UNITED STATES
OEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
A STANDARDIZED PROCEDURE FOR
ESTIMATING
COSTS
OF
OF
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
DOUGLAS McKAY, SECRETARY
FRED G. AANDAHL, ASSISTANT SECRETARY
FOR WATER AND POWER DEVELOPMENT
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A STANDARDIZED PROCEDURE
FOR
ESTIMATING COSTS
SALINE WATER CONVERSION
PREPARED BY
OFFICE OF SALINE WATER
DAVID 5. JENKINS. DIRECTOR
JOSEPH J. STROBEL, CHEMICAL ENGINEER
W. S. GILLAM, CHEMIST
ALLEN CYWIN, MECHANICAL ENGINEER
ERNEST H. SIEVEKA, CHEMICAL ENGINEER
FOREWORD
This volume presents a standardized proced re for making ini ial
cost estimates for demineralization of saline waters by various
proc-esses. It is believed ha use of this proced re will provide
suffi-ciently accurate cost estimates for ini ial economic comparisons
between processes. More detailed estimates will become necessary for
processes in advanced stages of development. The procedure is primarily
for the use of the Office of Saline Water, its consultants, and its
present and prospective cooperators for comparing processes and
deter-mining feasibility of conducting research and development work.
As the Saline Water Program progressed, i ecame increasingly
apparent tha a standard procedure for cos estima ing was a necessi y.
After thorough study by the Office of Saline Wa er, it was decided
that the staff, working in cooperation with consultants, would develop
such a procedure. Accordingly, an outline of req iremen s was made and
one of the consultants to the Program, Dr. W. C. Schroeder, Universi y
of Maryland, was engaged to prepare preliminary procedures. Dr.
Schroeder assembled data and had the cost curves or standard
equip-ment prepared. After the procedure was developed, i was reviewed,
and recommendations for revisions made by he following consultants
to the Office of Saline Wa er:
Badger Manufacturing Company, Cambridge, Massachuset s
W. 1. Badger, Consulting Chemical Engineer, Ann Arbor, Mich'gan
Fluor Corporation, Whi tier, Cal'fornia
Griscom-Russell Company, Massillon, Ohio
Ralph M. Parsons Company, 10s Angeles, California
F. E. Schmitt, Consul ing Engineer, Denver, Colorado
Southwest Research Ins itute, San An onio, Texas
J. G. White Engineering Company, New York City, New York
The procedure was also reviewed by he Departmen al Saline Water
Conversion Committee. The various recommendations were considere
and reconciled by the Office of Saline Water and he procedure as
given herein was adopted.
It is emphasized that this estimating procedure is for use in
obtaining a preliminary estimate of costs, When sufficient
engineer-ing data become available for a particular process, the estimate of
costs should be refined by using actual costs, ins ead of using
per-centage factors. Use of this procedure by others to make a cost
estimate does not provide endorsement of hat estimate by the
Depart-ment of the Interior. All estimates prepared for the Office 01
Saline Water will be subject to review as necessary for comparison
Particularly in areas outside the United States, the cost of labor, materials, steam, power, fuel, and even equipment may vary greatly
from costs recommended here.
A special problem arises in comparisons between the cost of converted water and the cost of diverting and supplying naturally fresh water. Many estimates of the cost of supplying fresh water, particularly for large irrigation projects, necessarily include modifying assumptions that operate to reduce the actual over-all costs. ·I~ is evident that in any comparisons between the cost of converted water and that from such projec s, care must be aken to use only real total costs.
CONTENTS
Introductiqn "... 1
Procedure .. ! • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 2
BasI s for' Procedure ,... 7
Size of· plant and Equipment Quality of Feed and Product
...
,.
78
...
,.
Wa~t~ Disposal 8
Oost Items ,'... 9
Capi tal Cost~ ",... 9
Oper-atIng Costs ...•...
1.4
(O.ther Considerations ...•... 18
FOR
A STANDARDIZED PROCEDURE
ESTIMATING COSTS
INTRODUCTION
To permit comparison of the cost of producing fresh water by
vari-ous processes it is necessary to establish a procedure that will place
all the estimates on a comparable basis. Any given estimate will not
necessarily represent the cost of a process at a specific location but
it will represent the order of magnitude for the cost of the water
under the assumed conditions, and will permit valid comparison of
various processes. The estimates will be of use in determining
feasibility of conduc ing research and development work.
The cost estimates, as made under the procedure se forth here,
are first approximations. They are based on selected costs for
invest-ment, fuel and power, and approxima ions for labor, supervision,
maintenance, and other items. These procedures are sufficiently
accu-rate for the first step in comparing costs between processes. In
addi-tion they allow the ini ial estimate on a process to be made with a
reasonable expenditure of time and money and with a minimum amount of
engineering data.
It is evident that more detailed estimates will eventually be
needed for some of the processes. This second step vdll be much more
costly and will involve selection of a site and determination of the
cost of fuel, power and labor at the site. A plot plan must be
prepared showing all the equipment, buildings, foundations, piping,
etc. Bids must be secured on all the major items of equipment and
estimates made for erection and assembly into an operating plant.
Service facilities must be provided such as machine shops and offices.
Also facilities will be needed for raw water preparation and fresh
water storage. Such detailed calculations can only be made after the
process has been more fUlly developed on an engineering basis, and
means that engineering data must be collected from a sizable unit.
The expense of that type of complete cost calculation is justified
only for promising processes.
