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Don’t buy a pig in a poke : Considering challenges of and problems with performance analysis technologies in Swedish men’s elite football

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ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirect

Performance

Enhancement

&

Health

j o ur na l h o me pa g e :w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / p e h

Don’t

buy

a

pig

in

a

poke:

Considering

challenges

of

and

problems

with

performance

analysis

technologies

in

Swedish

men’s

elite

football

Natalie

Barker-Ruchti

a,∗

,

Robert

Svensson

a

,

Daniel

Svensson

b

,

Dan

Fransson

c

aSchoolofHealthSciences,ÖrebroUniversity,Örebro,Sweden

bDepartmentofSportSciences,FacultyofEducationandSociety,MalmöUniversity,Malmö,Sweden

cCenterofHealthandPerformance,DepartmentofFoodandNutritionandSportScience.UniversityofGothenburg,Gothenburg,Sweden

a

r

t

i

c

l

e

i

n

f

o

Articlehistory:

Received15December2020

Receivedinrevisedform17March2021 Accepted16April2021

Availableonline11May2021 Keywords: Performanceanalysis Soccer Competence Time Communication

a

b

s

t

r

a

c

t

Duringthelastdecades,technologiestomonitor,testandanalyzeathletes’performanceandhealth haverapidlydeveloped.Atpresent,globalpositioningsystems(GPS),stadiumcamcorders,heartrate monitorsandmobileapplicationsareprominentperformanceanalysistechnologies(PATs)usedinmost elitesportenvironments.WhilePATsisunderstoodasanaid,thereisagrowingbodyofliteraturethat pointstonegativeconsequences.Thesenegativeconsequencesareconcerningandcallforresearchand measurestodevelopstrategiesforeffectiveandproductiveimplementation.Toachievethis,thisarticle firstoutlineskeychallengesandproblemsofPATs,usingsportsociologicalresearchoncoachingand athletes,historicalknowledgeofthescientizationoftrainingandthechangingroleofthecoach,aswell asscientificandexperientialknowledgeofperformanceanalysis.Ourfindingsshowthatkeychallenges andproblemsoccurinachainofsixstepsthatconcerntheimplementingofPATs:1.Investmentin PATs;2.Productionofperformancedata;3.Interpretationofperformancedata;4.Communicationof performancedata;5.Decision-makingbasedonperformancedata;and6.InfluenceofPATsoncoaches andathletes.Thearticlethenanswersthesechallengesandproblemsbyoutliningrecommendationsfor howsportmanagersandadministratorscanpreventbuying“apiginapoke”byacquiringcompetence aboutperformanceanalysisandPATs,investingtime,anddevelopingeffectivecommunicationbetween thoseworkingwithPATs.

©2021TheAuthor(s).PublishedbyElsevierLtd.ThisisanopenaccessarticleundertheCCBY-NC-ND license(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Contents

1. Introduction...2

2. Researchprocedureandstudycontext...2

2.1. Currenttechno-situationinSwedishmen’selitefootball...3

3. ChallengesandproblemswhileimplementingPATs...3

3.1. InvestmentinPATs...3

3.2. Productionofperformancedata ... 3

3.3. Interpretationofperformancedata...4

3.4. Communicationofperformancedata...4

3.5. Decision-makingbasedonperformancedata ... 4

3.6. InfluencesofPAToncoachesandathletes...5

4. Recommendationstostakeholders...5

∗ Correspondingauthorat:SchoolofHealthSciences,ÖrebroUniversity,70182 Örebro,Sweden.

E-mailaddress:Natalie.barker-ruchti@oru.se(N.Barker-Ruchti). Twitter:@barkerruchti(N.Barker-Ruchti).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2021.100191

2211-2669/©2021TheAuthor(s).PublishedbyElsevierLtd.ThisisanopenaccessarticleundertheCCBY-NC-NDlicense(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ 4.0/).

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5. Conclusion...6

CRediTauthorshipcontributionstatement...6

Acknowledgments...6

References...6

1. Introduction

Performanceanalysis(PA)playsa keyroleinenhancing ath-leticperformance.Whilecoachesofthepastreliedonthenaked eyetoassessandtraintheirathletes,today’smanyperformance analysis technologies (PATs) significantly shape training prac-tices andthesportcoachingprocess(Carling,Wright,Nelson,& Bradley, 2014; Groom, Cushion, & Nelson, 2011; Mackenzie & Cushion, 2013; Nicholls, James, Bryant, & Wells, 2018; Rein & Memmert,2016;Wright,Carling,&Collins,2014;Wright,Atkins, &Jones,2012;Wright,2015).Ineconomicallystrongsporting con-texts suchasfootball (soccer)in theUK andAmerican football in theUS,PATsareparticularlyintegral.In suchcontexts,large teamsconsistingofvariousexperts-assistantcoaches,strength andconditioningcoaches,playerposition-specificcoaches,match andvideo/tacticalanalysts,anddoctors,nutritionists, physiothera-pistsandpsychologists-employglobalpositioningsystems(GPS), wearablemicro-technologysensors,video-andcomputer-assisted performanceanalysis,andmobileapplicationstogeneratedataon physiologicalandkinematicparameters(e.g.,distancecoveredina match;numberofandspeedofacceleration),playingtactics,and healthandwellbeingvariables(e.g.,anxiety;sleep;weight).Mostof thesemeasurementsareproducedonadailyand/orweeklybasis and requireelaborateand time-consumingspecialist processing beforetheycanbecommunicatedtoheadcoaches,sportmanagers andclubdirectors,whointurnutilizetheinformationtodecideon anddevelopindividualandgrouptrainingtasks,playerselection, andmatchplaystrategies.

