ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirect
Performance
Enhancement
&
Health
j o ur na l h o me pa g e :w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / p e h
Don’t
buy
a
pig
in
a
poke:
Considering
challenges
of
and
problems
with
performance
analysis
technologies
in
Swedish
men’s
elite
football
Natalie
Barker-Ruchti
a,∗,
Robert
Svensson
a,
Daniel
Svensson
b,
Dan
Fransson
caSchoolofHealthSciences,ÖrebroUniversity,Örebro,Sweden
bDepartmentofSportSciences,FacultyofEducationandSociety,MalmöUniversity,Malmö,Sweden
cCenterofHealthandPerformance,DepartmentofFoodandNutritionandSportScience.UniversityofGothenburg,Gothenburg,Sweden
a
r
t
i
c
l
e
i
n
f
o
Articlehistory:Received15December2020
Receivedinrevisedform17March2021 Accepted16April2021
Availableonline11May2021 Keywords: Performanceanalysis Soccer Competence Time Communication
a
b
s
t
r
a
c
t
Duringthelastdecades,technologiestomonitor,testandanalyzeathletes’performanceandhealth haverapidlydeveloped.Atpresent,globalpositioningsystems(GPS),stadiumcamcorders,heartrate monitorsandmobileapplicationsareprominentperformanceanalysistechnologies(PATs)usedinmost elitesportenvironments.WhilePATsisunderstoodasanaid,thereisagrowingbodyofliteraturethat pointstonegativeconsequences.Thesenegativeconsequencesareconcerningandcallforresearchand measurestodevelopstrategiesforeffectiveandproductiveimplementation.Toachievethis,thisarticle firstoutlineskeychallengesandproblemsofPATs,usingsportsociologicalresearchoncoachingand athletes,historicalknowledgeofthescientizationoftrainingandthechangingroleofthecoach,aswell asscientificandexperientialknowledgeofperformanceanalysis.Ourfindingsshowthatkeychallenges andproblemsoccurinachainofsixstepsthatconcerntheimplementingofPATs:1.Investmentin PATs;2.Productionofperformancedata;3.Interpretationofperformancedata;4.Communicationof performancedata;5.Decision-makingbasedonperformancedata;and6.InfluenceofPATsoncoaches andathletes.Thearticlethenanswersthesechallengesandproblemsbyoutliningrecommendationsfor howsportmanagersandadministratorscanpreventbuying“apiginapoke”byacquiringcompetence aboutperformanceanalysisandPATs,investingtime,anddevelopingeffectivecommunicationbetween thoseworkingwithPATs.
©2021TheAuthor(s).PublishedbyElsevierLtd.ThisisanopenaccessarticleundertheCCBY-NC-ND license(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Contents
1. Introduction...2
2. Researchprocedureandstudycontext...2
2.1. Currenttechno-situationinSwedishmen’selitefootball...3
3. ChallengesandproblemswhileimplementingPATs...3
3.1. InvestmentinPATs...3
3.2. Productionofperformancedata ... 3
3.3. Interpretationofperformancedata...4
3.4. Communicationofperformancedata...4
3.5. Decision-makingbasedonperformancedata ... 4
3.6. InfluencesofPAToncoachesandathletes...5
4. Recommendationstostakeholders...5
∗ Correspondingauthorat:SchoolofHealthSciences,ÖrebroUniversity,70182 Örebro,Sweden.
E-mailaddress:Natalie.barker-ruchti@oru.se(N.Barker-Ruchti). Twitter:@barkerruchti(N.Barker-Ruchti).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2021.100191
2211-2669/©2021TheAuthor(s).PublishedbyElsevierLtd.ThisisanopenaccessarticleundertheCCBY-NC-NDlicense(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ 4.0/).
5. Conclusion...6
CRediTauthorshipcontributionstatement...6
Acknowledgments...6
References...6
1. Introduction
Performanceanalysis(PA)playsa keyroleinenhancing ath-leticperformance.Whilecoachesofthepastreliedonthenaked eyetoassessandtraintheirathletes,today’smanyperformance analysis technologies (PATs) significantly shape training prac-tices andthesportcoachingprocess(Carling,Wright,Nelson,& Bradley, 2014; Groom, Cushion, & Nelson, 2011; Mackenzie & Cushion, 2013; Nicholls, James, Bryant, & Wells, 2018; Rein & Memmert,2016;Wright,Carling,&Collins,2014;Wright,Atkins, &Jones,2012;Wright,2015).Ineconomicallystrongsporting con-texts suchasfootball (soccer)in theUK andAmerican football in theUS,PATsareparticularlyintegral.In suchcontexts,large teamsconsistingofvariousexperts-assistantcoaches,strength andconditioningcoaches,playerposition-specificcoaches,match andvideo/tacticalanalysts,anddoctors,nutritionists, physiothera-pistsandpsychologists-employglobalpositioningsystems(GPS), wearablemicro-technologysensors,video-andcomputer-assisted performanceanalysis,andmobileapplicationstogeneratedataon physiologicalandkinematicparameters(e.g.,distancecoveredina match;numberofandspeedofacceleration),playingtactics,and healthandwellbeingvariables(e.g.,anxiety;sleep;weight).Mostof thesemeasurementsareproducedonadailyand/orweeklybasis and requireelaborateand time-consumingspecialist processing beforetheycanbecommunicatedtoheadcoaches,sportmanagers andclubdirectors,whointurnutilizetheinformationtodecideon anddevelopindividualandgrouptrainingtasks,playerselection, andmatchplaystrategies.
ResearchontheimpactofPATsontrainingandthecoaching process,aswellascoachesandathletes,indicatesbothpositive andnegativeeffects.PATshavebeenshowntoenhancecoaching effectiveness,thecoach-athleterelationship,andathletes’safety andtraining behaviors(Butterworth,Turner,&Johnstone,2012; Francis&Jones,2014;Groom etal.,2011;Jones&Hemmestad, 2019; Wrightet al., 2014).The literature outlining these posi-tiveeffects,however,appearsmodestagainstthebackdropofthe conceptualinconsistencies,methodologicalshortcomings,ethical concerns,inequalities,practicalchallenges,andproblematic con-sequencesthatscholarshaveidentified(Baerg,2017;Carlingetal., 2014; Groom etal., 2011;Kioussis,2018; Kohe& Purdy,2019; Luczak,Burch,Lewis,Chander,&Ball,2020;Mackenzie&Cushion, 2013;Manley,Palmer,&Roderick,2012;Williams&Manley,2016; Wrightetal.,2014).Duetothepredictedexponentialgrowthof PATs,these limitationsand negativeconsequences arelikely to increase and call for researchand measures todevelop strate-giesfor effectiveand productiveimplementation(Luczaket al., 2020).Nicholls andcolleagues’(2019)callformulti-disciplinary approaches appearsparticularlyrelevanttoadvanceour under-standingofPAandtheeffectsthattheuseofPATshaveontraining andcoaching,andcoachesandathletes(Wrightetal.,2012).
