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“God has forgotten about us Roma”

-A qualitative study of the Romanian Roma migration to Sweden

and

the migration as a political action

Author: Olga Friberg Jonsson

Human Rights

The Faculty of Culture and Society Department of Global Political Studies One year Master programme, 60 credits Master thesis, 15 credits

Spring 2015

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To all my friends of Roma origin in Siria in Romania. For all the

struggles you face each day and for all the dreams you have.

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Abstract

This qualitative study illustrates the Romanian Roma migration within the framework of the principle free movement in connection to Hannah Arendt’s concept political action. Political action is the main ability of human beings, namely to act, which takes place among people in the public realm to create power. This will be studied in conjunction with the migration as an enactment of rights. The study presents the increasing migration towards Sweden and Western Europe within the free movement, areas of discrimination in Romania concerning the

minority group as well as articles with portraits of Romanian Roma migrants. With inspiration from both discourse analysis and content analysis the aim was to study the chosen texts and understand the migration in light of Arendt’s concept. The conclusion is that the migration of the minority group can be claimed to be a political action since the group can be argued to act together as a collective in the public realm to be recognised. Romanian Roma migrants also need political action to regain their ability to act which has been lost, and to act for

improvement as an enactment of rights.

Key words: Roma, Romania, Sweden, migration, free movement, Human rights, discrimination, political action, enactment of rights.

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Abbreviations

EU The European Union

EU-migrant Migrant moving within the European

Union

EU-citizen A person who is a part of a state within

the European Union

NGO Non-Governmental Organisation

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Table of Contents

1. Introduction

……….………..1

1.1 Purpose and research questions………..2

1.2 Material and methodological considerations……….2

1.3 Limitations……….5

1.4 Disposition………...………..5

1.5 Theoretical framework………..……….6

1.5.1 Political action as theoretical concept……….…...6

1.5.2 Action as a new beginning………..….………..6

1.5.3 Action among people in the public realm………..7

1.5.4 Aims and results of action………...………...8

1.5.5 Critique……….………..9

2. Background

………...………...………...11

2.1 Previous research………..………...11

2.2 Migration to Western Europe ………...15

3. Discriminations of Roma

………17 3.1 Living standard.………...………..18 3.2 Health care………..………..18 3.3 Education………..………....19 3.4 Labour market………...………19

4. Cases

………….………..………..…..20

4.1 “The children who were left”………. 20

4.2 “The journey to Sweden” …….……….……….21

4.3 “This is how the beggars live in Jönköping”…...22

4.4 “The beggars”………..………...23

4.5 “Relief in the camp when the eviction was cancelled” ………..…24

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5. Analysis

……….………26

5.1 Political action………....26

5.1.1 Action as the main capacity………..26

5.1.2 The conditions of acting………...……….26

5.1.3 A unique new beginning without ending………..…28

5.2 Romanian Roma migration and political action……….………...29

5.2.1 Migration as a collective action………..…….…………29

5.2.2 Romanian Romas are in need of political action……….32

5.2.3 Unexpected results and the right to a better life……….…..35

6. Conclusion

………..………..37

7. References

………..………..39

7.1 Primary sources………..39

7.2 Literature………...40

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1. Introduction

Today the migration of Romanian Roma is a debated topic in Sweden and Western Europe. This is because the migration of the minority group has increased, they can be claimed to leave their home country because of discriminations, and in the host states they are often seen begging on the streets (ERRC 2011/2012: 27, Göteborgs Kyrkliga Stadsmission). I am

meeting Romanian Romas in Malmö because of my work at Faktum, a street magazine for homeless, and during almost two years in Romania I worked and lived among Romanian Romas. In meetings with these people it is clear that there is a struggle to be able to take care of families in Romania, hence many want to, or have, migrated to Sweden and Western Europe as an attempt to earn money. Their situation in Romania can be alleged to be difficult but it continues to be as such in the host states since their rights are limited.It is for these reasons that it is a highly relevant topic, hence it is important within human rights to illustrate how to understand the migration of the minority group.

This thesis will therefore concern the migration of Romanian Romas to Sweden within the European Union and it will be studied from the concept of political action by Hannah Arendt. Previous research with an Arendtian approach mostly focuses on the right to have rights in regard to migration, few approaches the phenomenon with political action and none have been found which uses political action in regard to Romanian Romas. Hence by examining whether the migration of the minority group can be a political action, meaning an action taking place among people in the public realm which creates power, a new

understanding may be illustrated.