ResearchontheimpactofPATsontrainingandthecoaching process,aswellascoachesandathletes,indicatesbothpositive andnegativeeffects.PATshavebeenshowntoenhancecoaching effectiveness,thecoach-athleterelationship,andathletes’safety andtraining behaviors(Butterworth,Turner,&Johnstone,2012; Francis&Jones,2014;Groom etal.,2011;Jones&Hemmestad, 2019; Wrightet al., 2014).The literature outlining these posi-tiveeffects,however,appearsmodestagainstthebackdropofthe conceptualinconsistencies,methodologicalshortcomings,ethical concerns,inequalities,practicalchallenges,andproblematic con-sequencesthatscholarshaveidentified(Baerg,2017;Carlingetal., 2014; Groom etal., 2011;Kioussis,2018; Kohe& Purdy,2019; Luczak,Burch,Lewis,Chander,&Ball,2020;Mackenzie&Cushion, 2013;Manley,Palmer,&Roderick,2012;Williams&Manley,2016; Wrightetal.,2014).Duetothepredictedexponentialgrowthof PATs,these limitationsand negativeconsequences arelikely to increase and call for researchand measures todevelop strate-giesfor effectiveand productiveimplementation(Luczaket al., 2020).Nicholls andcolleagues’(2019)callformulti-disciplinary approaches appearsparticularlyrelevanttoadvanceour under-standingofPAandtheeffectsthattheuseofPATshaveontraining andcoaching,andcoachesandathletes(Wrightetal.,2012).

Thispaperaimstobeananswertothis call.Co-authoredby researchersinsportsociology,sporthistoryand applied perfor-manceanalysis,theoverarchingpurposeofthepaperistoprovide sport managersand administrators aiming to,or workingwith PATs, with recommendations for the implementation of PATs. Specifically,ourfirstaimistooutlinechallengesandproblemsthat ourcollatedexpertisehaveshowntotroublePA.Basedonthis com-pilationofchallengesandproblems,oursecondaimistodevelop recommendationsforhowsportmanagersandadministratorsmay

needtoapproachPAtoavoidoratleastmanagethenegativeeffects ofPATsthatexistingresearchandexperiencehasidentified.

Toachieve ourtwo aims, we useSwedish men’s elite foot-ball as a case study. Swedish men’s elite football hasrecently startedto investin newforms of technologies, undoubtedlyto adapttothecontemporarylandscapeoftechnologyinthissport. Ourobservationsare,however,thatsomeinvestmentsinPATsare poorlyinformedandthuspronetoresultinthenegativeeffects theexistingliteraturehasidentified.We thusfeelthatcollating thechallengesandproblemsidentifiedinresearchandproviding recommendationsforeffectiveandproductiveimplementationof PATsisusefulandtimely,bothforprofessionalfootballand elite-levelteamsportmanagersandadministrators.Investingin(new) technologiesistodayanincreasinglycommonpractice(Claudino etal.,2019),andalthoughwerecognizethatchallengesand prob-lemsrelatingtoPATsandtheirimplementationarelikelytodiffer betweensports,as PATsand othertechnologiesare developing quicklyanditsimplicationsremainpoorlyunderstood,the ques-tionsweraiseandtherecommendationswedevelophavepotential forsportsettingsbeyondSwedishmen’sfootball.Inwhatfollows, wefirstsketchtheresearchprocedureweadoptedforthispaper anddescribethecurrenttechno-situationinSwedishmen’selite football. Thiswill be followed by the main part of the article, thesociological,historical, andexperientialknowledge on chal-lengesandproblemsthattroubletheimplementationofPATs.The remainingtwosectionsoutlinerecommendationsforeffectiveand productivePAandsummarizethecontributionourresearchmakes.

2. Researchprocedureandstudycontext

Theresearchconductedforthisarticlefollowedan interdisci-plinaryresearchprocess(Hausken-Sutter,Pringle,Schubring,Grau, &Barker-Ruchti,2021;Repko&Szostak,2016).Insuchresearch, thetwokeyresearchphasesaretocollatedisciplinaryknowledge tofind‘commonground’andtointegrateknowledgetoconstruct morecomprehensiveunderstanding.To achieve thesetwo out-comes,weconductedthreescientificsteps.First,eachco-author draftedatexttorepresenttheirdisciplinaryexpertiserelatingtoPA knowledgeintheelitesportcontext.Author1turnedtosociological andcoachingresearchtoidentifybenefits,scientificlimitationsand problematicconsequencesofPATs;author2andauthor3turnedto theirhistoricalresearchtoexplainthechangingroleoftheSwedish men’selitesoccercoachfromthe1960sto2010s,andthe scienti-sationofendurancesportinSwedensincethe1930srespectively (Svensson, 2019; Svensson,2018);and Fransson, 2018a;2018b turnedtohismatch analysisresearchand performance analyst experienceinSwedishmen’selitefootballclubstodeterminethe statusquoofPATsandPApracticesinSwedishmen’selite foot-ball(Franssonetal.,2018a;2018b).Throughseveralmeetings,we familiarizedourselveswithourrespectivedisciplinaryand expe-rientialknowledge andprobedone anothertounderstandhow technologicaldevelopmentand PATshaveshaped,and continue toaffect,therole ofthecoach,coaching andtraining practices, andathletes.Throughoutthesediscussions,author1andauthor4’s coacheducationandauthor4’sappliedPAexperiencesadded con-textualinformationonthecurrentstateofPATsinSwedishmen’s elitefootball.Second,andtocreate‘commonground’fromthe dis-ciplinaryexpertiseweeachprovided,wezoomedintothecaseof