Thispaperaimstobeananswertothis call.Co-authoredby researchersinsportsociology,sporthistoryand applied perfor-manceanalysis,theoverarchingpurposeofthepaperistoprovide sport managersand administrators aiming to,or workingwith PATs, with recommendations for the implementation of PATs. Specifically,ourfirstaimistooutlinechallengesandproblemsthat ourcollatedexpertisehaveshowntotroublePA.Basedonthis com-pilationofchallengesandproblems,oursecondaimistodevelop recommendationsforhowsportmanagersandadministratorsmay
needtoapproachPAtoavoidoratleastmanagethenegativeeffects ofPATsthatexistingresearchandexperiencehasidentified.
Toachieve ourtwo aims, we useSwedish men’s elite foot-ball as a case study. Swedish men’s elite football hasrecently startedto investin newforms of technologies, undoubtedlyto adapttothecontemporarylandscapeoftechnologyinthissport. Ourobservationsare,however,thatsomeinvestmentsinPATsare poorlyinformedandthuspronetoresultinthenegativeeffects theexistingliteraturehasidentified.We thusfeelthatcollating thechallengesandproblemsidentifiedinresearchandproviding recommendationsforeffectiveandproductiveimplementationof PATsisusefulandtimely,bothforprofessionalfootballand elite-levelteamsportmanagersandadministrators.Investingin(new) technologiesistodayanincreasinglycommonpractice(Claudino etal.,2019),andalthoughwerecognizethatchallengesand prob-lemsrelatingtoPATsandtheirimplementationarelikelytodiffer betweensports,as PATsand othertechnologiesare developing quicklyanditsimplicationsremainpoorlyunderstood,the ques-tionsweraiseandtherecommendationswedevelophavepotential forsportsettingsbeyondSwedishmen’sfootball.Inwhatfollows, wefirstsketchtheresearchprocedureweadoptedforthispaper anddescribethecurrenttechno-situationinSwedishmen’selite football. Thiswill be followed by the main part of the article, thesociological,historical, andexperientialknowledge on chal-lengesandproblemsthattroubletheimplementationofPATs.The remainingtwosectionsoutlinerecommendationsforeffectiveand productivePAandsummarizethecontributionourresearchmakes.
2. Researchprocedureandstudycontext
Theresearchconductedforthisarticlefollowedan interdisci-plinaryresearchprocess(Hausken-Sutter,Pringle,Schubring,Grau, &Barker-Ruchti,2021;Repko&Szostak,2016).Insuchresearch, thetwokeyresearchphasesaretocollatedisciplinaryknowledge tofind‘commonground’andtointegrateknowledgetoconstruct morecomprehensiveunderstanding.To achieve thesetwo out-comes,weconductedthreescientificsteps.First,eachco-author draftedatexttorepresenttheirdisciplinaryexpertiserelatingtoPA knowledgeintheelitesportcontext.Author1turnedtosociological andcoachingresearchtoidentifybenefits,scientificlimitationsand problematicconsequencesofPATs;author2andauthor3turnedto theirhistoricalresearchtoexplainthechangingroleoftheSwedish men’selitesoccercoachfromthe1960sto2010s,andthe scienti-sationofendurancesportinSwedensincethe1930srespectively (Svensson, 2019; Svensson,2018);and Fransson, 2018a;2018b turnedtohismatch analysisresearchand performance analyst experienceinSwedishmen’selitefootballclubstodeterminethe statusquoofPATsandPApracticesinSwedishmen’selite foot-ball(Franssonetal.,2018a;2018b).Throughseveralmeetings,we familiarizedourselveswithourrespectivedisciplinaryand expe-rientialknowledge andprobedone anothertounderstandhow technologicaldevelopmentand PATshaveshaped,and continue toaffect,therole ofthecoach,coaching andtraining practices, andathletes.Throughoutthesediscussions,author1andauthor4’s coacheducationandauthor4’sappliedPAexperiencesadded con-textualinformationonthecurrentstateofPATsinSwedishmen’s elitefootball.Second,andtocreate‘commonground’fromthe dis-ciplinaryexpertiseweeachprovided,wezoomedintothecaseof
Swedishmen’selitefootballtoidentifychallengesandproblems theimplementationofPATscreate.Aspartofthisstep,wenoticed that thechallenges andproblems relatedtodifferentphases of investmentinandimplementationofPATs.Thus,weallocatedthe challengesandproblemstoachainofsixinterrelated implemen-tationsteps:1.InvestmentinPATs;2.Productionofperformance data;3.Interpretationofperformancedata;4.Communicationof performancedata;5.Decision-makingbasedonperformancedata; and6.InfluenceofPATsoncoachesandathletes.Third,andlastly, tointegrate thefindings,we discussedhow thechallengesand problemsidentifiedinstep2couldbemanagedtoavoidthe neg-ativeeffectsthattroublePA.Theimplicationswepresentinthe conclusionrepresentthecomprehensiveunderstandingthat inter-disciplinaryscholarsarguesuchresearchcangenerate.
2.1. Currenttechno-situationinSwedishmen’selitefootball Inmen’selitefootball,itistheclubsofthebigEuropeanleagues thathavebeenleadingthecurrentPAlandscapeduringthelast decade.InSweden,arguablyduetoalackofeconomicresources, clubshaveonlyinthepastfewyearsstartedtoinvestinPATs.The implementationhas,however,beenrapidandextensive.Injustfive years,thenumberoffirstdivisionmen’sfootballteams employ-ingGPStechnologyhasincreasedfrom2to11,outof16teams. Fouroftheseclubsworktodaywithmorethanonesystemand areimplementingthemwithincreasinglyyoungerteams(e.g.,U19 teams).Additionaldigitaltechnologies,suchasautomatedcamera systemsandmobileapplicationsthatproducedataonwell-being andnutrition,arealsobeingpurchased.
Asa consequenceoftheimplementationofnewtechnology, wehaveobservedthatSwedishmen’selitefootballclubs,asclubs elsewhere,havehadtoemployadditionalstafftoassistthecoach, suchassportscientists,tacticalanalysts,andotherstatistical ana-lysts(forsimilarevidenceintheUK,seeKohe&Purdy,2019).This extension ofcoachingteamshasalsodemandednew organiza-tionalrolesandresponsibilities.Theterm‘coach’,forinstance,has inmanycasesbeenreplacedby‘manager’,whoserolehasmovedto managingacoachingteamandmakingdecisionsbasedonthe pre-interpretedinformation thatexpertpersonnelpreparebasedon thedatatheimplementedPATsgenerate(Svensson,2019).A fur-thersignoftherapidchangeduetoPATsistheboostSwedishsport scienceresearchhasexperiencedinthepastfiveyears(Fransson etal.,2018a;2018b;Sæterbakkenetal.,2019).Asaresultofthis research,separateundergraduatedegreecoursesintrainingand match-analysis arenow beingoffered.Thesecourses are popu-lar,mainlywiththoseworkinginfootballorganisationsassport scientists,fitnesscoaches,andamateurandprofessionalcoaches.
Insum,Swedishmen’selitefootballPApracticeisdigitalizing fast.Whilethismaybenefitcoachesandathletes,andperformance, wealsoobservechallengesandproblemsthatwebelieveshould andcanbeprevented.Below,followingthesixinterrelated imple-mentationstepsoutlinedabove,wedemonstratewhattheyentail.