The standardized cost estimating procedure as presented herein
is in three parts, consisting of (1) a summary of the items in tabular
form for estimating the costs, (2) a discussion of the many factors
which have contributed to the cost estimating procedure, and (3) an
appendix which includes cost estimates for various items of equipment,
PROCEDURE Process Diagram and Equipment Costs
The calculations of the ~lant investment will be based on a "process diagram for knovm ~rocesses or experimentally established
processes. The process diagram is to be ~iven in sufficient"detail to show the process flow throughout operations and to indicate the points where the major items of the equipment are used in the layout. Suffi-cient data are to be furnished ~~th the process diagram and cost
calculations to make it possible to check the size, operating condi-tions and costs for all important items of equipment. For the Principal Items of Equipment (PIE) an itemized list should be prepared giving the installed cost of each item including the special equipment, standard engineering equipment and standby facilities.
Items of Cost Information
The following is a summary of information items to be supplied as part of the cost estimate:
(1) Whether the estimate is for 100,000 or 10 million gallons of product water per stream day.
(2) Analysis of the product water (total dissolved solids unless specified otherwise).
(3) Gallons of raw water feed perr.at ream day.
(4)
Analyses of raw water.(5) Gallons of waste water produced per stream day.
(6) Analysis of waste water. (Total dissolved solids unless specified otherwise)
(7) Kilowatt hours consumed (or produced) per stream day. (8) Millions of B.t.u. 's consumed per stream day.
(9) Total operating force (number of men on payroll). (10) Process diagrams as indicated above.
(11) Itemized list of special equipment, standard engineering equipment, inclUding standby units and the installed cost of
Capital Costs
Essential Plant Costs:
1. Special Equipment (Installed*)
'2. Standard Engineering Equipment (Installed*) (including standby facilities)
TOTAL PIE (Principal Items of Equipment) Installed
3.
Erection and assembly of plant -30%**
of PIE4.
Instruments -4%
of PIETotal Essential Plant Costs (1 through
4)
Other Plant Costs:
5. Raw water supply $5 per 1,000 gallons of feed water per stream day.
6. Product water storage (10 days) at $10 per ,1,000 gallons product water per stream day
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7. Service facilities and buildings 10% of PIE for plants of 10 million gal/day capacity. Omit for plants of 100,000 gal/day.
8. Contingencies - 10% of total of above 7 items
10. Interest on investment during construction _ 4% of plant investment (sum of above 9 items)
*1f equipment costs are estimated ~; O. B. manufacturing plant and do not include freight and installation, mUltiply these costs by 1.3 to obtain installed costs.
**This percentage is subject to adjustment by the Office of Saline Water, depending upon the specific type of process or processes.
11. Site $3 *per 1,000 gallons of product water per stream day
Total Plant Investment (sum of above 11 items)
Working Capital:
60 days production at the total operating cost Total Capital Costs (plant investment plus working capital)
From the total capital costs calculate the cost per gallon per day /(;f production.
Cost per gallon per day of production OPERATING COSTS
Essential Operating Costs (Basis, one stream day and JJO operating days per year)
Cost Per Stream Day 1. Fuel at 25 cents per 1,000,000 B.t.u.
2. Electric power - continuous demand above 100,000
•
KW 5 mills per KWHBe low 100,000 KW 7 mills per KWH
Sale of byproduct power 4 mills per KWH (Credit) J. Steam - $0.55/per I,OOO lb.
4. Other raw materials or chemicals used in the process.,
*For solar evaporation or other methods which need exceptionally large areas of land, calculate as special items.
Cost Per Stream Day
5. Supplies and maintenance materials - 0.0015
per-cent of total plant investment (Items 1 through 11
under capital cos s) (0.5 percent per annum, 330
operating days)
6. *Operating labor, 10% of above 5 items plus
amortization (see item 11, a and b) for plants of
100,000 gal/stream day, 5% for plants of 10,000,000
gal/stream day
7. Maintenance labor, 0.0015 percent of otal plant
investment (0.5 percent per annum)
8. Payroll extras, 15 percent of i ems 6 and 7
Total Essential Operating Costs (s of
above 8 items)
Other'Operating Costs , ~
9. General overhead and administrative overhead
30 percent of items 6, 7 and 8
10. Amortization
(a)** 0.0224 percent of total plant investment
including starting up expense, less items under (b)
(b) Equipment with less than 20 year life (see
table 1)
*Staff by estimating number of operators for each operating unit of the
plant if possible, in lieu of estimating by percentage as above.
**Based on 20 year plant life and 4% interest. Amortization rate is
Cost Per Stream Day 11. Taxes and Insurance, 0.006% of total plant
investment (2 percent per annum)
12. Interest on working capital (0.012% of working capital)
(4%
per annum) Calculate as .0072~ times the•
sum of the above 11 items.
Total Operating Costs for one stream day (sum of above 12 items)
Cost Per 1,000 Gal. From the total operating costs per stream day
calculate the cost per 1,000 gallons of product water
If the above calculations do not represent the capacity of an efficient single plant unit, in addition to the above cost estimation, indicate:
(a) The capacity of such a unit
(b) Estimate capital and operating costs for such a unit
If the investigating group believes that the sale of byproducts will reduce the cost of the fresh water, a separate estimate should be made for plant investment and operating costs, including byproduct production and sale.
BASIS
FOR PROCEDURE
The cost of fresh water by most of the processes decreases as the size of the plant increases because of lower capital and labor costs and sometimes lower fuel cost per unit of fresh water produced. In general however, there is a limit to the reductions tha can be secured by this means, and this is reached with the largest unit that can be engineered. From this point on greater production can be secured only by use of more units and reduction in cost is much slower. Further reduction would then result primarily from the distribution of some of the fixed costs over a larger output. Such items as supervision,
service facilities, taxes, and insurance may be affected.