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Swedishmen’selitefootballtoidentifychallengesandproblems theimplementationofPATscreate.Aspartofthisstep,wenoticed that thechallenges andproblems relatedtodifferentphases of investmentinandimplementationofPATs.Thus,weallocatedthe challengesandproblemstoachainofsixinterrelated implemen-tationsteps:1.InvestmentinPATs;2.Productionofperformance data;3.Interpretationofperformancedata;4.Communicationof performancedata;5.Decision-makingbasedonperformancedata; and6.InfluenceofPATsoncoachesandathletes.Third,andlastly, tointegrate thefindings,we discussedhow thechallengesand problemsidentifiedinstep2couldbemanagedtoavoidthe neg-ativeeffectsthattroublePA.Theimplicationswepresentinthe conclusionrepresentthecomprehensiveunderstandingthat inter-disciplinaryscholarsarguesuchresearchcangenerate.

2.1. Currenttechno-situationinSwedishmen’selitefootball Inmen’selitefootball,itistheclubsofthebigEuropeanleagues thathavebeenleadingthecurrentPAlandscapeduringthelast decade.InSweden,arguablyduetoalackofeconomicresources, clubshaveonlyinthepastfewyearsstartedtoinvestinPATs.The implementationhas,however,beenrapidandextensive.Injustfive years,thenumberoffirstdivisionmen’sfootballteams employ-ingGPStechnologyhasincreasedfrom2to11,outof16teams. Fouroftheseclubsworktodaywithmorethanonesystemand areimplementingthemwithincreasinglyyoungerteams(e.g.,U19 teams).Additionaldigitaltechnologies,suchasautomatedcamera systemsandmobileapplicationsthatproducedataonwell-being andnutrition,arealsobeingpurchased.

Asa consequenceoftheimplementationofnewtechnology, wehaveobservedthatSwedishmen’selitefootballclubs,asclubs elsewhere,havehadtoemployadditionalstafftoassistthecoach, suchassportscientists,tacticalanalysts,andotherstatistical ana-lysts(forsimilarevidenceintheUK,seeKohe&Purdy,2019).This extension ofcoachingteamshasalsodemandednew organiza-tionalrolesandresponsibilities.Theterm‘coach’,forinstance,has inmanycasesbeenreplacedby‘manager’,whoserolehasmovedto managingacoachingteamandmakingdecisionsbasedonthe pre-interpretedinformation thatexpertpersonnelpreparebasedon thedatatheimplementedPATsgenerate(Svensson,2019).A fur-thersignoftherapidchangeduetoPATsistheboostSwedishsport scienceresearchhasexperiencedinthepastfiveyears(Fransson etal.,2018a;2018b;Sæterbakkenetal.,2019).Asaresultofthis research,separateundergraduatedegreecoursesintrainingand match-analysis arenow beingoffered.Thesecourses are popu-lar,mainlywiththoseworkinginfootballorganisationsassport scientists,fitnesscoaches,andamateurandprofessionalcoaches.

Insum,Swedishmen’selitefootballPApracticeisdigitalizing fast.Whilethismaybenefitcoachesandathletes,andperformance, wealsoobservechallengesandproblemsthatwebelieveshould andcanbeprevented.Below,followingthesixinterrelated imple-mentationstepsoutlinedabove,wedemonstratewhattheyentail.

3. ChallengesandproblemswhileimplementingPATs

3.1. InvestmentinPATs

Untilthemiddleofthe20thCentury,Sweden’sfootballclubs did not (need to) investin PATs, basicallybecause technology wasnon-existing.Thereafter,PAonplayers’physicaldimensions becameoutsourced,mainlybecauseexercisescienceresearchhad emerged, andthenecessarytechnologywasbecomingavailable at thethen RoyalCentral Instituteof Gymnastics in Stockholm (Svensson,2019;Svensson,2017).Consequently,thelaboratoryat thatinstitutebecamean‘obligatorypassagepoint’forthose aim-ingforacareerinelitesports(Svensson&Sörlin&other,2019).

Gradually,particularlysincethedigitizationofthe1990s,football organizationsandclubshavebeguntoimplementPATsthemselves, onsite. Forexample,intheearly2000s,theheart ratemonitor wasintroducedasatooltocontrolandgoverntheplayers’ individ-ualinternalworkloadduringtraining(Svensson,2019).Therapid increaseoffirstdivisionSwedishmen’sfootballteamsemploying GPStechnologyisanotherexample.