3. ChallengesandproblemswhileimplementingPATs
3.1. InvestmentinPATs
Untilthemiddleofthe20thCentury,Sweden’sfootballclubs did not (need to) investin PATs, basicallybecause technology wasnon-existing.Thereafter,PAonplayers’physicaldimensions becameoutsourced,mainlybecauseexercisescienceresearchhad emerged, andthenecessarytechnologywasbecomingavailable at thethen RoyalCentral Instituteof Gymnastics in Stockholm (Svensson,2019;Svensson,2017).Consequently,thelaboratoryat thatinstitutebecamean‘obligatorypassagepoint’forthose aim-ingforacareerinelitesports(Svensson&Sörlin&other,2019).
Gradually,particularlysincethedigitizationofthe1990s,football organizationsandclubshavebeguntoimplementPATsthemselves, onsite. Forexample,intheearly2000s,theheart ratemonitor wasintroducedasatooltocontrolandgoverntheplayers’ individ-ualinternalworkloadduringtraining(Svensson,2019).Therapid increaseoffirstdivisionSwedishmen’sfootballteamsemploying GPStechnologyisanotherexample.
However,theincreasedavailabilityofPATs,oftencoupledwith PAT companies’ aggressivemarketing strategies, does not only pressurefootballclubstoinvestinsuchtechnology,italsorequires thoseaimingtoinvestinPATstohaverelevantknowledgetoassess differencesinproductquality(Luczaketal.,2020).Forinstance, stakeholdersmustunderstandissuesofvalidityandreliabilityas themeasuresGPSsystemscollectdifferinaccuracybecauseof dif-ferentdatachips,filters,anddata-processingalgorithmsbuiltinto theirhard-andsoftware(Malone,Lovell,Varley,&Coutts,2017). Validityandreliabilityisfurtheraffectedbythenumberofsatellites connectedtotheGPSunitduringmeasurement(Witte&Wilson, 2004), real-time versus post session measurements (Aughey & Falloon,2010),andminimumeffortdurationsettings(Maloneetal., 2017).Investors,asspecialistsand coaches,needtounderstand thattheabove-mentionedfactorsinfluencedatacollectionandthe qualityofPATdata.
ChallengesregardingrelevantknowledgeaboutPATsand prob-lemsregardingvalidityandreliabilityareparticularlyimportant againstthe backdrop ofthe limited budgetsthatSwedish (and arguablymanyothercountries’)elitemen’sfootballclubshave. Financial limitations are likely to require (re-)prioritization of money,whichmaydisadvantageareasthatalsoneedtoreceive funding. In Sweden, a consequence may be that the financ-ing of PATs in men’s elite football will (further) disadvantage activitiesalready receivinglessfunding(e.g.,girls/women’sand participation/non-elitefootball)(Ericsson&Horgby,2020;Hjelm &Olofsson,2003).Indeed,Baerg(2017)arguesthatPATscreatea digitaldivide,whichlikelyenhancesexistinginequalitiesbetween sportingcontextsandnations.PressuretoinvestinPATsremains highthough,andmayhaveparticularlydisadvantageous conse-quences, especially in present COVID-19 affected football club budgets.
3.2. Productionofperformancedata
WhenPAwasintroducedinSwedishmen’selitefootball dur-ingthe1960sand1970s,exercisescientistsproducedperformance data(Svensson,2019;Peterson,1989).Whilecoachesdidcarryout somesimpletests,thebulkofdatacollectionwascontrolledby scientists,withathletesattendinglaboratoriestesting(Svensson, 2019; Svensson,2017; Yttergren, 2012).On theone hand, this outsourcingof PA ensuredthehighest-levelquality ofresearch availableatthetime.Ontheother,astestingoccurredin artifi-cialsettings,amajorproblemwasthatthetestscouldnotprovide real-lifedata.Inaddition,thescientificpurposeatthetimewasnot toenhanceathleticperformance,buttogainknowledgeonhowthe bodyfunctionsduringextensivephysicalactivity(Svensson,2013; Schantz,2015).Inthissense,itwasapotentialand,insomecases, alsoactualconflictregardingthereasontoproducedata(Svensson, 2017;Day&Carpenter,2015;Yttergren,2012).
AtpresentandasshowninthesectiononinvestmentinPATs, theproduction ofdatais doneonsite,by clubstaff.While this solvessomeoftheearlierproblemsfacedbecauseoftestingtaking placeinlaboratories,ithascreatednewchallenges.Forinstance, somescholarsarguethatPATsmayonlybeabletomeasurewhat ismeasurableandnotnecessarilywhatisbestforplayers’ learn-ingandperformance(Mackenzie&Cushion,2013;Wrightetal., 2014).Further,researchwarnsfromasolefocusonvariablesthat quantifyand reducetheathlete toadataset(Collins,Carson,& 3
Toner,2016;Collins,Collins,&Carson,2016;Kerr&Cooper,2020; Williams&Manley,2016).Quantifiabledatamaybeinformative andpositivelyaffectathletehealthandtrainingbehavior,however, athletic successreliesonmanysocial (e.g.,trusting relationship with coaches)and serendipitous factors(e.g.,freak injury) that cannot bemeasuredandquantified(Luczaketal.,2020).Lastly, withtheimplementationofPATs,additionalexpertshavecome to play integral roles in coaching teams(Nicholls et al., 2019; Wright,Carling,Lawlor,&Collins,2016).Nichollsandetal.s’(2019) research hasshown that analystsdo notonly implement PATs andproducePAdata,theyplayaconsiderableroleininfluencing coaches.Theserelationships,andthepowerwithinthem,playa centralroleintheinterpretationandcommunicationofdata. 3.3. Interpretationofperformancedata
WhenphysiologistsfirstengagedwithelitesportsinSweden inthe1950s,thegeneralbeliefwasthatscientificmeasurements would easilytransferintocoaches’decision-making.Elite cross-countryskiers’oxygenuptakemeasuredthroughbicycleergometer testingwas,forinstance,assumedreliabletouseforteamselection (Åstrand,1988).Suchinterpretationofdatawithoutpaying atten-tiontocontextistodayconsideredinappropriate,especiallygiven theever-growingpossibilitytocollectmoredetailedandsensitive dataandtheincreasingdemandtoindividualizetraining(Nicholls &Worsfold,2016).Indeed,PAscholarsagreethatthequantification oftrainingandperformanceshouldbecontextualizedinrelationto, forinstance,competitiveseason,matchandplaysituations,referee decisionsandimportantly,playerhealthandwellbeing(Mackenzie &Cushion,2013;Wrightetal.,2014).Further,anemerging chal-lengethatscientistshaveraisedistheproductionoflongitudinal data,ratherthansnapshotsofagiventrainingsessionormatch (Barnes,Archer,Hogg,Bush,&Bradley,2014;Bush,Barnes,Archer, Hogg,&Bradley,2015.