SIZE
OF PLANT AND EQUIPMENT
Processes under investigation in the saline water program vary widely as to the plant size that will give economical opera ion. Some. processes are especially suited 0 very large 0 puts, varying from one
million to 100 million gallons of water a day. .~ at empt to use such processes for relatively small outputs may result in high cos for the product. In such cases the costs are to be based on an output of 10 million gallons of product water a day. This is believed to be large enough to achieve economical operation, and basing the estimates on a definite size plant will allow ready comparison between the various processes.
If it appears to any investigating group that 10 million gallons a day is still too small to give the best conditions, it is desired,
nevertheless that the calculations be based on this figure. This group should point out, however, the specific factors, and heir effects, involved in a larger plant that would reduce or otherwise influence the cost of the product water.
Some of the processes under investigation may be well suited to economical operation in the range from 50,000 to a million gallons of water a day. Where this is the case, estimates are based on a plant to produce 100,000 gallons of water per day.
The decision as to whether a process is best suited to a 100,000 gallons or 10 million gallons per day will be left initially to the estimating group. There is, of course, no objection to making the estimate at both 100,000 and 10 million gallons if the process is applicable to each. The estimates are to be based on either one or both of these two sizes. The purpose of this requirement is to pro-duce cost estimates which can be compared with each other.
For several processes an optimum single unit will be smaller than 100,000 gallons per day and in practically all cases smaller than 10 million gallons a day. The size of this optimum single unit is to be given as well as the capital cost and the cost of fresh water on this single unit basis.
The individual items of equipment for the plant can be made as large as possible. However, it must be remembered that in large plants with a heavy capital investment, loss of scheduled production, even for a few days a year, is a very serious matter. Costs of labor, deprecia-tion, and other overhead go on almost unabated. About the only thing that might be saved is cost of energy. Precautions must be taken, therefore, to eliminate the possibility of total loss of production, and in fact to avoid any considerable decrease is scheduled output for an extended period.
QUALITY OF FEED AND PRODUCT
Some processes under investigation in the saline water program are subject to variation in the feed water that they are adapted to treat and in the quality of the fresh water that is produced. Some of the processes, for example, those based on evapora ion methods, can use sea water for feed, whereas methods depending on diffusion through membranes may be better adapted to less saline solutions. In some rocesses the concentrations of salt that can be tolerated in the product will greatly influence the economics of the operation. For all of the processes the upper limit in the salt concentration in the product water is taken as
500 ppm.
The variations in the quality of the feed and product introduce additional factors that must be weighed in a comparison of the~rocesses. It is impossible to arbitrarily specify a set of conditions for feed and product that must be met by each process. If this were attempted it could impose conditions on some of the processes under which they could not operate, or burden them with heavy economic penalties.
To meet this problem the quality of feed and product will be speci-fied for the process under consideration. These specifications will, of course, be made compatible, insofar as possible, with the optimum
operating conditions for the process.
If a process allows dilution of the produce with feed water and
still meets specifications, the cost calculations should show both the cost of the undiluted fresh water and the cost after dilution.
WASTE DISPOSAL
In this procedure the processes have not been charged with the cost of disposal of any concentrated solutions produced. This is a problem which cannot be adequately considered on a general basis since it con-cerns the exact plant location. For plants along the coast the waste could be pumped back into the ocean and the cost would be that of the' pumping operation which would be nominal. In other cases the waste might be put into a stream flowing to the ocean.
The cost calculations are made in two categories; capital and
operating. The total capital costs aTe made up of the total plant
investment and the working capi al. The opera ing costs represen
all costs chargeable 0 the actual water production.
In some cases, and partie larly in inland areas, the disposal of
concentrated brines into streams or pumping it underground would be
undesirable. This might make i necessary 0 provide a special area
for the concentrated waste. This cost ~oul be considerable, bu it
cannot be estimated prior to he selection of a lan location.
COST ITEMS
The plant investment is s bdivided into "Essential Pla Costs" and "Other Plant Costs" which toge her make u the Total P'l.ant
Invest-ment. The Operating Costs are subdivided into "Essential Operating Costs" and "Other Operating Costs" which together make up the lOtal
Operating Costs. As the name would indicate he essen ial operating
costs are limited to raw materials, f el, power, steam, labor and
maintenance; while the essential plant or esse tial capital costs are
limited to the principal items of equipment, erection of he plant and
instrumentation. CAPITAL COSTS Plant Investment
A major portion of the capital costs arise from he investment in
the plapt. The basic data for this estimate are secured from
experi-mental investigation which results in a process diagram indicatir~ all
the equipment, flow rates, heat and energy requirements, pressures, and
temperatures that are involved in the process. The diagram is used to
calculate the size of all vessels, pumps, pipelines, f aces, or 0 her
equipment~that is necessary. Essential Plant Costs
a. Initial Plfu~t Investment
The method used in this report for estimating the initial plant
investment is based on first estimating the installed costs of the
principal items of equipment (PIE), including both standard and special
items, and from these estimating, as a percentage of PIE, the cost of
all additional facilities. It should be noted that since the cost of
the PIE forms the basis for a whole series of subseq- ent estimates,
these should be as complete and accurate as possible.
In many instances equipment costs are most readily secured f.O.B.
manufacturing plant and will not include freight and installation.
./ Delivery of fresh water can be made continuous by providing stor&ge equal to 10 dayp production more economically than having a complete standby unit. I I addition, much of the equipment in the plant can be
expected to operate continuously, without accidental or emergency failure. Scheduled shutdowns for maintenance can be met by the fresh water storage.
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~.
obtain installed costs. This method of estimating the installed costs is considered satisfactory for the purposes of this procedure.
b. Special Equipment.