However,theincreasedavailabilityofPATs,oftencoupledwith PAT companies’ aggressivemarketing strategies, does not only pressurefootballclubstoinvestinsuchtechnology,italsorequires thoseaimingtoinvestinPATstohaverelevantknowledgetoassess differencesinproductquality(Luczaketal.,2020).Forinstance, stakeholdersmustunderstandissuesofvalidityandreliabilityas themeasuresGPSsystemscollectdifferinaccuracybecauseof dif-ferentdatachips,filters,anddata-processingalgorithmsbuiltinto theirhard-andsoftware(Malone,Lovell,Varley,&Coutts,2017). Validityandreliabilityisfurtheraffectedbythenumberofsatellites connectedtotheGPSunitduringmeasurement(Witte&Wilson, 2004), real-time versus post session measurements (Aughey & Falloon,2010),andminimumeffortdurationsettings(Maloneetal., 2017).Investors,asspecialistsand coaches,needtounderstand thattheabove-mentionedfactorsinfluencedatacollectionandthe qualityofPATdata.

ChallengesregardingrelevantknowledgeaboutPATsand prob-lemsregardingvalidityandreliabilityareparticularlyimportant againstthe backdrop ofthe limited budgetsthatSwedish (and arguablymanyothercountries’)elitemen’sfootballclubshave. Financial limitations are likely to require (re-)prioritization of money,whichmaydisadvantageareasthatalsoneedtoreceive funding. In Sweden, a consequence may be that the financ-ing of PATs in men’s elite football will (further) disadvantage activitiesalready receivinglessfunding(e.g.,girls/women’sand participation/non-elitefootball)(Ericsson&Horgby,2020;Hjelm &Olofsson,2003).Indeed,Baerg(2017)arguesthatPATscreatea digitaldivide,whichlikelyenhancesexistinginequalitiesbetween sportingcontextsandnations.PressuretoinvestinPATsremains highthough,andmayhaveparticularlydisadvantageous conse-quences, especially in present COVID-19 affected football club budgets.

3.2. Productionofperformancedata

WhenPAwasintroducedinSwedishmen’selitefootball dur-ingthe1960sand1970s,exercisescientistsproducedperformance data(Svensson,2019;Peterson,1989).Whilecoachesdidcarryout somesimpletests,thebulkofdatacollectionwascontrolledby scientists,withathletesattendinglaboratoriestesting(Svensson, 2019; Svensson,2017; Yttergren, 2012).On theone hand, this outsourcingof PA ensuredthehighest-levelquality ofresearch availableatthetime.Ontheother,astestingoccurredin artifi-cialsettings,amajorproblemwasthatthetestscouldnotprovide real-lifedata.Inaddition,thescientificpurposeatthetimewasnot toenhanceathleticperformance,buttogainknowledgeonhowthe bodyfunctionsduringextensivephysicalactivity(Svensson,2013; Schantz,2015).Inthissense,itwasapotentialand,insomecases, alsoactualconflictregardingthereasontoproducedata(Svensson, 2017;Day&Carpenter,2015;Yttergren,2012).

AtpresentandasshowninthesectiononinvestmentinPATs, theproduction ofdatais doneonsite,by clubstaff.While this solvessomeoftheearlierproblemsfacedbecauseoftestingtaking placeinlaboratories,ithascreatednewchallenges.Forinstance, somescholarsarguethatPATsmayonlybeabletomeasurewhat ismeasurableandnotnecessarilywhatisbestforplayers’ learn-ingandperformance(Mackenzie&Cushion,2013;Wrightetal., 2014).Further,researchwarnsfromasolefocusonvariablesthat quantifyand reducetheathlete toadataset(Collins,Carson,& 3

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Toner,2016;Collins,Collins,&Carson,2016;Kerr&Cooper,2020; Williams&Manley,2016).Quantifiabledatamaybeinformative andpositivelyaffectathletehealthandtrainingbehavior,however, athletic successreliesonmanysocial (e.g.,trusting relationship with coaches)and serendipitous factors(e.g.,freak injury) that cannot bemeasuredandquantified(Luczaketal.,2020).Lastly, withtheimplementationofPATs,additionalexpertshavecome to play integral roles in coaching teams(Nicholls et al., 2019; Wright,Carling,Lawlor,&Collins,2016).Nichollsandetal.s’(2019) research hasshown that analystsdo notonly implement PATs andproducePAdata,theyplayaconsiderableroleininfluencing coaches.Theserelationships,andthepowerwithinthem,playa centralroleintheinterpretationandcommunicationofdata. 3.3. Interpretationofperformancedata