Lastly,achallengecouldbethattheinfluenceofthespecialist maybelimitedbecauseofthedifferentviewpointscoachesand specialistsworkfrom.Coachestendtorelyonexperiential,often intuitive,knowledge(Collins,Carsonetal.,2016;Collins,Collins etal.,2016);PATspecialistsworkfromthepremiseofscientific data.Asaconsequence,coachesarelikelytointerpretstatistical data usingtheirexperienceandcoaching philosophy(Ekstrand, Lundqvist,Davison,D’hooghe,&Pensgaard,2019).Whilethis inter-pretativestepisnecessaryandmakessense,problemscanoccur if specialistslack understandingofthecoaching processor the coachingphilosophyofthecoachtheyprovidedatafor,especiallyif timeconstraintslimitanalysts’abilitytopre-interpretdatatomake them‘consumable’forcoaches(Kohe&Purdy,2019;Luczaketal., 2020).Ofcourse,theoppositealsoapplies.Thecoaches’knowledge ofPATsandPAdata,orlackof,alsoinfluencesinterpretation.These risksposechallengingquestionsregardingeffectiveandequal com-munication,includingfeedbacktiming,frequencyandlength,and theapproachtodeliverinformation.
3.4. Communicationofperformancedata
Svensson(2019)hasshownthatasSwedishmen’selitefootball clubsgrewaroundtheturntothenewmillennium,andincreasingly employedmoreassistantandspecialistcoaches,communication betweenthedifferentlevels,sectionsandexpertpersonnelinthe cluborganizationbecameaproblem.Inshort,previous communi-cationsystems,whichweremostlybetweentheheadcoachand theplayers,becameinadequateforthelargeteamsconsistingof specialistsproducingvarioustypesofdatathroughPATs.Thelarge amountofdatacanindeedbeaproblem(Kohe&Purdy,2019). Forinstance,thetimenecessarytotestplayersandanalyzedatais extensiveandhasbeenfoundtonegativelyimpactthetime
avail-abletocommunicatewiththeplayers.Notknowingwhydatais collectedandwhatitisusedforcan,however,detrimentthe coach-playerandcoach/player-expertrelationships(Kohe&Purdy,2019; Wrightetal.,2014)andhaveanegativeeffectonmotivationand meaning(Denison,2007).Thisdirectsthefocustothe infrastruc-tureofcommunicationwithintheclubs.Isthereenoughtimeand spaceforcommunicationbetweenspecialists,coachesandplayers, andpossiblymanagers?WhatshouldthecommunicationofPAand PAdataentail?Whenandhowshouldthedatabecommunicated? Onthisnote,ManleyandWilliams(2019)stressthattheamount ofdataisnotnecessarilytheproblem.Rather,thechallengeisdata interpretation(aswehaveelaboratedabove)andcommunication betweenandacrosspersonnelandtheplayers.Datamaybe pro-ducedandinterpretedcorrectly,butifitisnotcommunicatedwith aviewtoensurehealth,well-beingandperformance,theeffects maybeorganizationalsurveillance(Manleyetal.,2012;Williams &Manley,2016).Examplesofsuchundesirablesurveillancecould bethecollectionofdataduringplayers’vacationandrehabilitation. WhilePATmobilityanddigitisationallowthis,thequestionofwhy becomespertinent.Similarly,althoughwerecognisethatthe mon-itoringofathletesisnotanewphenomenon,contemporaryPATs doproduceevermoreintrusiveandpersonaldata,aprocessthat thatcanresultinshame,destructiveself-correctionpractices(e.g., restrictivediets;additionaltrainingpractices;drugconsumption), andhealthproblemssuchasbodydissatisfactionandeating disor-ders(Manley&Williams,2019;McMahon&Barker-Ruchti,2017; Williams&Manley,2016).Certainly,PATsshouldnotincreasethe alreadyprecariouspositionplayersmaybein(Overbye,2018).
The inappropriate use and communication of data directs focustopowerrelationshipsbetweenPATexperts,coachesand managers,and experts/coaches/managers and athletes,and the communicationnecessarytoavoidenhancedanddetrimental dis-ciplinaryeffectsthatresearchhasidentified(Manley&Williams, 2019).PATspecialistsmaybewellequippedtovalidateanduse differenttechnologyto monitor,test and analyze performance, however,ifthetransparencysurroundingPAdataisnotprovided, anddataisusedtocontrolandmanipulateplayers, undesirable consequenceswillhaveamyriadofdetrimentaleffects.Oneisalso tomisinformcoaches’decision-making.
3.5. Decision-makingbasedonperformancedata
As illustrated above, a general belief in the past was that scientificmeasurementsproduced through,forinstance,bicycle ergometertesting would easilytransfer into coaches’ decision-making (Åstrand, 1988). Indeed, Peterson (1993) showed how Swedish men’s elite football coaches from the 1970s onwards selectedtheirteamsbasedondatafromphysiological tests.The declarativevalueofavailabledata,however,istodayunderstood nottoprovideguaranteesandcaninfactbewrongif interpreta-tion,communication,andreceptionarecompromised(Collinsetal., 2012;Kerr&Cooper,2020).Moreover,coachingliterature demon-stratesthatintuitionand ‘gutfeeling’are(still)important ways coachesinformtheirdecisions(Heroldetal.,2019;Luczaketal., 2020;Wrightetal.,2014,2016).Acoachmay,forinstance,select aplayerforthenextgameeventhoughdataindicatesthathe/she isnotrecoveredorisnursingpainoraninjury(Jones&Denison, 2018;Jones,Marshall,&Denison,2016).Similarly,adecisionmay bebasedonin-depthknowledgeofhowaplayer‘ticksbest’even thoughPATdataindicatessomethingelse.
Ourpointhereisnottoarguethatonenever oronlyshould basedecisionsonPATdata;itisaboutthenegotiationbetween dif-ferenttypesofdataanddifferenttypesofknowledge.Itiscrucial, forinstance,thatperformancedataisplacedincontext,suchas players’currentform,difficultyoffixturesplayedandreferee deci-sions(Kohe&Purdy,2019;Mackenzie&Cushion,2013;Wright
etal.,2014).Theneedfornegotiationalsohighlightsthequestion ofpowerwithinthecoachingstaff.
3.6. InfluencesofPAToncoachesandathletes
Historical research demonstrates how theinfluence of PATs on playershasintensifiedover theyears. The focus duringthe 1960sand1970swasonplayers’physiology.Similartowhathad alreadybeenthecasefordecadesinendurancesports(Svensson, 2017; Svensson&Sörlin&other,2019; Bourne,2008), theidea thatplayersarelikemachineswithenginesthatcoachescantest andtune,becameincreasinglypopularinfootball.Gradually,the focusextended toincludetheplayers’tacticsandmentalstatus (Svensson,2019).Today,thefocusisontheindividualplayer, pro-ducingdataduringtrainingandcompetitions,andoutsideofsport onissuessuchasdietandsleep,acontrolthatistodaynotonly extensive,butproblematicasresearchhasshown.First,research indicatesthatathletesareconcernedwithhowcoachesusethedata todetermineselectionandplayingtime,andtomodify employ-mentcontracts(Williams&Manley,2016).InLuczaketal.s’(2020) study,someathletesappearedtobereluctanttotrustPATsandhow theirdatawerebeinghandled.Thisreluctanceisnotnew–itwas evidentalreadyintheearlystagesoftechnoscientificperformance analysisinsportwhenenduranceathletesrefusedtohandover theirtraininglogstophysiologistsortosubjectthemselvesto sci-entifictests(Svensson,2017;Svensson&Sörlin&other,2019).Like today,argumentsofpersonalintegritywereprovidedasreasonsfor beingreluctanttosharedata.
