The Olympic Games – An Instrument for Environmental Political Change. : A case study exploring the Environmental Political approaches of the Olympic Games – with special focus on the 28th Summer Olympic Games in Beijing.

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The Institution of Social Science

The Olympic Games –

An Instrument for Environmental Political

Change.

- A case study exploring the Environmental Political approaches of the

Olympic Games – with special focus on the 28th Summer Olympic Games

in Beijing.

Lukas Karlsson

Master Essay, 15p University of Kalmar Autumn 2009

Tutor: Gunnar Hansson

The Institution of Human Sciences Social Sciences 61-90p

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UNIVERSITY OF KALMAR - SWEDEN

The institution of Social Science

Project: Master Essay 15points

Title: Olympic Games – An instrument for Environmental Political

Change?

-A case study exploring the Environmental Political views of the Olympic Games – with special focus on the 28th Summer Olympic Games in Beijing.

Author: Lukas Karlsson

Tutor: Gunnar Hansson

ABSTRACT

The essay´s aim was to explore the complex political environmental opinions and opportunities to use the Olympic Games as an instrument for environmental political changes, with special focus on the 2008 summer Olympics Games in Beijing.

In the light of two environmental political theories (The Green Business and Critical Ecology Theories) The International Olympic Committee's (The IOC) third pillar, the environment, the Beijing Olympic Committee 's motto (BOCOG) “Green Olympics” and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO:s) such as Greenpeace and their motto “Green Games” have been reviewed. The aim was to see the organisations aim to use the Beijing Olympics as a tool for environmental political changes.

The study involves six qualitative interviews, one group interview, one written questionnaire and participating observations, during an eight week field study, during the Beijing Olympics in 2008.

The conclusion of the study demonstrates that the Olympic Games can be used as important instrument to address the organisations environmental work toward a “Greening” of Olympic cities with firstly technical measures under political control. The Olympics are also used as an instrument to raise the environmental awareness of the public in Beijing and China.

The City of Beijing was seen as a showcase of green standards hopefully to be spread nationally. The “Greening of Olympics” is still though a complex social and scientific matter. Countries and cities have different conditions, knowledge, interests and ambitions. Universal standards are not always universally understood.

Keywords: Green Olympics, Green Games, Beijing Olympics, The Olympic Games, The International Olympic Committee, Environmental Political Theories.

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PREFACE

In May 2007, I spent ten days in Beijing and the nearby areas during my holiday. Buildings, subways and sport arenas were under construction for the upcoming Olympics. One year later, in the summer of 2008, I had the big honour of coming back to China to conduct a Minor Field Study (MFS) - an eight week field study aiming to shed a light over whether and who the Beijing Olympics were used as a political instrument for environmental progress.

I must thank all participants and friends in China. The conducting of the field study in the right context have left me with many memorises and interesting knowledge that will follow me during a long time.

Respondents:

Ms Amy Chang, Greenpeace China, Beijing, Ms Zee Zee Zhang, Roots and Shots , Shanghai, Mr Liajian Zhen, Fuping Development institute, Beijing.

Ms Michelle Lemaitre, The International Olympic Organisation. Mr Zhang Jun, Lenovo group, Beijing.

Jim, volunteer leader and the volunteers Sunny, Memory, Karen, Ivy, Sunrise, Beijing. Mr Ola Wong, Correspondent, Svenska Dagbladet, Sydsvenska Dagbladet, Shanghai

Informants:

Ms Marie Carlsson, Sinologist, University of Gothenburg. Ms Annika Siewert, SIDA consult, Beijing

Ms Linda Andersson, International Office of Kalmar. Ms Maria S Jonsson, Swedish Church in China.

Ms Gunilla Lindberg and Mr Stefan Lindeberg Swedish Olympic Organisation. Mr Gunnar Hansson, tutor, University of Kalmar.

Friends

Chu Ly – for your hospitality when taking care of a confused and nervous foreigner when he first arrived to China!

Peter Carlsson, for taking your precious time, guiding me through the jungle of English grammar. You are a good friend and superb English teacher!

....And Jenny, for your support and patience during this busy period with a full time work and essay writing!

Thank you all for your assistance and helpfulness during this essay. Without your help this study could not have been written. Thank you!

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1 INTRODUCTION

In 1987, The Bruntland report was released. The report was concerned over the situation where the struggle for economic growth did not take environmental protection under enough consideration. The importance of simultaneously combining the environment and its natural resources and with economical, social and political development, particularly linked to the benefit of the poorest members of society must be raised. Many undeveloped countries saw the report as an instrument in their process toward western standards.1 Environmental concerns and the debate concerning international commitments to solve these matters are very important questions on the International political agenda. Environmental politics is though a very complex social and scientific matter, where different countries have different knowledge, concerns and goals.

The Olympic Games is a large event which during the years has grown to become one of the worlds must powerful events. The International Olympic Committee with its main display, The Olympic Games has acknowledges environmental questions. During the mid 1990ties the philosophy of Olympism with its two pillars, Sport and Culture was joined with another pillar, the Environment. According to The IOC, the Olympic Games

shall be arranged in balance with the environment. It shall not have a negative impact; it should instead give opportunities to provide sustainable environmental legacies. These positive legacies must remain after the games, not only for the host cities but also for the whole country.2 The Olympic Movement wants to use the Olympic Games as a instrument for positive environmental legacies. Former Olympics such as Los Angeles(1974) and former Olympics in the Asian region, in South Korea(1988) and Japan(1960) have shown that the Olympics, can be an effective mechanism for reaching economic and political goals, such as economic growth, increasing the image of the host city and legitimacy for the government hosting the games. 3

But it is not only the IOC that puts the environmental questions on the agenda. Campaigning host cities have since the mid 1990ties been forced to emphasise the environmental perspectives in their application. In 2001, the City of Beijing won the battle to host the 2008 years Summer Olympic Games. In Beijing’s application the environmental aspect played an important role. Beijing’s bidding committee declared that the Olympic Games would make a positive change on China's environmental status.