In some processes, types of equipment will be used in the plants which are unique to the process, and often the cost of this equipment can only be estimated on the basis of the experimental work itself. In such cases it is the responsibility of the investigating group to determine size, design, materials of construction, operating conditions, life, and any other factors that bear on the cost. In all cases it is desired that conservative values be used which the experiments indicate are probably attainable in a commercial plant.
c. Standard Engineering Equipment
In many processes for producing fresh water a major portion of the equipment in the plant will consists of standard engineering items such as pumps, compressors, heat exchangers, e c. In the appendix of this report will be found charts or methods for calculating the installed cost of such equipment. Insofar as possible these data should be used in estimating the plan items. The purpose is to s andardize the esti-mating procedures and increase the validity of the final comparison betwe~n estimates.
Standby Facilities
However, in every plant there are important units of equipment which are subject to accidental and unpredictable failure. Reciprocat-ing, rotatReciprocat-ing, or equipment with moving parts, are particularly in this category. In addition, this type of equipment may need to be shut down periodically for servicing. The continuous operation of such equipment may also be important to the safety of the plant and personnel.
Standby facilities should provided for equipment in that category. For example, if three of four pumps or blowers are required to operate the plant at capacity, one extra one should be available to meet emer-gencies and to allow regular servicing. The equipment layout for the plant should be reviewed to see that these standby requirements are met. Any standby facilities are part of the PIE total.
e. Process Piping, Electrical Installations and Other Items
From the PIE it is possible to estima e the cost of process piping, electrical"installations and miscellaneous items that are needed to make an operating plant. For this prel\minary estimate this cost is taken as 30 percent of the PIE. This percentage faotor is subject to adjust-ment by the Office of Saline Water, depending upon the specific type of process or processes. If the use of large amounts of electric energy is a major feature of the process, additional allowance should be made in the cost. Where high pressures or high temperatures are involved it may be necessary to provide protective barricades of steel or con-crete. These will represent additional costs that should be estimated separately. Also, if the equipment is exceptionally heavy and large and it is necessary to provide cranes in the buildings or steel struc-tures with cranes out of doors to erect and service the equipment this will add to the costs.
Any other special features of the equipmen and process should be considered in using this percentage method of estimating the costs of erecting and assembling the plant.
f. Instruments
,The degree of instrumentation in a plant is subject to the contro~ of the designer to some extent. Frequently, he has a choice of using additional employees or installing automatic controls. Because of high labor cost, as well as more uniform operation, the balance now is
generally favorable to a high degree of Lnet.r-umerrtatdon ; In this procedure, it is assumed that the instruments will amount to 4% of the PIE unless there are special problems involved in the process which will ,affect this estimate. Included are pressure, temperature, flow and weighing, measuring, recording and controlling instruments.
OTHER PLANT COSTS
a. Raw Water Supply and Treatment
For the purpose of this estimate it is assumed that no raw water storage is necessary. It is'assumed desirable, however, to pass the raw water through settling tanks or screens that will remove solids and debris and protect the plant from these materials. Pumps should be provided to pump the raw water to the settling tanks. The 'installed cost' of',this equipment, inclUding pumps, is estimated at $5 per 1,000 gallons of feed water per day.
The above treatment will provide for screening and settling only. For some processes additional costs will be involved in preparing the water for the plant. For example, in evaporation processes it may be desirable to deaerate the water to remove oxygen and other gases. Other situations may require filtration, chemical pretreatment,
these purposes. Normally water from any of the processes will have to
be chlorinated for potable use. This will not be included as a
treat-ment cost because it is a uniform public health requirement. However,
chlorination applied for such purposes as oxidizing iron or hydrogen
sulfide or for the prevention of bacterial growths or slime formation
within the equipment should be considered a treatment cost.
Facilities for raw water supply and treatment are considered as
service facilities and are not part of the PIE.
b. Water Storage
It is assumed that reservoir storage will be provided a the plant
for 10 days' production. This is estimated at $10 per 1,000 gallons
per stream day, including cost of pumps and any other handling
equip-ment. This is not part of the PIE. This storage will provide a flow
of product water in case of accidental shutdovm of the plant. It is
also assumed that it will provide water during scheduled shutdowns for
servicing. These are for less than 9 days at anyone time and not more
than 4 times a year.
c. Service Facilities and Buildings
To service the plant it may be necessary to have a railroad siding,
roads, warehouse, machine shop, maintenance shop, office building,
trucks, automobiles, and miscellaneous other equipment and facilities,
including all services to shops and offices such as hea ing, lighting,
etc. These are estimated at 10 percent of the cost of the PIE for
plants of 10 million gallons per day. For plants of 100,000 gallons
per day, it is assumed that any such facilities necessary would already
be available.
d. Power and Steam
In plants of the size contemplated here, it may be necessary to
erect a powerplant as part of the operation. For these initial cost
estimates it is believed desirable to simplify the calculations by
assuming electric power will be furnished to the plant. On this basis
the capital cost of the plant does not need to include an estimate for
the powerplant.
The cost of electric power at the plant is discussed under
operating costs.
Certain processes cannot avoid the problem of power plant
construc-tion because power is generated, in some cases sufficient to have
byproduct power for sale. In such instances the powerplant must be
considered a part of the process and its capital cost must be estimated.
This cost will then become part of the PIE. (Credit should be given to
Some processes will require steam, which would probably be generated
at the site. However, to simplify the initial cost calculations it is
assumed th~t'Bteam is purchased and no cost for the boiler plant will 'be
included in the capital cost .