Second, recent literature points to the controlling and dis-ciplinary effects thatPATs have onathletes(Jones, 2019; Kohe &Purdy, 2019; Manley&Williams, 2019;Manley etal.,2012). Researchers’underlyingcritiqueisthatalthoughsport organiza-tionsandcoachesconsiderthesupervisionofathletesnecessary toensureperformancedevelopment,theextensivedaily monitor-ingmaybecounter-productivetowhattrainingandcoachingaims toachievebecauseitremovesagencyandcreates‘sociallyempty’ athletes(Denison,2007;Williams&Manley,2016).Scholarshave demonstrated, for instance,that coaches who useperformance datatothreatenandcoerceplayerstoadaptsocialandtraining behaviors mayshape athletesto becomedocile, a stateknown toincreaseself-criticism,ignoranceofhealthconcerns(e.g., con-tinuetotrain/playdespiteinjuries)anddevelopmentofstaleness towardstrainingandcompeting(Jonesetal.,2016;Markula,2006). The researchfurtherdemonstrates thattheseeffects cause ath-letestoexperienceanincreasedsenseofprecarity,whichmayforce themtocompromisetheirhealthandthusharmperformance.
Third, while PATscan be used explicitly and consciously to enforce disciplinary control, research has identified that some coachesareunawareofthedisciplinaryandcontrollingeffectsPATs haveonathletes(Kohe&Purdy,2019;Manley&Williams,2019). TheyappeartobeblindedbytheassumptionthatPATsandthe datatheyproducecreateaformofelevatedintelligencethatmakes accessible previouslyuntappedknowledge (Baerg, 2017).While PATsdoofcourseproduceknowledgeinnew(numerical)form, Collinsetal.(2012)writethatadangerofbuyingintothe quantifi-cationofmeasurablevariablesis‘theillusionofscientificcredibility andvaliditythatprovidesadegreeofauthoritytootherwise dubi-ousideas’(p.184;seeLuczaketal.,2020forasimilarargument). Indeed,thescientificallureofPATshavehistoricallycreatedafalse senseofsecuritythatusingtechnologyisthebestwaytocoachand trainathletes(Howe,2006;Rabinbach,1990;Svensson&Sörlin, 2019),atrendthatalsoappliestoothertechnologiesandsociety morebroadly(Mavalankar,1956).Unawarenessoftheinfluence PATshaveonathletesalsoraisesquestionsofprivacy,especially intheageofGDPR.Forinstance,shoulddatathatisproducedto enhanceperformance berepurposedtodisciplineathletes?Isit
acceptablethatathletehealthisbeingdeterminedbasedon mea-surablevariables withoutathletes’subjectiveinput?Isitethical toshareplayers’performancedatawiththepublic?Accordingto Baerg(2017),thepracticesthesequestionsrefertoareethically problematicbecausetheydonotensureathleteagency,privacy, andanonymity.Inasimilarvein,Kioussis(2018)questionswhether andhowPATscanconstituteaformofintellectualdoping.
Insum,thesixinterrelatedstepsoftheimplementationchainas shownaboveillustratethemultitudeofissuesthatthosewanting toinvestinPATsmustconsider.Consideringandmanagingonly oneorafewofthestepsislimitedinensuringeffective implemen-tationanduseofPATs.Allstepsmustbeconsideredwhenplanning toimplementPATs.Inthefollowinglastsectionofourarticle,we wishtooutlinethreerecommendationsthatwebelievecansupport sportmanagersandadministratorsindecidingfor,implementing, andgeneratingeffectiveoutputsfromPATs.Therecommendations relatetocompetence,time,andcommunication.
4. Recommendationstostakeholders
Ourfirstrecommendation,competence,focusesonthe knowl-edgethatthosesportclubsororganisationsaimingtoinvestin PATsshouldacquiretopreventthedetrimentaleffects that we haveshowntohaveonthesixstepsofimplementation.Svensson (2019)arguesthatasfootballclubshavegrowninsize,andthe coachingstaffhavemultipliedinnumbers,itisimportantforclub managementstoreflectandmakeconsciousdecisionsastowho shoulddowhatandwhatcompetencethedifferentrolesshould have.Onthisnotewerecommendclubmanagersand administra-tors,beforeinvestinginandimplementingPATs,tomakesureto haveemployedpersonnelwithrelevantknowledgeandexpertise (Martin,Swanton,Bradley,&McGrath,2018).Theyshouldknow thetypesoftechnologyandwhattypeofdatatheyproduce,and howto interpretand contextualize theinformation. Otherwise, investingintheemergingtechnologieswillbe“buyingapigina poke”.
Oursecondrecommendation,time,focusesonthevastamounts oftimethatPAusingPATsdemandsfromspecialists,coachesand athletes,andpossiblymanagersandadministrators.Staffmaybe verycompetentinimplementingPAandPATs,butiftimeislimited, theirabilitytomakeeffectiveuseoftheircompetencewillbe com-promised.Makingampletimeavailableforperformanceanalyststo communicatewithrelevantstakeholdersisparticularlyimportant. Webelievethatbyprioritizingeffectivecommunication,several oftheproblemsthatwehaveoutlinedabovecanbeminimizedor evenprevented.Forexample,ifcoachesandanalystshavetimeto communicatetoathleteswhydataiscollected,howitisinterpreted andaffectsdecisions,abuy-incanbecreatedandtheyarelikelyto becomelessdocile.Further,timeisalsoneededforcoaches, spe-cialists,andanalyststodiscusswhat thedifferenttypesofdata meanandwhatlong-andshort-termeffectstheycanandshould have.Thus,aneffectivecoach-analystrelationshipwherebyboth canandhaveampletimetocontributetheirviewsandknowledge withinanopenenvironmentisimportant.Putanotherway,as pos-sibilitiestogatherdatausingPATsincrease,sodoestheamountof timenecessarytoprocessthedata.Iftimeisconstrained,thensport managers,administrators,specialistsandcoachesshouldcarefully considerifinvestmentinneworadditionalPATsmakessense.