The Beijing bidding committee claimed that their environmental plans and actions will leave “The greatest Olympic Games Environmental legacy ever.” 4

However, the media, different organisations and athletes criticised the environmental status in China, such as the high level of pollution, which could seriously harm the

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1_{Jamison, Andrew(2002) Making of Green Knowledge. Cambridge University press.}

2_{The International Olympic committee ( 2007) Going Green. Olympic Review Magazine. Internet:} www.olympic.org/upload/news/olympic_review/review_20071030115557_UK.pdf -

The IOC(2007) Olympic Charter. Internet: http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_122.pdf 3_{Horne, J – Manzenreiter, W (edt 2006) Sports mega-events : social scientific analyses of a global} phenomenon . Blackwell Pub./Sociological Review.

4_{UNEP(2007) Beijing 2008 Olympic Games – An environmental Review. Internet:} http://www.unep.org/sport_env/Documents/BeijingReport07/Chapter1.pdf, p 4

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athletes’ health during the Olympics. 5 Despite the criticism of the environmental status, Beijing and its environmental approach towards a “Green Olympics” gained a strong support from the IOC and the evaluation commission.

Beijing currently faces a number of environmental pressures and issues, particularly air pollution. However, it has an ambitious set of plans and actions designed and comprehensive enough to greatly improve overall environmental conditions. 6

One though, has to consider that China's economic growth, from a very poor undeveloped country to a richer country, has not been achieved in balance with the environment development. China is only ranked at place number 133 of 146 on the environmental index for durable development. Concerns such as air pollution, water waste and lack of rechargeable energy consumption are growing problems for China and the government. 7 The Chinese government is currently well aware of these problems and has made some reforms to improve the situation.8 The Beijing Olympic Games and its motto “Green Olympics” and “greening of the city of Beijing”- can be seen as one way to put the environmental concerns on the agenda.

The Olympic Games is a large and powerful event that since the mid 90ties embraced an environmental approach. This study will focus on different organisations and their environmental approach. Firstly, The International Olympics Committees (The IOC) and their third pillar of Olympism, the environment. Furthermore, the study also will focus on the Beijing Olympic Committee's (BOCOG) and Non-Governmental Organisation's (NGO:s, Greenpeace China, Roots & Shoots, Shanghai and Fuping Development Institute, Beijing) works and polices towards a “Greening of the Games”.

The analysis will be carried out on political theories concerning the environment. The study includes a literary research, participant observations and formal interviews with participants with knowledge of the “Green Olympics” and its environmental approach.

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5_{Telegraph UK Internet:} http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/3311716/Beijing-pollution-still-major-Olympic-concern.html, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/11/sports/othersports/11olympics.html, 6_{UNEP 2007, p 2}

7_{SIDA(2009) Internet. http://www.sida.se/sida/jsp/sida.jsp?d=540}

8_{Sweden aboad(2007) Kinas miljö – situationen och utmaningarna}_{. Internet:} http://www.swedenabroad.com/SelectImageX/20428/Miljoerapport_070427.pdf

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1.1 PROBLEM DISCUSSION AND PURPOSE

The environmental status in the world is under pressure. Different reports have criticised the lack of simultaneously combining the environment and its natural resources with economic, social and political development. In the globalised world countries, organisations and the public has become more aware of these problems. The environment affects us all around the world. The environmental concerns are though put on the agenda. The awareness has been raised by governments, companies and organisations which now proudly are proclaiming their responsibilities for the environment. The political environmental work is though a very complex matter when different actors are processing this political question from different perspectives, knowledge and visions. Andrew Jamison equalises environmental political theories to other political theories. It operates with different interests that translates or interprets global doctrines in its context (local- national).9 Actors have different interests and goals with their environmental work.

The Olympic Movement with its main display, the Olympic Games is an important actor in the International sphere, which since the mid 90ties acknowledges and invited in the environment as the third pillar of Olympism. The Olympic Games hosted at different location and countries can therefore be used by different participators as an instrument for environmental political changes. In 2008, The city of Beijing hosted the Olympics. The IOC:s choose to let a rapidly growing city, in a rapidly growing country, host the Olympic Games was discussed. The environmental perspectives of the Olympics, Beijing’s and Chinas environmental concerns were now highlighted. The essays purpose is to review whether and how the Beijing Olympic Games are used as instrument for environmental political changes.

The case study will put focus on The International Olympics Committees(The IOC), Beijing Olympic Committee's (BOCOG) and Non-Governmental Organisation's (represented by Greenpeace China, Roots & Shoots, Shanghai and Fuping Development Institute, Beijing) works and polices towards a “Greening of the Games”. The analysis will be carried out of the two political theories, The Green Business Theory and the opposite theory, the Ecological Resistance theory (Critical Ecology theory).

1.1.1 How can the Beijing Olympic Games be used as an

Instrument for Environmental Political Changes?

The study attend to explore the different views of political environmental discourses, exemplified by The IOC, The BOCOG and NGO:s organisations, which are used in the accordance to the Beijing Olympic Games. The Analysis will be carried out in the light of the political theories, The Green Business theory with its three discourses; Nature Capitalism, EcoEffiency and Ecological Modernism discourse. And the opposite pole Ecological Resistance (Critical Ecology) with its three discourses Local Activism, Professional Activism and Personal Activism (All theories are explained further in chapter 1.2.2).

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The International Olympic Committee´s third pillar, the environment, The Beijing Olympics Committee´s motto “Green Olympics” and Non-governmental Organisations, represented by Greenpeace, Roots & Shoots and Fuping Development Institute will be reviewed in the light of environmental political theories. To limit the length of the research, the following questions have been used as guidance.

• What environmental political views are apparent in the three category groups’ environmental approaches to use the Beijing Olympic Games as an instrument for environmental political changes?

• As a result from the analysis of question one, can any conclusions be drawn if and why the groups have different views, concerning the Beijing Olympic Games as an instrument for environmental political changes?

1.2 Environmental Political Theories

The content of this chapter is to explore the environmental political theories that will work as a theoretical framework and guidance in the analysis of the case studies results.

1.2.1 The Development of Environmental Politics – a Modern

Historic Overview?

Two different poles concerning the world of environmental politics will be used as a theoretical framework. The first theory (pole) is The Green Business theory with its three different discourses, ecoefficiency, nature capitalism and ecological modernism. The other theory (pole) is The Ecological Resistance or Critical Ecology with its different activisms such as local, professional, military and personality activism. In the end of the chapter a summary and an analysis schedule over the theoretical framework will be introduced. At first, an overview of the historical process of environmental politics and the term sustainable development will be illustrated.

