ-2 is structured as to portray the motivational climate of the team, and the source of the individual players’ motivation. Certain questions will be added and adapted to suit the purpose of our investigation. The questionnaire will include quantitative questions, in the hope of concretely establishing the scale of the motivation driven from the team structure. See the questionnaire and background into the PMCSQ-2 in Appendix 3.
Before being used, the questionnaires will be piloted on a typical respondent. Furthermore, the questions and possible answers will be discussed and analysed in order to lower the risk of misinterpretations amongst respondents.
To increase our response rate and seriousness amongst respondents, questionnaires will be carried out in person (Williamson, 2002). The authors will be present to answer question that might arise. The questionnaires will be voluntary and filled out anonymously to increase the possibility of frank and truthful answers (Williamson, 2002).
3.2.4 Literature Review
Literature review is the foundation of our work. Our sources of literature are from books, journals, online resources and databases. There are three usages of literature for this investigation: to, a. build a knowledge foundation for our initial study; b. help to clarify the research questions; and, c. offer concrete theories and models that we can apply during the discussion of findings.
3.3 Validity and Reliability of Data
Information and arguments used in this report will be based on several different sources and not just a single one. This will be practiced in order to achieve triangulation of sources to increase the reliability of conclusions drawn (Williamson, 2002). With independent sources balancing each other, describing the same phenomenon or containing the same type of information this reports aims to keep a high level of reliability (Jacobsen, 2002).
During the analysis of the questionnaires, the possibility of seriousness and misinterpretation, due to the fact that the questionnaire was in English, will be taken into account (Williamson, 2002). The questionnaire was formulated in English to attain the highest possible level of responses, as multiple participants were unfamiliar
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with the Swedish language. Moreover, it is important for this report to acknowledge that the choice of semi-quantitative data chosen fails to notice the thoughts, values and details behind the answers of respondents. Deepened information could presumably have led to a greater understanding regarding the football players’ level of motivation.
Regarding the qualitative research, the possibility of biases of the interviewers age, sex, race, educational level and experience at interviewing can affect the answers of the interviewee (Williamson, 2002).
In addition, this investigation is built on generalisations regarding the organisational structures and practises of a football club and the motivational level of football players. This entails that extremities in collected data will not be utilised.
3.4 Methods of Data Analysis
Interviews and questionnaires will be recorded and registered as accurately and thoroughly as possible in order to draw accurate conclusions (Jacobsen, 2002). Interviews will be transferred into a readable text before being analysed to guarantee that important information will be kept and remembered. Areas of interest will be transcribed and quotes will be used for emphasis. The majority of the interview dialogue will be summarised (King & Horrocks, 2010).
Collected data, both primary and secondary will then be categorised into defined categories and sub categories. This way information from different sources can easily be compared (Jacobsen, 2002) and conclusions drawn.
Data analysis will be considered in relation to the design of our primary research methods. An objective and analytical mindset will be kept during the process (Jacobsen, 2002). In line with the purpose of this investigation, the methodology will follow a flexible and explorative nature, aiming to portray a holistic picture of the motivational climate of a football team through the research into the experiences of the managers and players.
The presentation of the analysis of findings will follow a thematic analysis structure with the representation of themes (King, & Horocks, 2010). Each theme will be processed in three stages; firstly, coding descriptively, then coding interpretively, before, defining over aching themes. Moreover, this report aims to generalise data in an analytical way and package the new knowledge in the form of a hypothesis. (Nordqvist, 2012). The results from the interviews and questionnaires will be compared, per team, and assessed in accordance to the theoretical framework.
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Ultimately, a discussion regarding the perceived motivational climate of the football team in relation to team and motivational theory will provide the basis of our conclusions and subsequent suggestions for future study.