WhenphysiologistsfirstengagedwithelitesportsinSweden inthe1950s,thegeneralbeliefwasthatscientificmeasurements would easilytransferintocoaches’decision-making.Elite cross-countryskiers’oxygenuptakemeasuredthroughbicycleergometer testingwas,forinstance,assumedreliabletouseforteamselection (Åstrand,1988).Suchinterpretationofdatawithoutpaying atten-tiontocontextistodayconsideredinappropriate,especiallygiven theever-growingpossibilitytocollectmoredetailedandsensitive dataandtheincreasingdemandtoindividualizetraining(Nicholls &Worsfold,2016).Indeed,PAscholarsagreethatthequantification oftrainingandperformanceshouldbecontextualizedinrelationto, forinstance,competitiveseason,matchandplaysituations,referee decisionsandimportantly,playerhealthandwellbeing(Mackenzie &Cushion,2013;Wrightetal.,2014).Further,anemerging chal-lengethatscientistshaveraisedistheproductionoflongitudinal data,ratherthansnapshotsofagiventrainingsessionormatch (Barnes,Archer,Hogg,Bush,&Bradley,2014;Bush,Barnes,Archer, Hogg,&Bradley,2015.

Lastly,achallengecouldbethattheinfluenceofthespecialist maybelimitedbecauseofthedifferentviewpointscoachesand specialistsworkfrom.Coachestendtorelyonexperiential,often intuitive,knowledge(Collins,Carsonetal.,2016;Collins,Collins etal.,2016);PATspecialistsworkfromthepremiseofscientific data.Asaconsequence,coachesarelikelytointerpretstatistical data usingtheirexperienceandcoaching philosophy(Ekstrand, Lundqvist,Davison,D’hooghe,&Pensgaard,2019).Whilethis inter-pretativestepisnecessaryandmakessense,problemscanoccur if specialistslack understandingofthecoaching processor the coachingphilosophyofthecoachtheyprovidedatafor,especiallyif timeconstraintslimitanalysts’abilitytopre-interpretdatatomake them‘consumable’forcoaches(Kohe&Purdy,2019;Luczaketal., 2020).Ofcourse,theoppositealsoapplies.Thecoaches’knowledge ofPATsandPAdata,orlackof,alsoinfluencesinterpretation.These risksposechallengingquestionsregardingeffectiveandequal com-munication,includingfeedbacktiming,frequencyandlength,and theapproachtodeliverinformation.

3.4. Communicationofperformancedata

Svensson(2019)hasshownthatasSwedishmen’selitefootball clubsgrewaroundtheturntothenewmillennium,andincreasingly employedmoreassistantandspecialistcoaches,communication betweenthedifferentlevels,sectionsandexpertpersonnelinthe cluborganizationbecameaproblem.Inshort,previous communi-cationsystems,whichweremostlybetweentheheadcoachand theplayers,becameinadequateforthelargeteamsconsistingof specialistsproducingvarioustypesofdatathroughPATs.Thelarge amountofdatacanindeedbeaproblem(Kohe&Purdy,2019). Forinstance,thetimenecessarytotestplayersandanalyzedatais extensiveandhasbeenfoundtonegativelyimpactthetime

avail-abletocommunicatewiththeplayers.Notknowingwhydatais collectedandwhatitisusedforcan,however,detrimentthe coach-playerandcoach/player-expertrelationships(Kohe&Purdy,2019; Wrightetal.,2014)andhaveanegativeeffectonmotivationand meaning(Denison,2007).Thisdirectsthefocustothe infrastruc-tureofcommunicationwithintheclubs.Isthereenoughtimeand spaceforcommunicationbetweenspecialists,coachesandplayers, andpossiblymanagers?WhatshouldthecommunicationofPAand PAdataentail?Whenandhowshouldthedatabecommunicated? Onthisnote,ManleyandWilliams(2019)stressthattheamount ofdataisnotnecessarilytheproblem.Rather,thechallengeisdata interpretation(aswehaveelaboratedabove)andcommunication betweenandacrosspersonnelandtheplayers.Datamaybe pro-ducedandinterpretedcorrectly,butifitisnotcommunicatedwith aviewtoensurehealth,well-beingandperformance,theeffects maybeorganizationalsurveillance(Manleyetal.,2012;Williams &Manley,2016).Examplesofsuchundesirablesurveillancecould bethecollectionofdataduringplayers’vacationandrehabilitation. WhilePATmobilityanddigitisationallowthis,thequestionofwhy becomespertinent.Similarly,althoughwerecognisethatthe mon-itoringofathletesisnotanewphenomenon,contemporaryPATs doproduceevermoreintrusiveandpersonaldata,aprocessthat thatcanresultinshame,destructiveself-correctionpractices(e.g., restrictivediets;additionaltrainingpractices;drugconsumption), andhealthproblemssuchasbodydissatisfactionandeating disor-ders(Manley&Williams,2019;McMahon&Barker-Ruchti,2017; Williams&Manley,2016).Certainly,PATsshouldnotincreasethe alreadyprecariouspositionplayersmaybein(Overbye,2018).

The inappropriate use and communication of data directs focustopowerrelationshipsbetweenPATexperts,coachesand managers,and experts/coaches/managers and athletes,and the communicationnecessarytoavoidenhancedanddetrimental dis-ciplinaryeffectsthatresearchhasidentified(Manley&Williams, 2019).PATspecialistsmaybewellequippedtovalidateanduse differenttechnologyto monitor,test and analyze performance, however,ifthetransparencysurroundingPAdataisnotprovided, anddataisusedtocontrolandmanipulateplayers, undesirable consequenceswillhaveamyriadofdetrimentaleffects.Oneisalso tomisinformcoaches’decision-making.