.~
Cost of steam is discussed under operating costs.
e. Starting Up Costs
In most large plants there is an initial period during which labor,
supervisory and office forces are being paid and many other expenses
being incurred while production is low and in ermit ent. This includes
the training period for the operating force, the period needed for
eliminating bottlenecks and start-up of the plant. This could be
treated as an operating expense for the firs year, or treated as a
capital cost to be amortized over the life of the plant. However,
because these starting up costs are a very small part of the total
W?t~~pr04uction costs, they are omitted in this estimating procedure
in
or~ei
to simplify the calculations.f. Contingencies
Contingencies will be estimated at 10 percent of the foregoing .0
items.
g. Engineering
Engineering will be estimated as 10 percent of all of the preceding
items.
h. Interest on Investment During Construction
During the construction period, funds are being used and no prod'lct
produced. It is assumed that interest is charged on the money during
that period. For comparison purposes an arbitrary 2 year period has
been taken for construction. It is also assumed that the money will ',e
expended at a uniform rate and that interest is at the rate of
4
percentper annum. Under these conditions the interest during construction over
the 2-year period would amount to 4 percent of the plant investment (not
including working capital).
i. Plant Site
The cost of the plant site will vary greatly depending on its
location. If roads and railroads are reasonably close the land will be
valuable. If this is not the case, the land may be low cost, but these
facilities must be brought in and this may be expensive. It has been
assumed that a plant of 10 million gallons per stream day will require
about 300 acres for plant, storage facilities, etc. This land has been
assumed to cost $100 per acre or $30,000 for the site. This $3 per
For plants using solar energy or other plants that need large
areas, the above assumptions are not valid and he cost of the site
should be calculated as a special item. Working Capital
In addition to the investment in he plant, working capital must
be provided. This fund is used to pay all costs for produc s for which
payment is received at a later date. In this procedure working capital
is estimated as 60 days production at the total operating cost. (It
should be noted that working capital is not amortized with plant
investment.) OPERATING COSTS
Essential Operating Costs
These include raw materials, fuel, power, steam, labor and
maintenance.
a. Raw Materials
It is assumed that it is unnecessary to purdhase the sea water or
brackish water used in the process. Under the capital costs it will be
remembered that pumps and settling tanks were provided. Care mus be
exercised to see that labor and maintenance are provided for this
equipment as part of the operating costs. If the incoming water needs
special treatment for the process, such as deaeration, the labor and
maintenance shou'ld also be provided for this step.
b. Fuel
Fuel is limited to that used for heating. Electric power will be
purchased and drives for compressors, pumps, etc., may be electric,
steam or other suitable means.
Fuel costs will vary greatly depending on which fuel is used,
i.e., coal, gas, or oil and on the geographic location of the plant.
To simplify comparisons between different processes it is assumed that
the fuel will cost 25 cents per l,OOO,OOO B.t.u. It is also assumed
that this covers the cost of bringing the fuel to the plant, the cost
of any fuel storage, and all.costs of handling the fuel in the plant
up to the point of use.
c. Electric Power
For plants having a continuous demand rate of lOO,OOO kilowatts or
more the power cost should be taken as 5 mills per kilowatt hour. For
plants using less than lOO,OOO kilowatts, the power and cost should be
e. Other Raw Materials or Chemicals
These estimates include all equipment and operating costs for
bringing the power to the central switchboard of transformer station8
in the plant. They do not include the distribution in the plant itself.
Power at 3 to 4 mills per kilowatt hour which might .be obtainable
from a water power source was not used, because little low-cost water
power is now available in large blocks, and since water power comes
from fresh water streams, it seems unlikely that there would be a need
to produce fresh water in those areas.
(For those plants generating excess power for sale it may be
assumed that the returns will be 4 mills per kilowatt hour.)
d. steam
The cost of steam both saturated and superheated at various
pressures is estimated at $0.55 per 1,000 Ibs.
Any raw materials such as may be used to treat the raw water, or
the finished product, and which represent a considerable part of the
cost of processing should be estimated separately and shown in this
category.
f. Supplies and Maintenance Materials
Supplies and maintenance materials are the incidental items
neces-sary to keep the plants, shops and offices operating. These include
replacement supplies for maintenance, paint, gasoline, oil, office
supplies, etc. These are estimated at 0.5 percent per annum of the
total plant investment.
g. Operating Labor
Labor is one of the most difficult of the operating costs to
esti-mate, and even at best the estimates are subject to considerable error.
Inaccuracies at this point are magnified in the final operating cost
figures because supervision, as well as several other costs are based
on the estimate for operating labor.
One method, and perhaps the best, for estimating labor is to
estimate the number of men needed per shift in each unit of the plant.
To this must be added the men needed for coordination between the
various units as well as the maintenance force. For standardized
engineering units, for example, a compressor station, there is
suffi-cient experience to make a reasonably accurate estimate on this basis.
For new types of equipment the estimate is more difficult. Also, in
this method there is some inherent tendency to underestimate the labor
requirements. Nevertheless, it is recommended that this method be used
Another method sometimes used is to estimate labor as a percentage of the investment in the plant. If this is based on experience in closely similar plants it can be quite accurate. However, this method often seems to work backwards. For example, if new equipment or new instruments are installed for the specific purpose of eliminating labor, they will. appear as an increased labor cost, since they increase the investment in the plant.
still another method used to estimate labor, is as a percentage of sales. This might correspond to a percentage of the cost of production in the saline water program. The disadvan age of this method is that it could fail to give proper recognition to a process which was inher-ently susceptible to high throughput and automatic control so that a minimum of operating labor was necessary.