According to Corel & Söderberg one can summarise the environmental political process in three important conferences about the environment. Firstly, In 1972 - Sweden took an initiative for an international conference about the Environment and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) was established in Stockholm. 113 countries declared their collective responsibility for the world’s environment using “Only one earth” as their motto. The mission of the UNEP was to coordinate environmental questions in the UN and to take initiatives in the international work. In Stockholm Indira Gandhi, the prime minister of India - made a famous and important statement when she declared that the undeveloped countries have to develop their economy before they can consider to protect the environment. The Stockholm conference raised the international awareness of the environmental questions. 10

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10_{Correll, E – Söderberg, H(2005) Från miljöpolitik till hållbar utveckling – en introduktion. Liber .} Malmö.

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The report “Our common future” was released in 1987 and the idea of sustainable development had its breakthrough.11 The report is also known as The Bruntland Report described that in the future; “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” 12 The development shall give long-term preservations of our environment and our lifestyle. The report also described the importance of simultaneously combining the environment and its natural resources with economic, social and political development, particularly linked to the benefit of the poorest members of society. The idea of “Sustainable development” has both had its faults and praises. It has been criticised for being a weak term, meaning all or nothing – but others have praised the idea for being all embracing and its use in political contexts. Many undeveloped countries saw the report as a way for all countries to succeed in their process to western standards. Hence, the report became very important. Sustainable development can as Corell & Söderbergh describes be seen as a goal for how the society should strive to improve our living conditions. 13

The Bruntland report was the ignition key to the Agenda 21 agreement in Rio de Janeiro, the 2nd conference, in 1992. Agenda 21 was an agreement of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally by organisations such as the UN, governments, and local groups in areas where humans have impact on the environment. In Johannesburg, the third conference the international society reviewed the implementation of the Agenda 21. The perspective had changed from initially focusing on human environment, to concentrating on the connection between environment and economic growth. Correl & Söderberg describes the period 1992-2002, as a time when attempts were made to combine the handling of resources in a sustainable matter in the practical implementation. Energy and money were spent on environmental and developing matters

These three conferences (Stockholm, Rio de Janeiro, and Johannesburg) resulted in the perspective of today, where the three pillars environment, social and economic factors and importance of cooperation, were established. All these must function together.14

1.2.2 Theoretical Framework

Andrew Jamison equalises environmental political theories to other political theories, as it operates with different interests that translates or interprets global doctrines in its context (local – national). Jamison is discussing two opposite poles concerning the world of environmental politics. He discusses the theory of Green Business and the opposite theory, the Ecological Resistance or Critical Ecology. These two opposites will be described below and used as guidance in the analyses of in the result chapter. 15

1.2.3 The Green Business Theory

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The green business theory seeks to redirect environmentalism into a profit-making direction. Sustainable development is important in the process of global corporate 11_Ibid

12_{United Nations World Commission on The Environment and Development (1987)Our common future.} Internet: http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm

13_{Correll – Söderberg, 2005} 14_Ibid

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expansion. The green business theory has transformed from the change of peoples´ involvement in environmental questions. Jamison explains these changes in the environmentalism as a “positive- sum game”. Economic growth can be combined with or even strengthen by means of environmental improvements. A term as “natural capitalism”, where economic activity can be adapted to ecological laws and principles are nowadays more common. Companies and other global participators are proudly proclaiming their environmental measures and how they take their responsibility to create a sustainable development. The green business theory approach is often summarizes in three different discourses, ecoefficiency, nature capitalism and ecological modernism.16

The Ecoeffiency

The companies' approach is to combine environmentalism with the company’s culture. The strategy is not to change too much. Instead the product process shall be more environmentally friendly with help of technical measures and most of, a higher efficiency concerning energy and resource consumption. 17

Nature Capitalism

In the nature capitalism, the strategy is to reduce the pressure on the environment. Technical solutions are not enough, a new economic and industrial structure must develop in order to succeed. The schools spokesman are talking about the “factor-ten”, where the resource and energy consumption will be reduced by ten percent from the current level. Changes must proceed in many spheres and the result can not be achieved by only technical improvements. 18

The Ecological Modernism

The ecological modernism is quite similar to the ecoefficiency discourse. The discourse is promoting smaller changes rather than radical. But the idea is also open to add responsibility to governments and public authorities. Ecological modernism was initially founded in Europe. The strategy was to give public support to technical improvement combined with political control and policy instruments. Taxes should not be used in a proactive way, where tax coming from non-environmental activities should be invested in sustainable development investments. The discourse is nowadays more open for cooperation between the governments, researches and the business world. 19

Andrew Jamison's research of the organisation GIN (Greening of industry production) showed that focus has changed towards changes in the organisation structure rather than technological changes. Jamison is furthermore talking about the change towards a development of an unholy alliance between different participators where decision making is reduced to negations and governments are reduced to governance. The importance of creating dialogues, cooperations, communications and entrepreneurs are often mentioned. The term “greening” is also often used in modern ecologism. Greening

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16_{Jamison, 2002}

17_{Jamison, Andrew(2003) Miljö som politik. Studentlitteratur. Lund} 18_Ibid

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can be seen as the industrial world's version of sustainable development. Jamison describes that the ambition of “greening” more have turned into a discussion about business terms such as environmental management, green business economy, sustainable product development and product responsibility working towards the original idea of sustainable development. 20

1.2.4 The Criticism of the Theory

12 xt (local – national).

Many corporate officials and business leaders have, according to Yummiest, acknowledged the need to focus more on environmental questions. The importance of sustainable development is acknowledged but it is reduced to those activities that can turn a profit. The competition and marketability makes participators choosing economic development rather than environmentalism.21 Another perspective is that organisations are dependent on changes to the wider socio-economic system in which the organisation works. The Organisations can have problems to fully adhere to a green business discourse of sustainability, not being influenced by the socio-economic system22 Andrew Jamison also equalises environmental political theories to other political theories, as it operates with different interests that translates or interprets global doctrines in its social-conte

1.2.5 The Critical Ecology Theory

The theory developed as discourse criticising the Green business theory has recently has been reviewed. Some ideas have a more aggressive tone, for example to re concur the animal's rights – like a global right movement. Other ideas are talking about the agenda and that it has to transform from civilisation and a consumer society. The realists and reformists are still fighting to establish the society to be more environmentally friendly. 23_{One discourse in the Critical Ecology discourse, the militant activism, that are} discussing “equality between different species” will not be used as a theoretical framework, and will therefore not be used in the analysis.