3.5. Decision-makingbasedonperformancedata

As illustrated above, a general belief in the past was that scientificmeasurementsproduced through,forinstance,bicycle ergometertesting would easilytransfer into coaches’ decision-making (Åstrand, 1988). Indeed, Peterson (1993) showed how Swedish men’s elite football coaches from the 1970s onwards selectedtheirteamsbasedondatafromphysiological tests.The declarativevalueofavailabledata,however,istodayunderstood nottoprovideguaranteesandcaninfactbewrongif interpreta-tion,communication,andreceptionarecompromised(Collinsetal., 2012;Kerr&Cooper,2020).Moreover,coachingliterature demon-stratesthatintuitionand ‘gutfeeling’are(still)important ways coachesinformtheirdecisions(Heroldetal.,2019;Luczaketal., 2020;Wrightetal.,2014,2016).Acoachmay,forinstance,select aplayerforthenextgameeventhoughdataindicatesthathe/she isnotrecoveredorisnursingpainoraninjury(Jones&Denison, 2018;Jones,Marshall,&Denison,2016).Similarly,adecisionmay bebasedonin-depthknowledgeofhowaplayer‘ticksbest’even thoughPATdataindicatessomethingelse.

Ourpointhereisnottoarguethatonenever oronlyshould basedecisionsonPATdata;itisaboutthenegotiationbetween dif-ferenttypesofdataanddifferenttypesofknowledge.Itiscrucial, forinstance,thatperformancedataisplacedincontext,suchas players’currentform,difficultyoffixturesplayedandreferee deci-sions(Kohe&Purdy,2019;Mackenzie&Cushion,2013;Wright

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etal.,2014).Theneedfornegotiationalsohighlightsthequestion ofpowerwithinthecoachingstaff.

3.6. InfluencesofPAToncoachesandathletes

Historical research demonstrates how theinfluence of PATs on playershasintensifiedover theyears. The focus duringthe 1960sand1970swasonplayers’physiology.Similartowhathad alreadybeenthecasefordecadesinendurancesports(Svensson, 2017; Svensson&Sörlin&other,2019; Bourne,2008), theidea thatplayersarelikemachineswithenginesthatcoachescantest andtune,becameincreasinglypopularinfootball.Gradually,the focusextended toincludetheplayers’tacticsandmentalstatus (Svensson,2019).Today,thefocusisontheindividualplayer, pro-ducingdataduringtrainingandcompetitions,andoutsideofsport onissuessuchasdietandsleep,acontrolthatistodaynotonly extensive,butproblematicasresearchhasshown.First,research indicatesthatathletesareconcernedwithhowcoachesusethedata todetermineselectionandplayingtime,andtomodify employ-mentcontracts(Williams&Manley,2016).InLuczaketal.s’(2020) study,someathletesappearedtobereluctanttotrustPATsandhow theirdatawerebeinghandled.Thisreluctanceisnotnew–itwas evidentalreadyintheearlystagesoftechnoscientificperformance analysisinsportwhenenduranceathletesrefusedtohandover theirtraininglogstophysiologistsortosubjectthemselvesto sci-entifictests(Svensson,2017;Svensson&Sörlin&other,2019).Like today,argumentsofpersonalintegritywereprovidedasreasonsfor beingreluctanttosharedata.

Second, recent literature points to the controlling and dis-ciplinary effects thatPATs have onathletes(Jones, 2019; Kohe &Purdy, 2019; Manley&Williams, 2019;Manley etal.,2012). Researchers’underlyingcritiqueisthatalthoughsport organiza-tionsandcoachesconsiderthesupervisionofathletesnecessary toensureperformancedevelopment,theextensivedaily monitor-ingmaybecounter-productivetowhattrainingandcoachingaims toachievebecauseitremovesagencyandcreates‘sociallyempty’ athletes(Denison,2007;Williams&Manley,2016).Scholarshave demonstrated, for instance,that coaches who useperformance datatothreatenandcoerceplayerstoadaptsocialandtraining behaviors mayshape athletesto becomedocile, a stateknown toincreaseself-criticism,ignoranceofhealthconcerns(e.g., con-tinuetotrain/playdespiteinjuries)anddevelopmentofstaleness towardstrainingandcompeting(Jonesetal.,2016;Markula,2006). The researchfurtherdemonstrates thattheseeffects cause ath-letestoexperienceanincreasedsenseofprecarity,whichmayforce themtocompromisetheirhealthandthusharmperformance.