Ourthirdrecommendation,communication,focusesonthe pro-cessofPAandtherelationshipsbetweenthestakeholdersworking withandaffectedbyPATs(i.e.,specialists;coaches;athletes; man-agers;othersupportstaff).Aswithtime,staffmaybecompetent inPAandPATS,andhaveampletime,butiftheycannotdevelop effectivecommunicationsystemsandpractices,theirknowledge andinputmaynotbeimplementedasrequiredorwiththedesired effects.Groometal.’s(2011)writethatPAispresentlydepicted 5
through‘simplisticflowchartsandschemas;oftenillustratedwith anunproblematicshiftfromperformance,observation,planning, trainingandpractice’(p.17).Theabovechainofimplementation stepshasshown, however,thatthePAprocessusingPATsgoes beyondsuchexistingmodelstoincludeprioritizationoffinances for PAandinfluenceoncoachesandathletes.While researchis limited regardingthebroadercontextualizationofPAandPATs, what can besaid regarding communicationis that allinvolved actors(e.g.,manager;coach;PATexperts;players)shouldshare a ‘mental model’that alignsthevalueof and beliefsin PAand PATs (Wright et al.,2014).If clearly communicated,the model shouldbuildtrustbetweentheactorsthatsharethementalmodel (Groometal.,2011).
OurreferencetoPATs’discipliningeffectsonplayers demon-strates the importance of a shared model. Communication of negativelyperceivedvaluessuchasweightgainandskinfold mea-suresdeemedhigherthanagivenstandard,especiallyifmadein public, hasbeenshowntohavefarreachingcounter-productive consequences, including decreased health and well-being, and motivation to train (Jones, 2019; Manley & Williams, 2019; Williams&Manley,2016).Thus,footballmanagers,coachesand PAT expertsmustcarefully considerwhat,how and whenthey should communicatewithplayers.Communicating thepurpose ofPATsandPATdata,aswellasinvolvingathletesindiscussing howPAanddatashouldbeusedtodeterminetheirtrainingisan importantstrategytopreventmanipulativecommunication, man-ager/coachcontrol,andathletedocility(Williams&Manley,2016). ThiscanreducefrustrationswithandfatigueofPATdataandoffer opportunitiestoactivelyparticipateindecisionsthataffect play-ersandfacilitatepersonalandathleticgrowing.Inthisregard,we recommendthatindividuallytailoredPAthatisbasedondetailed knowledgeofplayers’needsandpreferences,likehumanisticand athlete-centeredcoachingprinciples,offersimportantpotentialto preventtheblanketsurveillanceapproachthathasbeenevidenced bythemajorityofexistingcriticalsociologicalandPAliterature (Carlingetal.,2014;Groometal.,2011;Williams&Manley,2016; Wrightetal.,2014).In termsofcommunication,ascompetence andtime,suchanapproachisnotwithoutchallengesandcanbe demanding.However,tomaximizetheuseofPATs,weseethe individualapproachnecessary.
Insum,ourrecommendationsrelatingtocompetence,timeand communicationdemonstratetheirinterrelatedness.Withouttime, aplayer-centeredapproachtoPAisunlikelytobefruitful.Without therightcompetence,timeoraplayer-centeredapproacharefutile ifunreliablePATdataisbeingproduced.Thus,wepropose that competence,time,andcommunicationdonotonlyrequirecareful deliberation,buttherecommendationsmustalsobeimplemented intheirentiretytopreventthedetrimentaleffectsdocumentedin sociologicalliterature.
5. Conclusion
In the article,we have aimedtooutline key challengesand problems withPATs,usinghistorical,sociologicaland experien-tialknowledgeofPAandPATs,andtooutlinerecommendations astowhatsportmanagersandadministratorsmayneedto con-sider in order to avoid or at least manage the challenges and problemsidentified.Usingachainofsiximplementationsteps,we havedemonstratedwhateachofthestepsentailedhistoricallyand what theyinvolveintoday’scontextofPAand PATs.Toensure effectiveimplementationandpreventthedetrimentaleffects doc-umented in existing literature,we recommend that knowledge aboutPATs,extensivetimetoimplementPATsandmakeeffective useofPATdata,andproductivecommunicationbetweendifferent actors,mustbeputinplaceforinvestmentsinPATstobe worth-while.
Intermsofcontinuedscholarship,andasothershaveproposed (Wrightetal.,2014),werecommendthatfurtherappliedand/or case-basedresearchbeconductedtoprovidereal-lifeinsightinto the implementation, use, and effects of PATs. Certainly, such researchiscalledforin Swedenasatpresent, suchscholarship islimitedtohistoricalanalyses.Lastly,weseeaspecificneedin developingcoachandsportmanagementeducationthat incorpo-ratesthesixstepswehaveincludedinthechainofPAandPAT implementation(seeMartinetal.,2018forasimilarargument). InSweden,thisneedisparticularlypertinentascoacheducation islimitedbycompartmentalizedPA/PATandpedagogy/sociology courses.CoacheducationthatintegratesthetechnicalaspectsofPA andPATs,criticalknowledgeonPAandPATsaswehavepresented inthisarticle,andtheissuesofcompetence,timeand communi-cationwouldinourviewgoalongwaytopreventthenegative consequencesresearchhasdocumented.Thesamegoesforsport managementeducation,asitisamanagementissuetoprovidefor relevantcompetence,time,andcommunicationwithinsportclubs.
CRediTauthorshipcontributionstatement
NatalieBarker-Ruchti,RobertSvensson,DanielSvenssonand
DanFransson:contributedtothecollationof data,writingthe
manuscript.NatalieBarker-Ruchti:conceptualisedtheresearch area.
DeclarationofCompetingInterest
Theauthorsofthemanuscript‘Don’tbuyapiginapoke: Con-sideringchallenges of and problemswithperformance analysis technologiesinSwedishmen’selitefootball’havenoconflictof interesttoreport.
Acknowledgments
Wethankthereviewersfortheirconstructiveandguiding feed-back.Wearealsogratefulforthecommentswereceivedfromthe researchgroupReShape.
References
Åstrand,P.-O.(1988).Fysiologiskainstitutionenstillkomstochutveckling.InO. Halldén,&P.Schantz(Eds.),Kungl.GymnastiskaCentralinstitutet– Gymnastik-ochidrottshögskolaniStockholm1963-1988(pp.196–239).Festskriftmed anledningavinstitutets/högskolans175-årigatillvaro.
Aughey,R.J.,&Falloon,C.(2010).Real-timeversuspost-gameGPSdatainteam sports.JournalofScienceandMedicineinSport,13(3),348–349.https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jsams.2009.01.006
Baerg,A.(2017).Bigdata,sport,andthedigitaldivide:Theorizinghowathletes mightrespondtobigdatamonitoring.JournalofSportandSocialIssues,41(1), 3–20.https://doi.org/10.1177/0193723516673409
Barnes,C.,Archer,D.T.,Hogg,B.,Bush,M.,&Bradley,P.S.(2014).Theevolutionof physicalandtechnicalperformanceparametersintheEnglishPremierLeague. InternationalJournalofSportMedicine,35(13),1095–1100.https://doi.org/10. 1055/s-0034-1375695
Bourne,N.(2008).Fastscience:Ahistoryoftrainingtheoryandmethodsforelite runnersthrough1975PhDThesis.TheUniversityofTexasatAustin. Bush,M.,Barnes,C.,Archer,D.T.,Hogg,B.,&Bradley,P.S.(2015).Evolutionof
matchperformanceparametersforvariousplayingpositionsintheEnglish PremierLeague.HumanMovementScience,39,1–11.https://doi.org/10.1016/j. humov.2014.10.003
Butterworth,D.A.,Turner,J.D.,&Johnstone,A.J.(2012).Coaches’perceptionsof thepotentialuseofperformanceanalysisinbadminton.InternationalJournalof PerformanceAnalysisinSport,12(2),452–467.https://doi.org/10.1080/ 24748668.2012
Carling,C.,Wright,C.,Nelson,L.J.,&Bradley,P.S.(2014).Commenton’ Performanceanalysisinfootball:Acriticalreviewandimplicationsforfuture research’.JournalofSportsSciences,32(1),2–7.https://doi.org/10.1080/ 02640414.2013.807352
Claudino,J.G.,deOliveiraCapanema,D.,deSouza,T.V.,Serrão,J.C.,Pereira,A.C. M.,&Nassis,G.P.(2019).Currentapproachestotheuseofartificial intelligenceforinjuryriskassessmentandperformancepredictioninteam sports:Asystematicreview.Sportsmedicine-open,5(1),1–12.