The Local activism

Through research and empiric knowledge, the activist wants to transform the politics and the agenda. The activism argues in favour of technical changes, with the help of evidence from research. The local activists still believe in the democratic ambitions to argue and effect. Today, the groups work on local level to counteract environmental damages and to create alternative solutions for environmental friendly processes in the local society. Jamison sees the local activists as science groups on the local level that gives information to the local society. This will result in participation and social innovations that will both raise the level of democracy in the society and create a better environment. In different projects, such as for example Agenda 21, the local activists have found ways to effect the decision making. According to Jamison, the problem with the discourse is the temporary efforts on specific targets. The local activism has 20_Ibid

21_{Jamison , 2003} 22

Wendy Stubb, Chris Cocklin (2006) An ecological modernist interpretation of sustainability. Internet: http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/112718277/abstract

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difficulties to remain as an important role in the society. When the goals are fulfilled or when the money has run out, the local activism has a tendency to disappear. 24

The professional activism

The professional activism is often described as lobbying organisations. According to Jamison, it is difficult to generalize the different groups but some similarities can be seen. They are often NGO:s (Non-Government-Organisations) that have employed staff that produces knowledge about the environment. They have experts working in different fields such as; juridical, administrative, scientist, commercial or pedagogic. The organisations are depending on external support to finance their expert knowledge’s. The professional organisation wants to be an important participator; therefore their growth and survival are important factors in the choice of subjects and methods to work with. The organisation works with subjects not recreating other's work or competing with actors that can do the work much better. This special focus can be a problem if the coordination between activities is not working. Other critical views are that there is often no quality control over the knowledge the organisations are producing and that they are only to be responsible in front of its own board of directors. 25

Their work can be divided in to three different branches. It can involve reports about special environmental questions. The other type is creating material for the public - practical tips on how to be more environmentally friendly both for the public and for companies. The last type of product is to combine different approaches, discusses new strategies or new directions. This group exists on an individual level but they still see themselves as part of a movement. The experts want to increase the awareness and therefore shows their opinions and political proposals as professional experts, often employed in a organisation, institute or earning their living on their writing and lectures. Their different participators are often cooperating on different levels and with different participators within media, business world, international organisations and NGO:s. 26 Personal activism

The activism tries to make the political matters transform to individual level where efforts to take action and act in an environmental way are in focus. The ecological lifestyles have changed since the 1960s with new age philosophy through the 1990s and ethical discourse about genetic modified organisms. According to Jamison, it is hard to make any conclusion from this type of actions. But it is ascertained that the personal standpoints and activism will continue to develop.

1.2.6 The Criticism of the Theory

The problem with the discourse is the different participators and their different views. All groups are fighting for their standpoints, acknowledgement and economic resources. The different views of activism must sort out the different opinions. According to Jamison there is a dynamic relation between the different groups. They are in way competing and in other ways cooperating.

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24_{Jamison, 2003} 25_Ibid

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1.2.7 The theoretical Framework as Guidance

The new environmental political agenda can according to Jamison be described as two opposite poles. Below I have tried to summarise the green business and Critical ecology discourses in an analyse schedule.

The Green Business Theory The Critical Ecology Theory

Table 1; Analyse schedule, summarising the environmental political theories that will work as guidance in the analysis of the thesis from the literature research, interviews and observations.

A I M The Ecoeffiency -Small environmental changes in combination with the company’s culture. Nature Capitalism

-Reduce the pressure on the environment. The Ecological Modernism -Sustainable development. -“Greening” The Local Activism -Effect the political agenda towards a better environment -Informative The Professional Activism -Raise the awareness. Produce knowledge’s about the environment -Lobbying Personal Activism -Political matters on individual level. -Ecological lifestyle M E T H O D -Technical measures, reduce the energy and resource consumption

-The system and structure must transform to be more

environmentally friendly.

-Factor ten solutions concerning energy and resource consumptions. -Increasing responsibility for governments/publ ic institutions. -Support technical improvements with political control. -Cooperation, environmental managements, sustainable product development, and product responsibility. -Technical changes -Counteract environmental damage, create alternative solutions. -Science Reports -Practical tips -Cooperation’s in different spheres -Personal activity -Take action

1.3 Method

Robert K Yin's book “A Case Study Research – Designs and Methods”27_{– has been} used as guidance in the process of this research. The method is a process or record of research into the development of a situation - and in this case different participant’s environmental political approach to use the Olympic Games as a political instrument, with special focus on the summer Olympics in Beijing in 2008. The chapter will explain how the study has been processed, which methods and respondent that have participated to form the case studies results. Finally, a discussion about the case studies validity and reliability will be discussed.

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1.3.1 The Case Study Method

The Study; An instrument for environmental political change is a comparative case study exploring the opportunity to use the Olympic Games as an instrument for political environmental change, with special focus at The Beijing Olympics.

Yin describes five important components for the comparative case studies design. At first, the problem and the questionnaire are very important; Yin explains that the “how” and “why” questions are preferable in a case study. Secondly, the study must have suggestions to answer the questions for the study’s research. Only if you are forced to state some suggestion one will move in the right direction, according to Yin. Thirdly, Yin means that the unit of analysis can be a problem when one defines what the case really is. The study's questions and propositions are very important to make the study easier and not so extensive. The fourth and fifth components, linking data to propositions and criteria for interpreting the findings, are according to Yin the least well developed components in the case studies. One promising approach is the idea of pattern matching, where several pieces of data can be related to some theoretical proposition.28

1.3.2 Yin´s Method as Guidance

The Schedule below explains Yins guidance and the column to the right, is a short overview of this case studies approach designed to match Yins structure. Furthermore, all the terms will be explained during this section. Finally, a discussion concerning the choice of method and a reflection over how the procedure worked and how mistakes could have been avoided will be included.

Test Case study tactic Phase of research in which tactic occurs

The Research

Construct validity -Use multiple sources of → evidence

- Establish chain evidence → -Have key informants → review draft case study report

data collection → data collection → composition of → report Literature research, Observations & Interviews. Different sources. Tutor & Contacts in field.