Third, while PATscan be used explicitly and consciously to enforce disciplinary control, research has identified that some coachesareunawareofthedisciplinaryandcontrollingeffectsPATs haveonathletes(Kohe&Purdy,2019;Manley&Williams,2019). TheyappeartobeblindedbytheassumptionthatPATsandthe datatheyproducecreateaformofelevatedintelligencethatmakes accessible previouslyuntappedknowledge (Baerg, 2017).While PATsdoofcourseproduceknowledgeinnew(numerical)form, Collinsetal.(2012)writethatadangerofbuyingintothe quantifi-cationofmeasurablevariablesis‘theillusionofscientificcredibility andvaliditythatprovidesadegreeofauthoritytootherwise dubi-ousideas’(p.184;seeLuczaketal.,2020forasimilarargument). Indeed,thescientificallureofPATshavehistoricallycreatedafalse senseofsecuritythatusingtechnologyisthebestwaytocoachand trainathletes(Howe,2006;Rabinbach,1990;Svensson&Sörlin, 2019),atrendthatalsoappliestoothertechnologiesandsociety morebroadly(Mavalankar,1956).Unawarenessoftheinfluence PATshaveonathletesalsoraisesquestionsofprivacy,especially intheageofGDPR.Forinstance,shoulddatathatisproducedto enhanceperformance berepurposedtodisciplineathletes?Isit

acceptablethatathletehealthisbeingdeterminedbasedon mea-surablevariables withoutathletes’subjectiveinput?Isitethical toshareplayers’performancedatawiththepublic?Accordingto Baerg(2017),thepracticesthesequestionsrefertoareethically problematicbecausetheydonotensureathleteagency,privacy, andanonymity.Inasimilarvein,Kioussis(2018)questionswhether andhowPATscanconstituteaformofintellectualdoping.

Insum,thesixinterrelatedstepsoftheimplementationchainas shownaboveillustratethemultitudeofissuesthatthosewanting toinvestinPATsmustconsider.Consideringandmanagingonly oneorafewofthestepsislimitedinensuringeffective implemen-tationanduseofPATs.Allstepsmustbeconsideredwhenplanning toimplementPATs.Inthefollowinglastsectionofourarticle,we wishtooutlinethreerecommendationsthatwebelievecansupport sportmanagersandadministratorsindecidingfor,implementing, andgeneratingeffectiveoutputsfromPATs.Therecommendations relatetocompetence,time,andcommunication.

4. Recommendationstostakeholders

Ourfirstrecommendation,competence,focusesonthe knowl-edgethatthosesportclubsororganisationsaimingtoinvestin PATsshouldacquiretopreventthedetrimentaleffects that we haveshowntohaveonthesixstepsofimplementation.Svensson (2019)arguesthatasfootballclubshavegrowninsize,andthe coachingstaffhavemultipliedinnumbers,itisimportantforclub managementstoreflectandmakeconsciousdecisionsastowho shoulddowhatandwhatcompetencethedifferentrolesshould have.Onthisnotewerecommendclubmanagersand administra-tors,beforeinvestinginandimplementingPATs,tomakesureto haveemployedpersonnelwithrelevantknowledgeandexpertise (Martin,Swanton,Bradley,&McGrath,2018).Theyshouldknow thetypesoftechnologyandwhattypeofdatatheyproduce,and howto interpretand contextualize theinformation. Otherwise, investingintheemergingtechnologieswillbe“buyingapigina poke”.

Oursecondrecommendation,time,focusesonthevastamounts oftimethatPAusingPATsdemandsfromspecialists,coachesand athletes,andpossiblymanagersandadministrators.Staffmaybe verycompetentinimplementingPAandPATs,butiftimeislimited, theirabilitytomakeeffectiveuseoftheircompetencewillbe com-promised.Makingampletimeavailableforperformanceanalyststo communicatewithrelevantstakeholdersisparticularlyimportant. Webelievethatbyprioritizingeffectivecommunication,several oftheproblemsthatwehaveoutlinedabovecanbeminimizedor evenprevented.Forexample,ifcoachesandanalystshavetimeto communicatetoathleteswhydataiscollected,howitisinterpreted andaffectsdecisions,abuy-incanbecreatedandtheyarelikelyto becomelessdocile.Further,timeisalsoneededforcoaches, spe-cialists,andanalyststodiscusswhat thedifferenttypesofdata meanandwhatlong-andshort-termeffectstheycanandshould have.Thus,aneffectivecoach-analystrelationshipwherebyboth canandhaveampletimetocontributetheirviewsandknowledge withinanopenenvironmentisimportant.Putanotherway,as pos-sibilitiestogatherdatausingPATsincrease,sodoestheamountof timenecessarytoprocessthedata.Iftimeisconstrained,thensport managers,administrators,specialistsandcoachesshouldcarefully considerifinvestmentinneworadditionalPATsmakessense.

Ourthirdrecommendation,communication,focusesonthe pro-cessofPAandtherelationshipsbetweenthestakeholdersworking withandaffectedbyPATs(i.e.,specialists;coaches;athletes; man-agers;othersupportstaff).Aswithtime,staffmaybecompetent inPAandPATS,andhaveampletime,butiftheycannotdevelop effectivecommunicationsystemsandpractices,theirknowledge andinputmaynotbeimplementedasrequiredorwiththedesired effects.Groometal.’s(2011)writethatPAispresentlydepicted 5

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through‘simplisticflowchartsandschemas;oftenillustratedwith anunproblematicshiftfromperformance,observation,planning, trainingandpractice’(p.17).Theabovechainofimplementation stepshasshown, however,thatthePAprocessusingPATsgoes beyondsuchexistingmodelstoincludeprioritizationoffinances for PAandinfluenceoncoachesandathletes.While researchis limited regardingthebroadercontextualizationofPAandPATs, what can besaid regarding communicationis that allinvolved actors(e.g.,manager;coach;PATexperts;players)shouldshare a ‘mental model’that alignsthevalueof and beliefsin PAand PATs (Wright et al.,2014).If clearly communicated,the model shouldbuildtrustbetweentheactorsthatsharethementalmodel (Groometal.,2011).