As mentioned, the minority group departs from difficult situations in Romania, hence they can possibly have limited abilities to act within their home countries. The

connection to human rights is therefore that the migration may be a possible enactment of rights which will be studied in conjunction with the concept of political action. The Romanian Romas are also using their rights as EU-citizens by migrating within the free movement, which makes it conceivable to study the migration as a possible political action and as a way to claim their rights.

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1.1 Purpose and research questions

The main aim of this thesis is therefore, as mentioned, to study the movement of Romanian Roma migrants within the EU, from Hannah Arendt’s concept “political action” as a mean to claim ones rights. Different causes of migration including domestic political changes, EU-membership and lack of rights as well as discriminations, can be claimed as reasons for why the migrants enact the migration. The purpose of this study is therefore to illustrate how we can understand the migration as an enactment of rights. Hence, by discussing the migration from an Arendtian perspective there is a hope to develop a knowledge about whether, and how, the movement can be claimed to constitute a political action.

Departing from the main purpose the following research questions have been developed:  What is political action according to Hannah Arendt?

 How can the migration of Romanian Romas, from Romania to Sweden, be understood through the perception of Hannah Arendt’s concept of political action as an enactment of rights?

1.2 Material and methodological considerations

This study is mainly focused on a micro perspective, in this case meaning to examine what the Romanian Romas as a group does and to understand their collective actions in the light of the conception of political action. The study will therefore emphasise the migration as the main activity of political action. By doing this, the aim is, as mentioned, to reach a new way of understanding the movement, as a mean of a political action. Hence, the theoretical chapter concerning Arendt and the concept is of importance since it can be claimed to be the foundation upon which this study, its research questions and analysis lies.

The study is of qualitative method which, in opposition to quantitative method, is unstructured and open. This is positive, but can also be negative in the way that it may be difficult to compare sources (Magne Holme & Krohn Solvang 2010: 79-80). Inspiration is taken from both content and discourse analysis which are not followed systematically but rather they both contribute to the study and its analysis to reach the aim. The methods are depicted since they both analyse the deep meanings of texts in comparison to other methods, which suits the aim of this thesis.

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3 Content analysis addresses several of steps which shall be followed, and the first one regards the gathering of sources and selectivity (May 2011: 246). In accordance with qualitative method, content and discourse analysis this study includes a comprehensive amount of document sources which will lead to a deep understanding of the chosen field (Magne Holme & Krohn Solvang 2010: 78, Bryman 2002: 190, Hardy & Nelson 2002: 5). The primary sources mainly consists of the EU directive regarding the free movement, EU framework for Roma integration, different reports and NGOs; Romani CRISS, Amnesty International and European Roma Rights Centre concerning discrimination in Romania. The theoretical

framework includes political action and therefore the work The Human Condition by Hannah Arendt is included.

After methodological considerations a decision was taken to not establish

interviews with Romanian Romas because of the limited amount of time, their vulnerability as a group and because of language barriers. Even though I speak some Romanian, the

interviews would have had to have been in Swedish, Romanian and English which would have demanded more time to conduct well-functioning interviews, translations and valuable results. There also exists a large number of articles available since the topic is well discussed in today’s society. In accordance with content analysis articles were therefore depicted, since articles often occur within the method (Bryman 2002: 190).Hence six articles from different Swedish news magazines are analysed, two from Sydsvenskan, three from Aftonbladet and one from Jönköpings-posten. They were chosen because they concern the act of migration and the situation of the group in both Romania and Sweden.

However, there is an awareness of the questionable reliability of choosing secondary articles instead of establishing interviews, as well as that the articles have been interpreted which can have implications. As in content analysis the weakness mainly is that the documents may be distorted since the analysis in a study is affected by the texts that are used. Therefore one needs to question authenticity, reliability and representative abilities, meaning whether the data can be trusted (Bryman 2002: 203).Despite this, because of my work in Romania and at Faktum I have a certain understanding of the field as well as it helps me to be critical. In accordance with content analysis the articles have therefore been

examined critically. Other relevant academic literatures in forms of books and articles are also included as well as internet sources such as Göteborgs Kyrkliga Stadsmission and the

European Union. Literature, articles and internet sources have been chosen because of their relevance to either political action by Arendt, Romanian Roma migration, or both. My

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4 situation for these people when they migrate.

The closeness to the sources takes form in experiences working with Romanian Romas as well as the chosen articles being Swedish and public. This is in relevance to

qualitative method where it is important to have connections to the sources, meaning to examine the problem from within (Magne Holme & Krohn Solvang 2010: 14).