In this procedure, operating labor will be estimated where possible on the basis of the number of men required per shift for each plant unit. However, where the operating labor cannot be estimated for each unit in the plant, it will be estimated as 10% of the fuel, power, raw materials and chemicals, supplies and maintenance materials, plUS amortization for plants of 100,000 gal./stream day and 5% of those items for plants of 10,000,000 gal./stream day.
h. M4intenance Labor
Maintenance labor will be estimated as 0.5% per annum of the total plant investment.
i. Payroll Extras
Payroll eEtras are estimated as 15% of the operating and maintenance labor.
j. Total Number of Employees
The total labor for the plant will then be made up of the operating and maintenance labor. As calculated above, this will be in dollars per calendar day. To estimate the man hours per day this figure should be divided by about $2.00. From the man hours per day it is possible to approximate the number of men on the payroll as follows: Assume 8 hours a day, five days a week with a total of three weeksl vacation and
holidays a year, and 2 weeks' sick leave. Total hours per year is 8 x 5 x 47
=
1,880 hours. Net hours per calendar day is1,880·365 a 5.15 (roughly 5.) The man hours per calendary day divided by 5 will give a rough estimate of the men on the payroll.
Other Operating Costs
a. General Overhead and Administrative Overhead
This item covers administration and general p ant and office
over-head. It is taken as 30% of operating labor, maintenance labor, and
payroll extras.
b. Amortization (Interest on Capital and Depreciation)
It is uncertain at this time how saline water conversion plants
will be financed and operated. In some instances where fresh water is
particularly valuable the plants might be operated on a profit making
basis. For the present it has been assumed, however, that the
opera-tion will be on a basis comparable with the usual city water system.
Capital for the plant is provided by the city and operation is on a
self-supporting non-profit making basis.
In such a case the cost of the capital may be taken as the cost to
the city itself. In this procedure, this calculated as 4% per annum of
the depreciated plant investment, including the starting up costs.
Depreciation is calculated on the basis of a 20 year plant life.
Depreciation will then amount to 5% of he plant investment. (Do not
include working capital since this does not depreciate.)
Interest on the depreciated plan investmen at 4%, and
deprecia-ation over 20 years give
a
total charge of 7.4% for amortization on theinitial investment.
Care should be exercised not to include in the amortization
esti-mate items which are regularly recurring operating expenses. For
instance, in diffusion processes if the membranes must be replaced
every few weeks or months, this should be treated as an operating
expense.
Equipment having a shorter life should be amortized over less
years. If moving machinery or equipment subject to corrosive
condi-tions is known to last only 5, 10 or 15 years, depreciation should be
based on expected life. The cost of such equipment should be separated
from that amortized over 20 years and it should be amortized in
Table 1
Amortization for Equipment with Less ~han 20 Year Life
Expected Life ,'Years Amortization* Percent per Annum Percent per Stream Day 2 3 4 5 7 10 15
53
36 27 22 17 12 9 0.160 0.109 0.082 0.067 0.051 0.036 0.027 •*Interest at
4%
per annumIn the charts and.rtab Les showing the cost of standard engineering equipment, where the life is expected to be less than 20 years, it is so indica ted.
c. Taxes and Insurance
Taxes are estimated at one percent of the plant investment.
To protect the municipality against loss in case of fire and other damage to the plant itself, as well as possible damage from plant oper-ation to adjacent property, it is assumed that insurance is necessary. This is taken as one percent per annum of the plant investment.
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS Cost Basis
The basis for calculating the total capital requirements for the plant and the daily or annual operating cost has been given. To facili-tate comparison of processes it is desirable to reduce the capital
requirements to dollars per gallon of daily production and the operat-ing cost to dollars per 1,000 gallons of product water.
Down Time
It is not desirable to assume that a plant will operate 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. In the petroleum industry, for example, a refin-ery is usually assumed to operate about 90 percent of the time, or 330 days instead of 365. The actual days it runs are then stream days and
a calendar day. The extra 10 percen of time is used to service and
maintain facilities and equipment which mus be shutdown to do this
work.
It is not particularly important just How the 10 percent of down
time is distributed over the year. In some cases it may be desirable
to service the plant daily with a few ho rs out of the 24 allotted for
this purpose.
It is important, however, to assume realistic figures for
on-stream time for the plant or the cos estimate may be seriously in
error. Also, product water storage should be sufficient to carry
through these shutdown periods. In this procedure the on stream time
has been taken ~ 330 days per year.
Accuracy of Estimates
Absolute accuracy of costs is not possible to obtain by use of
this procedure. However, as a basis for economic comparison of processes,
the method set forth should be valuable and reasonably reliable. The
Office of Saline Water will review all estimates in order to minimize
discrepancies that may arise in the application of this estimating metAOd.
Another factor that will greatly influence the reliability of the
estimate is the comparative state of development of the processes. Irhere
the estimates are based on well developed processes with all the detailed
engineering data available, they are of course, much more reliable than
for a new process for which only limited data can be secured from small
scale experiments. This factor must be carefully weighed and an attempt
made to estimate the effect on the final product costs of a shift in the
experimental results. By this means it is often possible to indicate
the maximum and minimum costs that might result from a more detailed
examination of the process.