Internal validity - Do pattern-matching → - Do explanation-building →

-Address rival explanation → -Use logic models →

data analysis → data analysis → data analysis → data analysis → Different sources match in different patterns.

External validity - Use theory in single case →

studies research design →

Environmental political theories are used in the analysis. Reliability - Use case study protocol →

-Develop case study → Database data collection data collection - Question guide, recorded - transcribed interviews and reviewed scripts from respondents.

Observation diary. Table 2. Table based on Yin´s case study structure.

15 28_{Ibid, p 33}

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1.3.3 The Preparation and the Carrying out of the Case study

In may of 2007, I visited Beijing. The city and the country were preparing for the Olympic Games. People were proud to have the chance to host one of the most respectably events in the world. The slogan; “One world – One dream” were printed all over the city. Within the slogan and in the preparation work, the “Green Olympic”- motto were truly involved. One could still though, feel the pollution, and the blue sky were still in absence.

As an upper secondary school teacher teaching the subjects Social Science and Physical Education, the Olympic Games and its impact surely match my profession, but also my interests. During the spring of 2008 I applied for an SIDA financed, Minor Field Study Scholarship, in order to carry out a field study in China. From the ending of June to the middle of August, during the culminating of the Olympic Games, I took part of the Olympic and Chinese spirit and culture during my field study, involving qualitative interviews and participant observations.

During the mandatory preparation course in Gothenburg I had a meeting with Ms Marie Carlsson, Sinologist at Gothenburg University. Throughout the discussions with Marie Carlsson I decided to emphasize on the Olympic Games, its “Green Olympic” motto - and its environmental impact, as an instrument for environmental political views. The environmental issues are very important topics in the world and especially in China. The Beijing Olympic Committee and the regime also included the “Green Olympics” motto, in the overall plan for the 2008 Olympic Games. The preparations now proceeded in finding contacts in field.

My first contact in field was Ms Maria Jönsson, working at the Swedish Church in Hong Kong. Luckily Marie worked in Beijing during the Olympics and had an extensive network both in China and contacts with The Swedish Olympic Committee. These contacts later preceded to members in the IOC, with knowledge of the research questionnaires. Ms Annika Siewert, who worked as SIDA-coordinator at the Swedish Embassy also helped me to get in contact with different NGO:s in Beijing. The NGO:s participating in the research were contacted via email.

1.3.4 Selection of Participators

The studies participators were chosen for different reasons. At first the respondent must as Yin explains, be relevant to the study.29 In this case, this meant having knowledge of the work concerning the “Greening of the Games”. As mentioned earlier, the Olympic Movement is a large movement - with many members and participators. According to Yin, a case study can use different respondents with different perspectives to make the investigation more interesting. 30 The aim respondents were initially members of the Olympic Organisation (IOC), Beijing Olympic Organisation Committe (BOCOG) and environmental Non Governmental Organisations’ that were working in China and had connections to the Olympic Games.

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29_{Yin, 2003} 30_Ibid

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In the prepatory work and during the field study represents of the BOCOG, different NGO:s, such as World Wildlife Found and Conservation International, were contacted to participate in the study. The NGO:s candidates kindly declined to participate, partly due to lack of time. In the matter of BOCOG – the mail enquiry to different participants within the organisation were not responded. The validity of the study would have been increased if the questionnaires had been tested with a qualitative interview or written questionnaire, with a representative of the BOCOG organisation. The analysis in the essay was based upon the BOCOG:s applications contracts, Olympic action plan and the research concerning the Beijing Olympic motto, “Green Olympics”.

The validity had also increased if a qualitative interview with a participator from the International Olympic Committee had been possible. Unfortunately an interview was not carried out during the field study. Via Ms Marie Carlsson, I got in contact with Mr Stefan Lindeberg and Ms Gunilla Lindberg at the Swedish Olympic Committee, who helped me to get in contact with Ms Michelle Lemaitre who works as a IOC:s project manager on Games operations. The thesis from the literature study has therefore instead been questioned through a written questionnaire, with IOC representative Ms Lemaitre. The Greenpeace, Roots & Shoots and Fuping Development institute are representatives of the NGO perspective. However, even more participators could have raised the validity.

The following respondents have participated in the case study: • Ms Amy Chang - Greenpeace China

Greenpeace China is a Non-Governmental Organisation that has been involved in the work toward a “Green Olympic”. Ms Amy Chang is also one of the authors to the Greenpeace report -”China after the Olympics: Lessons from Beijing.”

• Ms Zee Zee Zhang - Roots and Shoots

Ms Zee Zee Zhang, works as an operative director at Roots & Shoots a Non-governmental Organisation that also has been involved with special projects related to the “Green Olympics.” The Organisation was sanctioned by the government to promote education for environmental improvements, for examples in schools.

• Mr Liajian Zhen - Fuping Development institute (FDI)

Fuping Development Institute is a Non- Governmental Organisation stationed in Beijing. FDI aims to promoting social innovation, social equality, to alleviate poverty and encourage sustainable development, thus promoting the

establishment of a harmonious society.

• Ms Michelle Lemaitre – The International Olympic Organisation Ms Michelle Lemaitre works as International Olympic Committees project manager on Games operations. The Games operation is in charge of the

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organising committee’s environment and sustainable development function. Ms Lemaitre participated through a written questionnaire, which was sent by mail. During the field studies process, new respondent have been involved to give the case study more perspectives. All of the respondents and their profession have some kind of involvement in the Olympic family or knowledge about the Chinese society and environmental questions concerning the “Greening of the Olympics”. Respondent in this category are:

• Mr Zhang Jun – Lenovo group

Mr Zhang Jun works as a senior designer at the Olympic Partner Programme (TOP-sponsor) Lenovo Group, whom was the biggest sponsor for the Beijing Olympic Games. Mr Zhang Jun worked in the designing team that designed the Olympic Torch for the Olympic torch relay.

• Mr Ola Wong

Mr Ola Wong is working as correspondent in China for Swedish newspapers, Svenska Dagbladet and Sydsvenska Dagbladet. Mr Wong is also an author and has written different books about the Chinese Society.