After the gathering of the data the texts and articles were interpreted. The discourses and contexts surrounding the topic of Romanian Roma migration were grasped, to further be analysed in an Arendtian meaning. The context exists to explain why the concept of migration for these people was created, and how it is being exercised. This is illustrated in the way that an empirical discussion regarding discrimination of the group as well as articles concerning the individuals are included. In this way this is an attempt to also try and see the Romanian Roma migration from its context. The areas of discrimination and the chosen articles, were analysed together with the concept of political action to form the analysis and answer the research questions. This is in accordance with discourse analysis where the significance of documents and in which way they are a part of establishing the social world are emphasised, as well as a discussion of terms within the texts is present (Hardy & Nelson 2002: 3, 5-6). Words and phrases were also depicted as key words from every article and are stated after the articles. They were chosen because of their frequency, hence they say

something about the texts. For example “money” is mentioned several of times in the articles and can be claimed to say something about the purpose of migration, while “begging” says something about an action in the host state, in connection to migration. The words are therefore used in the analysis to acknowledge how frequently they are occurring, as well as what that means. In this way it is possible to understand something about the texts, as well as the purpose for this thesis. This is in accordance with content analysis where there is a need for marking words which are repeatedly used in the texts.

The words which are not present also say something about the text being researched (Bryman 2002: 197), hence this is a part of the analysis. With inspiration from discourse and content analysis, the received deep knowledge of the various documents have been used to be able to understand factors and activities that are created by the group of Romanian Romas, hence discuss the migration and how to understand it through Arendt. This is in accordance with discourse analysis, where chosen factors and activities should be

emphasised (Hardy & Nelson 2002: 8). Further, the key words from the articles have been a part of the analysis in the way that they have illustrated the situation as well as the act of

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5 migration, which have been useful when analysing the empirical chapter and articles with Arendt’s political action as an enactment of rights.

1.3 Limitations

After considerations a decision was made to depict the minority group of Romanian Roma as the main group of this study because of the increasing number of Romanian Romas arriving in Sweden and Western Europe. The group was also chosen because of their alleged difficult situation. It also interests me since I have lived in Romania for almost two years, working as a volunteer for the human rights of Romanian Romas in a poor community, and therefore there exists a certain closeness to them as a group. To include a country of origin for this minority group seemed necessary to create a framed picture around the topic as well as to avoid too much information. Furthermore the study is established from a micro perspective since this will establish a perspective of what the group does, hence the aim is not to study the causes of migration nor how host states shall treat them. There is an awareness of it to be less reliable to use secondary articles rather than conducting interviews. Despite this, there exists a large number of articles in the subject which makes it possible to choose among them.

1.4 Disposition

After the disposition has been presented the theoretical framework will be discussed regarding the concept of political action by Hannah Arendt. The theoretical framework will be followed by the background of the thesis which includes previous research regarding the Arendtian thoughts of political action and migration, and a discussion concerning the current situation of the increasing migration of Romanian Roma to Sweden and Western Europe. Chapter three will provide an empirical discussion regarding the situation of the Romanian Romas in their home country with an emphasis on discrimination. In this way an understanding will be reached regarding their general situation which will be useful as a context when analysing the migration from the concept of Arendt’s political action. Chapter four includes interpretations from six articles from news magazines where the migration of Romanian Roma is in the centre of attention. The articles will be followed by the analysis divided in two sections, and the thesis will end with concluding remarks.

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1.5 Theoretical framework

1.5.1 Political action as theoretical concept

The theoretical framework which will be the foundation of this study is as mentioned, the perspective of Hannah Arendt regarding the concept of political action. When searching for a suitable theory Arendt’s concept of political action seemed appropriate as a way of

approaching the migration regarding Romanian Romas. Since debates regarding Romanian Roma migration is increasing, it is important to discuss how to understand the movement. By addressing political action in conjunction with the migration it may be possible to reach an additional way in which to understand the phenomenon. This since Arendt’s concept of political action takes form in emphasising the value for human beings to be able to act and in that way create new things. To therefore compare and connect political action to the act of migration for a group of people, would be a way to examine whether the act and the concept coincides. Arendt can be claimed to emphasize new beginnings and her book The Human

Condition, published in 1958, was also a start of something new, including the human ability

to act. Arendt claims that the ability to act is always with us as human beings, even if we do not realise it (Canovan 1958: vii, via). Furthermore human beings are people whom acts to establish new beginnings and experiences, (Canovan 1958: xvi) hence the concept of political action may possibly be able to illustrate an Arendtian understanding of the action of migration by the minority group of Romanian Roma. A discussion concerning the concept of political action will follow.