By-Products
Some of the processes under investigation may produce salable
by-products along with fresh water. In all cases the estimates for plant
investment, and cost of production of fresh water, are to be based on
requirements and returns for product water alone. If the investigating
group believes that the returns that may be achieved from the sale of
byproducts will materially reduce the cost of the fresh water this
should be shown in a separate estimate. Such an estimate should include
all the additional equipment and facilities necessary to produce and
sell the byproducts and any additional operating costs that are
APPENDIX
ALL COST DATA AND CHARTS REVISED ON BASIS OF ENGINEERING NEWS=RECORD COST INDEX
•
./
/
,
INSTALLED COOT INFORMATION FOR THE FOLLOWING
DISTILLATION AND ADSORPrION TOWERS
DRYERS DUST COLLECTORS EVAPORATORS FILTERS HEAT EXCHANGERS MOTORS PIPE INSULATION
PUMPS - COMPRESSORS - BLOWERS
REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT
EJECTORS
STEAM GENERATION EQUI PMENT
STEEL STORAGE TANKS AND GAS HOLDERS
STEEL STORAGE SPHERES
ELEVATED WATER STORAGE TANKS CONTINUOUS THICKENERS
TURBO - GENERATORS
AVERAGE LIFE OF EQUIPMENT* AND FACILITIES IN YEARS
Boilers Buildings
Brick
&
Steel Concrete BlockSteel Frame, Corrugated Iron Walls Colunms Compressors Condensers (closed) Coolers Cooling Towers Crushers Dryers Electrical Distribution Electric Furnaces Evaporators
Fans and Blowers Filter Presses Gas Furnaces Grinders Heat Exchangers Kilns Mixers Motors Pipe Pumps Retorts Screens Stills Thickeners Tanks Towers
Automotive and Transportation
*For items not shown it may be assumed that the life is 20 years unless moving machinery, corrosive or other conditions are involved which will reduce the life. In such case the estimator will use his best judgment
20 20 15 15 10 20 20 20 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 20 10 15 20 20 10 15 20 20 20 10 17 10 20 20 7
10
si
oo
PER PLATS O~p;rn FT. HIGH 9 .LU 8 " " , " • 7 , ,, ,
H-tt " , I, ,:~
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,.
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, , 10 ~i2ies of are Filtering Area - Sq. Ft.filtering plates generally used in obtaining noted at bottom of graph
"
,
a total 3 • areas 1 II 9 10HEAT EXCHANGERS Ref. l,2,J,4,5,6,7,8
All Steel Construction Design Pressure- 150 psi
Operating Temperature- 200 to 400 Degrees F
Pressure - JOO psi 600 psi 90.0 psi
Temperature - 400 to 650 650 to 900
1.2
A- Shell and Tube Calendrias
B-
Shell and Tube Exchangers C- Caskade CoolersD- Jacketed Pipe Exchangers
Special Materials of Construction Factors Steel Shell and Stainless Tubes - 2.5
All Copper Construction - 1.2
Cupro - Nickel - 2.1
All Stainless Steel - 5.0
Glass Lined - 4.4 Aluminum - 1.1 1.J 1.6 - Ll - 1,9
$1000 INSTALW~ COST 1~ .'.
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"CAPACITY
-
D'UV3R HoaS3PO~I I I I I I I I I , , , , , I I • I , I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I 1 I I 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I I I I I I I I , I , I I , I I I , I I I
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EJECTORS
steam Pressure - 100 psi
Atmospheric Discharge Pressure One Nozzle Per Ejector
Barometric Intercondensers
Condensing Water at 85 Degrees F.
Curve Stages P
Vi
S A 1 300 Non-Cond , 1.2 B 1 100 Non-Cond. 6.2 C 1 50 Non-Cond. 10.0 D 2 100 0.1:7 3.2 E 2 50 0.254.8
F 2 10 Non-Cond. 15 G 3 10 9O.~
H 4 4 1.7 12P _ Steam Ejector Suction Pressure - rom. of Hg.
Haveg Carbon Lined Bronze Stainle\3S Steel 1.2 1.7 1.2 2.0 1.5 S - lb. ~r Hour of Steam per lb. per Hour of Dry Air
W -
·GaL
per Min. of Water pel' lb. per Hour of Dry AirSpecial Materials of Construction Factors
Single Stage Multi Stage
1.7 2.7
" '" II t I " I I I, ,1 , 1 I II I I I I III I III I ~ • 5 4 a 2
,
e 6 , , I 5 4 a , , , " I , I 1'1 III I I t II 'I " I I " " , I I II '" " " , , , II II I I If I I "II I " , " , 6 5~ 5~ '"II 4 3 •o
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" 'I , III I I I , " II I III , ill! rm -+-"" '", "II', '" , , II I III I 5 , I 7 e '1"0 CAPACITY, ,' ,I , II: ,I' " II 2 , II a 4 II,
. ,,
' " '11 T 6 7 • '1'00 E 01l"l LBS. 2 .~ -, 4 ."-,
6 7 8 9 10I I I I I I I I I I , , I
,
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.
"
•
KILO\iATTSBIBLIOGRAPHY
1. "Chemical Business Handbook", John H. Perry, McGraw-Hill Book Co. 2. "Chemical Engineering Cost Estimation", R. Aries and R. Newton,
Chemonics, Inc.
3. "Chemical Engineers Handbook", John H. Perry, McGraw-Hill Book Co. 4. "Economics of Heat Exchanger Design", E. D. Anderson and E. W.
Flaxbart, Petroleum Refiner, Vol. 34, Jan., pp. 159-163.
5. "Heat Exchanger Costs Today", Frank L. Rubin, Chemical Engineering, May-Oct. 1953.
6. "Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers", A'.M. Mitchell, Chern. Engr , Costs Quart., 3, 36-52, April 1953.
7. "Chemical Process Machinery", E. R. Riegel, Reinhold, New York. 8. "Preparing Preliminary Job Estimates", W. W. Bond, Oil & Gas J.,
52, Dec. 14, 1953.
9. "How to Estimate Dust Collector Costs", J. Da11avalle, Chem. Engr ,, pp. 177-183, Nov. 1953.