OurreferencetoPATs’discipliningeffectsonplayers demon-strates the importance of a shared model. Communication of negativelyperceivedvaluessuchasweightgainandskinfold mea-suresdeemedhigherthanagivenstandard,especiallyifmadein public, hasbeenshowntohavefarreachingcounter-productive consequences, including decreased health and well-being, and motivation to train (Jones, 2019; Manley & Williams, 2019; Williams&Manley,2016).Thus,footballmanagers,coachesand PAT expertsmustcarefully considerwhat,how and whenthey should communicatewithplayers.Communicating thepurpose ofPATsandPATdata,aswellasinvolvingathletesindiscussing howPAanddatashouldbeusedtodeterminetheirtrainingisan importantstrategytopreventmanipulativecommunication, man-ager/coachcontrol,andathletedocility(Williams&Manley,2016). ThiscanreducefrustrationswithandfatigueofPATdataandoffer opportunitiestoactivelyparticipateindecisionsthataffect play-ersandfacilitatepersonalandathleticgrowing.Inthisregard,we recommendthatindividuallytailoredPAthatisbasedondetailed knowledgeofplayers’needsandpreferences,likehumanisticand athlete-centeredcoachingprinciples,offersimportantpotentialto preventtheblanketsurveillanceapproachthathasbeenevidenced bythemajorityofexistingcriticalsociologicalandPAliterature (Carlingetal.,2014;Groometal.,2011;Williams&Manley,2016; Wrightetal.,2014).In termsofcommunication,ascompetence andtime,suchanapproachisnotwithoutchallengesandcanbe demanding.However,tomaximizetheuseofPATs,weseethe individualapproachnecessary.

Insum,ourrecommendationsrelatingtocompetence,timeand communicationdemonstratetheirinterrelatedness.Withouttime, aplayer-centeredapproachtoPAisunlikelytobefruitful.Without therightcompetence,timeoraplayer-centeredapproacharefutile ifunreliablePATdataisbeingproduced.Thus,wepropose that competence,time,andcommunicationdonotonlyrequirecareful deliberation,buttherecommendationsmustalsobeimplemented intheirentiretytopreventthedetrimentaleffectsdocumentedin sociologicalliterature.

5. Conclusion

In the article,we have aimedtooutline key challengesand problems withPATs,usinghistorical,sociologicaland experien-tialknowledgeofPAandPATs,andtooutlinerecommendations astowhatsportmanagersandadministratorsmayneedto con-sider in order to avoid or at least manage the challenges and problemsidentified.Usingachainofsiximplementationsteps,we havedemonstratedwhateachofthestepsentailedhistoricallyand what theyinvolveintoday’scontextofPAand PATs.Toensure effectiveimplementationandpreventthedetrimentaleffects doc-umented in existing literature,we recommend that knowledge aboutPATs,extensivetimetoimplementPATsandmakeeffective useofPATdata,andproductivecommunicationbetweendifferent actors,mustbeputinplaceforinvestmentsinPATstobe worth-while.

Intermsofcontinuedscholarship,andasothershaveproposed (Wrightetal.,2014),werecommendthatfurtherappliedand/or case-basedresearchbeconductedtoprovidereal-lifeinsightinto the implementation, use, and effects of PATs. Certainly, such researchiscalledforin Swedenasatpresent, suchscholarship islimitedtohistoricalanalyses.Lastly,weseeaspecificneedin developingcoachandsportmanagementeducationthat incorpo-ratesthesixstepswehaveincludedinthechainofPAandPAT implementation(seeMartinetal.,2018forasimilarargument). InSweden,thisneedisparticularlypertinentascoacheducation islimitedbycompartmentalizedPA/PATandpedagogy/sociology courses.CoacheducationthatintegratesthetechnicalaspectsofPA andPATs,criticalknowledgeonPAandPATsaswehavepresented inthisarticle,andtheissuesofcompetence,timeand communi-cationwouldinourviewgoalongwaytopreventthenegative consequencesresearchhasdocumented.Thesamegoesforsport managementeducation,asitisamanagementissuetoprovidefor relevantcompetence,time,andcommunicationwithinsportclubs.

CRediTauthorshipcontributionstatement

NatalieBarker-Ruchti,RobertSvensson,DanielSvenssonand

DanFransson:contributedtothecollationof data,writingthe

manuscript.NatalieBarker-Ruchti:conceptualisedtheresearch area.

DeclarationofCompetingInterest

Theauthorsofthemanuscript‘Don’tbuyapiginapoke: Con-sideringchallenges of and problemswithperformance analysis technologiesinSwedishmen’selitefootball’havenoconflictof interesttoreport.

Acknowledgments

Wethankthereviewersfortheirconstructiveandguiding feed-back.Wearealsogratefulforthecommentswereceivedfromthe researchgroupReShape.

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