During my field study I also meet university students who were working as volunteers for the Olympic Games. I decided to use them in my study during one group interview, also known as a focus interview. As volunteers for the Olympic Games, the volunteers were trained for their mission. Secondly, they are all young (20-24), students at Beijing University and their generation is the future of China. The participators are named by the English given name.

• Group interview – Volunteers

Sunny(21 years), Memory(20), Karen(23), Ivy(21) and Sunrise(21) all students working as volunteers during the Beijing Olympic Games.

• Volunteer team leader - Jim

Jim is a 20-year-old student that during the Olympic Games worked as a team leader for the interviewed volunteer group (above), for the benefit of the Beijing Olympic Games.

I have also had two informants during the study, whose interesting views on the social and cultural life in China, have made the preparations and the ongoing work during the field study much easier.

• Ms Annika Siewerts – Swedish International Developing Apartment (SIDA) Ms Annika Siewerts worked as a correspondent for SIDA at the Swedish Embassy in Beijing during my field study. Our meeting developed into interesting discussions about her work as a correspondent, the culmination of the Olympics and development of the ongoing field study.

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• Marie Carlsson – University of Gothenburg

Ms Marie Carlsson works as Sinologist at the department of Social Studies at Gothenburg University. Ms Carlssons knowledge of the Chinese society was of great importance during the preparation course.

1.3.5 Literate Research

The construct validity proposes different sources for data collection. This research will use three kind of different sources; literate research, interviews and participant observations.

The literature research is divided in two parts. Further on in Chapter 2, the IOC:s , BOCOG:s and the NGO:s approach and work toward a “greening of the games”, have been reviewed. This preliminary literature research proceeded in to different thesis about the IOC:s, BOCOG:s and the NGO:s environmental political approach. Secondly, the literature research has also been used as a complement in the result chapter. The thesis from the literature research has been analysed with the questionnaires and the theoretical framework, and their validity has been questioned through qualitative interviews and participating observations.

According to Yin, the most important uses of documents is to corroborate and augment evidence from other sources. As Yin explains the investigator must be careful in his/her analysis. Yin reminds the researcher that every document is written for some specific purpose and some specific audience.31 The limitation to investigate the participators environmental political approach toward a “Green Olympics” made the study more focused. Formal reports about the Olympic movement and statements from different participant are also important documents that will be researched. Once again, the thesis from the literature research (chapter 2) will be questioned throughout the interviews and observations.

1.3.6 The Interviews

The respondents were informed through email, including a PM about the research, its meaning and purpose. It also contained a short information about the researcher and the significance of the scholarship. The Respondents also had the opportunity to know the questions in advance, which all respondent excluding the volunteers used. This worked both as a benefit and disadvantage. The respondents had the opportunity to study the questions to find the “right answers”. This research required this alternative, in order to get the respondents to cooperate in interesting discussions. Some of the respondents were also representing an organisation and their ideals; thus, sending the questions in advance have in my opinion not been a weakness in this research. On the contrary, it has worked as key benefiting discussions during the meetings. The PM also gave the respondents the alternative to be anonymous or just to be “quoted” as a member in an organisation. The interviews were taped and transcribed. All participants have also had the opportunity to review the script before it has been used in the analyse.

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The interviews were structured in a way that Yin name as “focus interviews”, where the respondents were interviewed approximately 45 minutes. The interview usually took place in the respondents’ office. Three interviews were made in restaurants during lunchtime, this due to the fact of the busy time schedule. All interviews were in English excluding the interview with Mr Ola Wong, which was in Swedish. The interviews were not hindered by language barriers, as the respondents had extended skills in the English language.

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manner.

The interviews corroborated certain facts that according to Yin, one already thinks have been established.32_{A question sheet worked as guidance. The Questions were of an} open character and they were careful worded so the interviewer appears genuinely naïve about our topic. If one asks leading questions the purpose of the interview will not be served. As an investigator one have, according to Yin, two jobs during the interview. Firstly, to follow your own line of inquiry, as reflected by ones case study protocol and secondly to ask actual questions in an unbiased 33

The first interview was with Ms Ola Wong, the Swedish journalist – after this interview some minor alterations were made. The opening questions were now changed with the aim to explore the participators’ perspective of the Olympic movement and the Olympic Games. These question were meant as an opener that also could be reflected and matched against former reports, such as Michael Payne’s study investigating The Olympic - DNA.34 The introduction should also lead forward to the core of the research, the participators views about the Olympic Games as an environmental political instrument. The interview guide was also used as a questionnaire folder to the IOC – participator Ms Michelle Lemaitre.

The respondents in this study have different professions and therefore the interviews sometimes took different ways during the discussions, the key questions in the question guide still worked as a guidance throughout all interviews.

The focus/group interview took place in a small and quiet restaurant. The group included three male and three female respondents. The Question guide worked as guidance and the author as a moderator, to provide the word to different respondents in the group. The respondents did not want to use a recorder and therefore the interview was written. The interviews were transcribed, and reviewed by the respondents before it was used in the analysis. Wibeck states that the focus interviews shall be used as a tool in order to explore how a specific group views a special question, in this case this studies questionnaire. The interviews can be seen as a meeting where different people meet and share opinions. 35

32_{Yin, 2003} 33_Ibid 34

Payne, Michael. (2006)Olympic turnaround : how the Olympic Games stepped back from the brink of extinction to become the world's best known brand. Westport conn.

35_{Wibeck,Victoria. (2000). Fokusgrupper: Om fokuserade gruppintervjuer som undersökningsmetod.} Lund. Studentlitteratur.