Collins,D.,Bailey,R.,Ford,P.A.,MacNamara,A.,Toms,M.,&Pearce,G.(2012). Threeworlds:Newdirectionsinparticipantdevelopmentinsportandphysical activity.Sport,EducationandSociety,17(2),225–243.
Collins,D.,Carson,H.J.,&Toner,J.(2016).Lettertotheeditorconcerningthe article ¨Performanceofgymnasticsskillbenefitsfromanexternalfocusof attention ¨byAbdollahipour,Wulf,Psotta&Nieto(2015).JournalofSports Sciences,34(13),1288–1292.https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2015.1098782 Collins,D.,Collins,L.,&Carson,H.J.(2016).“Ifitfeelsright,doit”:Intuitivedecision
makinginasampleofhigh-levelsportcoaches.FrontiersinPsychology,7,504. Day,D.,&Carpenter,T.(2015).AhistoryofsportscoachinginBritain:Overcoming
amateurism.London:Routledge.
Denison,J.(2007).Socialtheoryforcoaches:AFoucauldianreadingofoneathlete’s poorperformance.InternationalJournalofSportsScience&Coaching,2(4), 369–383.https://doi.org/10.1260/174795407783359777
Ekstrand,J.,Lundqvist,D.,Davison,M.,D’hooghe,M.,&Pensgaard,A.M.(2019). Communicationqualitybetweenthemedicalteamandthehead
coach/managerisassociatedwithinjuryburdenandplayeravailabilityinelite footballclubs.BritishJournalofSportsMedicine,53(5),304.https://doi.org/10. 1136/bjsports-2018-099411
Ericsson,C.,&Horgby,C.E.B.(2020).WomenandcommercialfootballinSweden. InWomenandcommercialfootballinSweden.pp.1–14.idrottsforum.org Francis,J.,&Jones,G.(2014).Eliterugbyunionplayersperceptionsofperformance
analysis.InternationalJournalofPerformanceAnalysisinSport,14(1),188–207. https://doi.org/10.1080/24748668.2014.11868714
Fransson,D.,Nielsen,T.S.,Olsson,K.,Christensson,T.,Bradley,P.S.,Fatouros,I.G., &Mohr,M.(2018).Skeletalmuscleandperformanceadaptationsto high-intensitytraininginelitemalesoccerplayers:speedenduranceruns versussmall-sidedgametraining.EuropeanJournalofAppliedPhysiology, 118(1),111–121.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-017-3751-5
Fransson,D.,Vigh-Larsen,J.F.,Fatouros,I.G.,Krustrup,P.,&Mohr,M.(2018). Fatigueresponsesinvariousmusclegroupsinwell-trainedcompetitivemale playersafterasimulatedsoccergame.JournalofHumanKinetics,61,85–97. https://doi.org/10.1515/hukin-2017-0129
Groom,R.,Cushion,C.,&Nelson,L.(2011).Thedeliveryofvideo-based performanceanalysisbyEnglandyouthsoccercoaches:Towardsagrounded theory.JournalofAppliedSportPsychology,23(1),16–32.https://doi.org/10. 1080/10413200.2010.511422
Hausken-Sutter,S.E.,Pringle,R.,Schubring,A.,Grau,S.,&Barker-Ruchti,N.(2021). Youthsportinjuryresearch:Anarrativereviewandthepotentialof interdisciplinarity.BMJOpenSport&ExerciseMedicine,7(1),Articlee000933. Herold,M.,Goes,F.,Nopp,S.,Bauer,P.,Thompson,C.,&Meyer,T.(2019).Machine
learninginmen’sprofessionalfootball:Currentapplicationsandfuture directionsforimprovingattackingplay.InternationalJournalofSportsScience& Coaching,14(6),798–817.https://doi.org/10.1177/1747954119879350 Hjelm,J.,&Olofsson,E.(2003).Abreakthrough:Women’sfootballinSweden.
SoccerandSociety,4(2-3),182–204.https://doi.org/10.1080/ 14660970512331390905
Howe,P.D.(2006).Habitus,barriersandthe[ab]useofthescienceofinterval traininginthe1950s.SportinHistory,26(2),325–344.
Jones,L.(2019).WearableGPSdevicesinaBritishelitesocceracademysetting:A Foucauldiandisciplinaryanalysisofplayerdevelopmentandexperience. JournalofAthleteDevelopmentandExperience,1(1),4.
Jones,L.,&Denison,J.(2018).Asocio-culturalperspectivesurroundingthe applicationofGPStechnology:Somesuggestionsforthestrengthand conditioningcoach.StrengthandConditioningJournal,40(6),3–8.
Jones,R.L.,&Hemmestad,L.B.(2019).Reclaimingthe‘competent’practitioner: Furtheringthecaseforthepracticallywisecoach.SportsCoachingReview, 1–19.https://doi.org/10.1080/21640629.2019.1703881
Jones,L.,Marshall,P.,&Denison,J.(2016).Healthandwell-beingimplications surroundingtheuseofwearableGPSdevicesinprofessionalrugbyleague:A Foucauldiandisciplinaryanalysisofthenormaliseduseofacommon surveillanceaid.PerformanceEnhancement&Health(Oxford),5(2),38–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2016.09.001
Kerr,R.,&Cooper,M.(2020).Theagencyofnumbers:Theroleofmetricsin influencingthevaluationofathletes.InR.Kerr(Ed.),Theagencyofnumbers: Theroleofmetricsininfluencingthevaluationofathletes(pp.99–119). Singapore:Sports,Society,andTechnology.
Kioussis,G.N.(2018).Canamanagerdope?Matchanalysisinthedigitalage. InternationalReviewfortheSociologyofSport,53(7),824–836.https://doi.org/ 10.1177/10126902166847
Kohe,G.Z.,&Purdy,L.G.(2019).Analyticalattractionsandthetechno-continuum: Conceptualisingdataobsessionsandconsequencesinelitesport.Sport, EducationandSociety,24(7),742–755.https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2018. 1467398
Luczak,T.,Burch,R.,Lewis,E.,Chander,H.,&Ball,J.(2020).State-of-the-artreview ofathleticwearabletechnology:What113strengthandconditioningcoaches andathletictrainersfromtheUSAsaidabouttechnologyinsports.