10. "Evaporation", E. Lindsey, Chern. Engr., 60, pp , 227-240, April 1953. 11. "Report on Evaporator Costs", Williams, Che . Engr ,, 60, p , 156,
April 1953
12. Adsorptive Dryers", O. T. Zimmerman, Chern. Engr-, Costs Quart., 3, 9-13, Jan. 1953.
13. "How to Plan Power Distribution", Chem. Engr., pp. 199-203, April 1953. 14. "Electric Motors vs. Steam Turbines", H. C. Mays, Petro Refiner, 32,
96-100, August 1953.
15. "How to Select Motors and Controls", R. J. Osborn, Oil
&
Gas J., 52, 351, September 21, 1953.16. "Gas Turbines", Petro Refiner, 32, 120, December 1953.
17. "Fast Estimating for Power Plant Costs", T. A. Furnside, Chem. Engr. 60, 239-241, June 1953.
•
18. "Blower and Fan Costs", R. Denzler, Chern. Engr ,, 59, 130-4, October1953.19. "Ejectors Show Low Fixed Costs", J. C. Tallman, Chern.Engr" 60, 176-9, January 1953.
ELEMENTS PRESENT IN SEA WATER* (Dissolved gases not included)
Element
Milligrams per
kilogram
(parts per million)
Milligrams per liter Chlorine Sodium Magnesium Sulphur Calcium Potassium Bromine Carbon Strontium Boron Silicon Fluorine Nitrogen (comp.) Aluminum Rubidium Lithium Phosphorus Barium Iodine Arsenic Iron Manganese Copper Zinc Lead Selenium Cesium Uranium Molybdenum Thorium Cerium Silver Vanadium Lanthanum Yttrium Nickel Scandium Mercury Gold Radium Cadmium Chromium Cobalt Tin 18',980 10,561 1,272 884 400
380
65 28 13 4.6 0.02 - 4.0 1,4 0.01 - 0.7 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.001-0.10 0.05 0.05 0.01 - 0.02 0.002-0.02 0.001- 0.01 0.001- 0.01 0.005 0.004 0.004 0.002 0.0015 0.0005 0.0005 0.0004 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 0.0001 0.00004 0.00003 0.000006 0.2 - 3 X 10 -10 19,441, 10,812. 1,302. 905. 410.389.
66. 28.1 13.1 4.6 •..
,SALTS IN SEA WATER*
(Probable combination of ions in sea water)
Parts per million parts sea water (approximate) Sodium Chloride, NaCl
Magnesium Chloride, MgC12 Magnesium Sulphate, MgS04 Calcium Sulphate, caS04 Potassium Sulphate, K2S04 Calcium Carbonate, CaC03 Magnesium Bromide, MgBr2 27,213 3,807 1,658 1,260 863 123 76 35,000~ *Reference: Based on "Raw Materials from the Sea" by E. Frankhand
Armstrong
&
L.
Backenzie Miall - 1946, Chemical Publishing Company, Inc. - p4CONSTITUENTS IN OCEAN WATER** Milligrams per 1,000
grams of sea water (parts per million)
Milligrams per liter at 200 C. (specific gravity 1.025) Total salts Sodium Magnesium Calcium Potassium Strontium Chloride Sulphate as S04 Bromide Boric Acid as H3B03 35,100 10,770 1,300 409 388 10 19,370 2,710 65 26 36,000 11,100 1,330 420 390 10 19,800 2,7fJJ 66 26 Carbon: (Present as bicarbonate Carbonate and molecular _carbon dioxide)
23 mg. at pH8.4 25 mg. at pH8.2 26 mg. at pH8.0 27 mg. at pH7.8 As dissolved organic matter 1-2.5mg.
Oxygen (wherein equilibrium
with the atmosphere at 150
c.l
8 mg. ; 5.8 cm3per 1.Nitrogen (wherein equilibrium
with the atmosphere at 150 C.) 13 mg •
=
10.5 cm3 N2 per 1.-I-
O.28cm3argon etc.
•
Other elements
**Reference: Based on "The Chemistry and Fertility of Sea Waters" by H. W. Harvey - 1955, Cambridge University Press - p4
* -
West Well, City of Miller, South Dakota. Depth 1,245 ft., Sampled October 31, 1955. Analyses byU.
S. Geological Survey"(unpubliShed)
- -- Irrigation well, owned by Buckeye Irrigation Co .•, Buckeye, Arizona. Sampled April 23, 1955. Analyses by U. S. Geological Survey
(unpublished)
*- - Pecos River below Grandfalls, Texas. Sampled April, 1951. U. S. Geological Survey, Water Supply Paper No. 1199 - Quality of
Surface Waters of the United States, 1951, Parts 7-8. BRACKISH WATER ANALYSES
(Expressed as parts per million)
A*
B-Silica (Si02) 14 32 Iron (Fe) 1.3 .06 Manganese (Mn) .12 .02 Calcium (Ca) 205 461. Magnesium (Mg) 54 197. Sodium (Na) 338 631. Potassium (K) 18 8.9 Bicarbonate (HCO) 172; 368. Carbonate (CO) 0 0 Sulfate (S04) 1,210 1,060. Chloride (Cl) 83 1,310. Fluoride (F) 2.4 .5 Nitrate (N03) .3 52. Boron (B) 1.9 2.2Dissolved solids (sum) 2,010. 3,940.
Hardness as CaC03 734 1,960 Percent sodium 49 41 Specific conductance in mier0mhD~ at 250C 2,620. 5,810 pH 7.3 7.5 Color 3 6 Turbidity 5 C*** 744