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According to Wibeck the group shall be constructed of at least four and at most ten people. Wibeck also suggests three – five focus groups to a small study. In this study, only one group was established because of the studie's duration. The participants know each other since before, in their work as volunteers. They have also been trained for their mission. Therefore one could presume that the participators had the same thoughts and ideas. From the group interview I also used the opportunity to proceed to more extensive discussions with one of the volunteers. The participator (Jim) was chosen for his work as a team leader for a small group of volunteers and for his knowledge and opinions. According to Wibeck it can be interesting to do a follow-up on the group interviews to explore the respondents’ true opinions. The interview with Jim was recorded, transcribed and reviewed by respondent before it has been used in this analyse. 36

1.3.7 The Participant Observations

The case study also used participant observations as a source. The observations with correct behaviour and environment conditions – is according to Yin an important perspective in its collaborations with the literature research and the qualitative interviews. The observer wants to explore the actual society and culture. These observations can be used as an important source if they are representative for the study’s purpose. It is important to match the key respondent’s perspective with discussions with people and observations in the normal way of living in the community. The observations have been documented in a diary during or near the “meetings”, in order to recall the “meeting” accurately. If one waits with this procedure, one can build up a false picture which decreases the validity.37

1.3.8 Method Discussion

As have already been mentioned, Yin explains that everything is written for a special purpose and audience. In this case study the ambition has been to review the environmental political visions from the participants, with former researches. The empirical data, thesis from the literature research have been matched with the qualitative interviews and the observations to gain internal validity so that the conclusions can be durable. If the patterns match the study’s validity will increase.38

The external validity will increase if a theory is used. A single case often offers a poor basis for generalising. This study will be an analytic generalisation. According to Yin, the investigator is striving to generalise a particular set of results to some broader theories, to increase the external validity. 39

The thesis from the literature research (chapter 2) has been matched with the qualitative interviews, written questionnaires and participating observations. The data have been read several times and categorised throughout the questionnaires. The results have been interpreted and analysed to the theoretical framework and former reports.

21 36_Ibid 37_{Yin 2003} 38_Ibid 39_Ibid

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Reliability is discussed in the perspective to use the right measurements in the investigation. It’s important to notice that situations change and that the interviews with “open-ended” character maybe will turn into different direction. The participants in this case study had different professions, knowledge and interests. The interviews therefore have turned in various directions. Still, the Questionnaires have worked as guidance in all interviews. According to Yin both the validity and the reliability increases if one use different qualitative methods in the case study, which the case study has acknowledged. 40

The following circumstances must also be taken into recognition:

• The results have mostly been analysed only by the author from a “Swedish perspective”. The cultures and the political perspectives are different. According to Yin, the validity rises if key informants review the process of the study including the results. 41All interviews were in English and all respondents have also been given the opportunity to review the script before it was used in the analysis. The respondents have also had the opportunity to review the study before its final print.

• During this period many of the respondents have had a busy schedule that can have influenced the interview. Though all interviews were guided by a question guide and the respondent have had the time to review the script and I have had the opportunity to ask further questions via email if necessary.

• Different reports such as Greenpeace (2008) and UNEP (2006, 2008)42 highlights of the lack of independence in the Chinese system. All environmental information is according to these reports not available for third parties to review, which also can have an affect on this actual case study.

• As recently explained, more participators could have increased the validity. However, a case study is not aiming for representative results and it can be difficult to make generalising conclusions. This research has only investigated the participator's view of the sited questionnaires. According to Yin, the studie's validity increases if the results are accurate to former researches and theoretical frameworks.43

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41_{Yin. 2003}

42_{UNEP(2007) Beijing 2008 Olympic Games – An environmental Review. Internet:} http://www.unep.org/sport_env/Documents/BeijingReport07/Chapter1.pdf

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2 BACKGROUND: THE OPINIONS OVER A GREEN

OLYMPICS

The result from the introducing literature research will lead up to the case study´s result and the interpretation and analysis.

2.1 The International Olympic Committee

The International Olympic Committee is a big organisation with its main display the Olympic Games. This paragraph will only give a brief introduction to the organisation, their fundamental principles leading up to their mission concerning environmentalism. The International Olympic Committee was officially established 1894. Pierre de Coubertin took the first initiative to start an organization with the vision that through sport and education create a better and more peaceful world.44 From a legal standpoint, IOC is an independent organisation with non-governmental and non-profit ambitions.45

2.1.1 The International Olympic Committee and its Ideals

The environmental approach is only one of the Olympic Organisations pillars and must therefore be seen in a wider perspective. The International Olympic Committee's work and cooperate with all participants must be in accordance to the Olympic Charter and in the spirit of Olympism.46 According to Coubertin, Olympism consisted of five principles; a spirit of harmony, self improvement, amateurism, a link with sporting principles (fair play) and peace. Olympism often describes this with the three leading pillars; sport, culture and environment. 47 The Olympism goes beyond the Olympic Games; the education should be on-going, according to Coubertin48

The Olympic charter is based on six fundamental principles. Fundamental principle number one explains:

1. Olympism is a philosophy of life, exalting and combining in a balanced whole the qualities of body, will and mind. Blending sport with culture and education, Olympism seeks to create a way of life based on the joy of effort, the educational value of good example and respect for universal fundamental ethical principles. 49

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The fundamental principles are principles which all participants belonging to the Olympic movement must acknowledge. 50_{The Olympic movement's missions and roles}

45_{The IOC website (2009) Internet.}

http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/ioc/organisation/index_uk.asp

46_{The International Olympic Committee(2007) “The Olympic Charter” Internet:} http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_122.pdf

47_{The Olympic Charter(2007)}

48_{Michael Byaruhanga Kadoodooba ( 2005) Implications for Olympic education and training through} Olympism in Africa. Internet: http://www.coubertin.ch/pdf/PDF-Dateien/129-Kadoodooba.pdf 49-57_{The Olympic Charter, 2007}

50-58_{The International Olympic Committee (2007) Factsheet – Olympic Truce. Information center.} Infocenter@olympic.org

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is to fulfil their overall goal: to create a better and peaceful world through the education of sport. The IOC explains their role:

In this the third millennium, the IOC is more convinced than ever of the positive role that sport can, and must, play as a catalyst in our society. It unites and teaches about respect and tolerance, two values that are essential in today’s world. 51

The President of the IOC, Mr Jacques Rogge describes that the sport movement in general have a social responsibility – to provide access to sport practice, and in so doing to spread the values of sport to all sections of society. 52

This responsibility is not something IOC can fulfil on their own. The IOC should also according to the Olympic Charter, “cooperate with the competent public or private organisations and authorities in the endeavour to place sport at the service of humanity and thereby to promote peace”.53 The Olympic Movement must promote a positive legacy from its movement to the host cities and host countries. 54

In 2006, the former marketing manager for IOC, Michael Payne released a study called The Olympic Turnaround, How the Olympics Games Stepped Back from the Brink of Extinction to Become the World’s Best Known Brand.55 In the report, Payne wanted to investigate and discover what he calls the Olympic DNA. The comprehensive study involved interviews and focus groups including 5500 people in 11 countries. The study also involved 250 interviews with key media, the Olympic family and sponsors.