InternationalJournalofSportsScience&Coaching,15(1),26–40.https://doi.org/ 10.1177/1747954119885244
Mackenzie,R.,&Cushion,C.(2013).Performanceanalysisinfootball:Acritical reviewandimplicationsforfutureresearch.JournalofSportsSciences,31(6), 639–676.https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2012.746720
Malone,J.J.,Lovell,R.,Varley,M.C.,&Coutts,A.J.(2017).Unpackingtheblackbox: ApplicationsandconsiderationsforusingGPSdevicesinsport.International JournalofSportsPhysiologyandPerformance,12(Suppl.2),218–226.https://doi. org/10.1123/ijspp.2016-0236
Manley,A.,&Williams,S.(2019).‘We’renotrunonnumbers,we’repeople,we’re emotionalpeople’:Exploringtheexperiencesandlivedconsequencesof emergingtechnologies,organizationalsurveillanceandcontrolamongelite professionals.Organization,https://doi.org/10.1177/1350508419890078 Manley,A.,Palmer,C.,&Roderick,M.(2012).Disciplinarypower,theoligopticon
andrhizomaticsurveillanceinelitesportsacademies.Surveillance&Society, 10(3/4),303–319.https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v10i3/4.4281
Markula,P.(2006).Foucault,sportandexercise:Power,knowledgeandtransforming theself.London:Routledge.
Martin,D.,Swanton,A.,Bradley,J.,&McGrath,D.(2018).Theuse,integrationand perceivedvalueofperformanceanalysistoprofessionalandamateurIrish coaches.InternationalJournalofSportsScience&Coaching,13(4),520–532. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747954117753806
Mavalankar,N.A.(1956).Theroleofscienceinmodernsociety.Sociological Bulletin,5(1),1–8.https://doi.org/10.1177/0038022919560101
McMahon,J.,&Barker-Ruchti,N.(2017).Assimilatingtoaboy’sbodyshapeforthe sakeofperformance:Threefemaleathletes’bodyexperiencesinasporting culture.Sport,EducationandSociety,22(2),157–174.https://doi.org/10.1080/ 13573322.2015.1013463
Nicholls,S.B.,&Worsfold,P.R.(2016).Theobservationalanalysisofelitecoaches withinyouthsoccer:Theimportanceofperformanceanalysis.International JournalofSportsScience&Coaching,11(6),825–831.https://doi.org/10.1177/ 1747954116676109
Nicholls,S.B.,James,N.,Bryant,E.,&Wells,J.(2018).Elitecoaches’useand engagementwithperformanceanalysiswithinOlympicandParalympicsport. InternationalJournalofPerformanceAnalysisinSport,18(5),764–779.https:// doi.org/10.1080/24748668.2018.1517290
Nicholls,S.B.,James,N.,Bryant,E.,&Wells,J.(2019).Theimplementationof performanceanalysisandfeedbackwithinOlympicsport:Theperformance analyst’sperspective.InternationalJournalofSportsScience&Coaching,14(1), 63–71.https://doi.org/10.1177/1747954118808081
Overbye,M.(2018).An(un)desirabletradeofharms?Howeliteathletesmight reacttomedicallysupervised‘doping’andtheirconsiderationsofside-effects inthissituation.InternationalJournalofDrugPolicy,55(14)https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.drugpo.2017.12.019
Peterson,T.(1989).Lekensomblevallvar:Halmstadsbollklubbmellanfolkrörelse, statochmarknad.Lund:Arkiv.
Rabinbach,A.(1990).Thehumanmotor.energy,fatigue,andtheoriginsofmodernity. NewYork:BasicBooks.
Rein,R.,&Memmert,D.(2016).Bigdataandtacticalanalysisinelitesoccer:Future challengesandopportunitiesforsportsscience.Springerplus,5(1),1410. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-016-3108-2
Repko,A.F.,&Szostak,R.(2016).Interdisciplinaryresearch:Processandtheory. ThousandOaks:Sage.
Sæterbakken,A.,Haug,V.,Fransson,D.,Grendstad,H.,Gundersen,H.,Moe,V.,& Andersen,V.(2019).Matchrunningperformanceonthreedifferent
competitivestandardsinNorwegiansoccer.SportsMedicineInternationalOpen, 3(3),E82–E88.https://doi.org/10.1055/a-0943-3682
Schantz,P.(2015).AlongpathsconvergingtoBengtSaltin’searlycontributionsin exercisephysiology.ScandinavianJournalofMedicine&ScienceinSports,25, 7–15.
Svensson,D.,&Sörlin,S.(2019).The’physiologization’ofskiing:Thelabasan obligatorypassagepointforeliteathletes?SportinSociety,22(9),1574–1588. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2018.1435031
Svensson,D.(2013).Howmuchsportisthereinsportphysiology?Practiceand ideasintheStockholmSchoolofPhysiologyatGCI,1941-1969.International JournaloftheHistoryofSport,30(8),892–913.https://doi.org/10.1080/ 09523367.2013.784274
Svensson,D.(2017).Scientizingperformanceinendurancesports:Theemergenceof ’rationaltraining’incross-countryskiing,1930–1980.PhDthesis.KTHRoyal InstituteofTechnology.
Svensson,R.(2019).Frånträningsoveralltilltrenchcoat:tränarpositionens förändringinomsvenskherrelitfotbollmellan1960-och2010-talet.PhDthesis. ÖrebroUniversity.
Williams,S.,&Manley,A.(2016).Elitecoachingandthetechnocraticengineer: ThankingtheboysatMicrosoft.Sport,EducationandSociety,21(6),828–850. https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2014.958816
Witte,T.H.,&Wilson,A.M.(2004).Accuracyofnon-differentialGPSforthe determinationofspeedoverground.JournalofBiomechanics,37(12), 1891–1898.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiomech.2004.02.031
Wright,C.(2015).Theintegrationofperformanceanalysisapproacheswithinthe practiceofcompetitivesportsteamsPhDthesis.UniversityofCentralLancashire. Wright,C.,Atkins,S.,&Jones,B.(2012).Ananalysisofelitecoaches’engagement
withperformanceanalysisservices(match,notationalanalysisandtechnique analysis).InternationalJournalofPerformanceAnalysisinSport,12(2),436–451. https://doi.org/10.1080/24748668.2012.11868609
Wright,C.,Carling,C.,&Collins,D.(2014).Thewidercontextofperformance analysisanditsapplicationinthefootballcoachingprocess.International JournalofPerformanceAnalysisinSport,14(3),709–733.https://doi.org/10. 1080/24748668.2014.11868753
Wright,C.,Carling,C.,Lawlor,C.,&Collins,D.(2016).Elitefootballplayer engagementwithperformanceanalysis.InternationalJournalofPerformance AnalysisinSport,16(3),1007–1032.https://doi.org/10.1080/24748668.2016. 11868945
Yttergren,L.(2012).Tränaärlivet:träning,utbildningochvetenskapisvensk friidrott,1880–1995(1.uppl.ed.).Malmö:idrottsforum.org.