Payne's results were concluded in to four key propositions. The Olympic Brand offers hope for a better world by using sport without discrimination. Through the Olympics, participants want to fulfil dreams and therefore find inspirations to fulfil their mission. The Olympic Games endures power to inspire humanity to achieve dreams. The Olympic Games also provides friendship and fair play that can overcome political, economic, religious and racial prejudices through the values inherent in sport. Finally, the Joy in effort, to do one’s best, regardless of the outcome. Through the honour and dignity in competition, Olympic athletes teach lessons to the society.

The study also noted a paradox, according to Payne, commercial goals could possible undermine or even pose a threat to the realisation of non-commercial goals. Sponsors and broadcasting contracts generate the most of Olympic Movement's turnover. The total income during the period 2001-2004 was 4,189,000,000 US/dollars. The broadcasting turnover consisted of 53% of the IOC.s incomes, compared to sponsorships 34%, ticketing 11% and licensing and other revenues 2% 92% percent of this income was distributed to Organising Committee for the Olympic Games

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59 _{The Olympic Charter, 2007}

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(OCOG:s), International Federations (IF:s) and National Olympic Committees (NOC:s) The remaining 8 % were distributed to the administrations and operations of the IOC. 56

2.1.2 Olympism and Cultural Differences

Payne and Susan Brownell, author to the book, Beijing's Games : what the Olympics mean to China57 argues that Olympism is dynamic rather than fixed and static. Payne and Brownell both states; that the Olympics must adapt to the cultural differences of non-western countries, such as China and Sub- Sahara Africa. The Western Ideals are not universally understood. According to Brownell the Chinese culture is different, compared to the western perspective.58 Brownell further explains that The Beijing Olympics will be a global event where eastern and western culture meets and the Olympic movement can be seen as a transcultural, transethnic, transnational and global cultural system.59

From Michael Payne's research one can conclude that the environmental field is not seen as a main focus for the philosophy of Olympism. This is in contrast to the IOC standards, which clearly puts the environment as a vital part of the Olympic spirit. At the Lausanne Conference in 2005 the participants once again acknowledged the direct link between peace, security and the protection and sustainable management of the environment.60 According to Payne the IOC:s the Olympic Games raise both nations and individuals, athletes and spectators to a higher plain. Just like former South Africa president Nelson Mandela described;

Sport reaches areas far beyond any sphere of political influence and has probably done more to unify nations that any politician has been capable of. 61

2.2 The Third pillar of the Olympism, the Environment

In 1996 The IOC added the paragraph on environmental protection into the Olympic Charter as they recognised the importance of environmental and sustainable development. The IOC describes their role as;

The IOC:s role to environment is to encourage and support a responsible concern for environmental issues, to promote sustainable development in sport and to require that the Olympic Games are held accordingly62

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56_{International Olympic Committee (2008)Olympic Marketing fact file . Internet} http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_344.pdf

57_{Brownell, S (2008) Beijing's games : what the Olympics mean to China. Rowman & Littlefield.} England

58_Ibid

59_{Bale, J – Christensen, M_K (Edt, 2004) Post-Olympism? – Questioning Sport in the Twenty-first} century. Berg. Oxford.

60_{United Nation.(2009)Sport as a tool for development and peace. Internet:} http://www.un.org/sport2005/resources/task_force.pdf

61_{Former South Africa president Nelson Mandela, Quoted in Payne 2007, p 3}

62_{The International Olympic committee – factsheet, Environment and Sustainable Development.} Lausanne. Switzerland. (2007) Infocenter@olympic.org, p 1

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The President of The IOC, Mr Rogge sees the Movement as a leader in environmental debate. The Athletes, they need clear and healthy condition to develop in their sports. Damaged environments can pose a huge threat to future sport and the Olympic Games. Furthermore, Rogge describes that the second issue is the impact that sports and especially the Olympic Games can have on the environment. The Olympic Games and practise of all sport should not have any negative effects on the environment. On the contrary, sport gives opportunities to provide sustainable environmental legacies. 63 The IOC has set up different kinds of working groups and guidance to provide these sustainable environmental legacies, such as the sport and environment commission. Steven Mass describes in the Olympic review magazine that IOC has been one of the leader sport organisations to acknowledgment sport's impact on environmental issues. 64

2.2.1 Former Olympic Games Environmental Initiatives, a Brief

Review

The Winter Olympics in Lillehammer 1994 are commonly mentioned as the first Olympic Games with an environmental approach. With education of the public, recycled energy from different arenas and activities and co-operations with nature protection groups regarding locations for buildings, the Lillehammer Olympics started a modern development for the Olympic Games with more focus on environmental questions and co-operation between OGOC: environmental authorities and volunteers.65 Nagano in 1998 followed in Lillehammer’s spirit. In Sydney (2000), the environment initiatives though increased to a bigger scale. The key achievements included increased public transport, the use of solar power, recycling of construction waste, energy and water conservation and wetland restoration. The Organisation Committee and the Olympic Coordination Agency for the Sydney Olympics won the 2001 United Nations Environment Programmes, global 500 Roll of Honour Award for their environmental efforts. 66

When the Summer Olympics arrived home to its homeland in Athens 2004, Greece planted over a million large bushes, 290 000 trees and 11 million small trees throughout Athens. Environmentally friendly materials and new energy technology were used. Environmental friendly vehicles and the creation of the Olympic Environmental Alliance to support effective co-operations with all bodies and the parties were carried out Finally, eco- excursions to educate the public promoting the protection of the environment were important decisions made in accordance to sustainable environment. Winter Olympics in Turin became the first hosting city to involve both an ISO 14001 international environment standard certification and an EMAS certification for its environmental systems and programmes.67

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63_{The International Olympic Committee, Olympic Review (2007) Going Green. Internet:} http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/athens2004/home/full_story_uk.asp?id=2499

64_Ibid

65_{The International Olympic committee – factsheet, Environment and Sustainable Development.} Lausanne. Switzerland. (2007) Infocenter@olympic.org.

66_Ibid 67_Ibid

The Olympic Games – An Instrument for Environmental Political Change. : A case study exploring the Environmental Political approaches of the Olympic Games – with special focus on the 28th Summer Olympic Games in Beijing.

The Institution of Social Science