1.5.2 Action as a new beginning

In the Human Condition the term Viva Activa is addressed as existing in the world of things created by human beings, and it emphasizes a life dedicated to matters of public and political character (Arendt 1958: 12, 22). The term includes three specific functions, namely labour, work and action and they constitute important conditions in the world. Labour is the life of human beings since it is natural for us, and work is what we do which gives us things we need to live in this world. Action is the term which this theoretical framework lies up on. It takes place immediately between people and answers to the plurality that we both live and reside in the world (Arendt 1958: 7). Plurality further means that we as humans in this world are equal, but at the same time there exists differences between us. Hence, Arendt claims that we are all unique persons within a world which consists of equal people, meaning there will never exist people whom are exactly the same (Arendt 1958: 8, 175). As human beings we are also unique in the way that we are the only creatures whom can use action as a tool. To be human

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7 therefore means to take action and do things actively, which indicates that we are the world and we create things in it, hence the world consists of action. Arendt therefore means that the world we live in would not be if it weren’t for us humans and our actions (Arendt 1958: 22, 177-178). Action can be claimed to have an intimate conjunction with the concept of natality. The terms are connected in the way that they both consist of something new, since to be born means to be able to begin an act which is done through action. It can be claimed that to act is to initiate new things which means that action results in the birth of a new us and a new beginning. This is possible because we are born in to this world. The concepts are a part of every activity exercised by us and these activities create things which forms the world. Since action is political and natality is connected to action, this makes natality important within political thought as well (Arendt 1958: 9).

1.5.3 Action among people in the public realm

Action is the only concept within Viva Activa which is dependent on society to be exercised by man, hence it cannot be exercised alone, without other people or the society. This

understanding can be seen in connection to Thomas Aquinas’s saying that human beings are political as well as they are social, but primarily human beings are understood as social (Arendt 1958: 22-23, 32). The establishment of society made distinctions between private and political decrease, which consequently created new meanings for private and political, and their importance for society and human beings. The understanding of the terms changed, privacy was no longer emphasized as a detriment because individualism had fortified the privacy. To live in a society also means that, no matter who we are or how similar to one another we are, we act as a group of people whom have the same aims and interests. Society also demands a certain kind of appearance from its population since their actions shall be within the framework which the society has established. Meaning that people are governed equally (Arendt 1958: 38-41). All actions which are exercised in public have superiority in comparison to those made in privacy. For an activity to be superior, space as well as human beings, are vital for its establishment. As a result of its conduct in public, action can be recognised by all human beings which means that what is occurring and being recognized is true and therefore reality (Arendt 1958: 49-50). Privacy, on the other hand means to not have access to the reality which is a result from notbeing recognised by others (Arendt 1958: 78). Additionally, there are some things which should exist in privacy while others need to be in the public sphere and in that sense be recognised to claim their existence (Arendt 1958: 73).

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8 Aristotle emphasized action and speech as two activities which belong together and are

political, hence the concepts can be argued as equal and similar to one another. Speech and action are vital for the world and life itself since without it, life is no longer lived. Hence, by speaking and doing we find ourselves a place in the world as well as we present who we are (Arendt 1958: 25, 176, 179). To speak is also what differs us human beings from the animals (Arendt 1958: 205). Power is realised when these two terms are connected to one another and when we join each other in action, hence it can only exist when a group of people act together (Arendt 1958: 200). For action to be powerful, it is also necessary to recognise the agent of the action, meaning the person who established the action. Otherwise action has no purpose, it becomes like any other action or accomplishment, therefore recognition of the actor is vital. Arendt gives an example of this when discussing how a soldier who dies in war was named unknown on the gravestone, it does not make his accomplishments less worthy although it can be alleged to be a loss of his worth as a human being (Arendt 1958: 180-181). Action is therefore not likely to take place in loneliness since a state of loneliness leaves no room for the ability to act. This means that speech and action are dependent on the existence of other people since actions and words interact (Arendt 1958: 188). Action and speech are argued to illustrate specific characters of different people, meaning that human beings distinguish themselves by speaking and acting. In difference to work and labour, speaking and acting are, as mentioned, vital for human life to continue to exist. To act simply signifies to create or actuate something and by speaking and acting we create a space in the world for ourselves. However action means a beginning for the person who is acting, and not a beginning for a thing. In conjunction with this, action is, as mentioned, closely related to the concept of natality, and since each person is unique, unique things will also be created (Arendt 1958: 176-178).

1.5.4 Aims and results of action

Despite accomplishments, actors are affected by their actions since action consists of both accomplishment and suffering. Furthermore, action builds relationships and therefore

boundaries can be diminished. The boundlessness and the effective way of producing are two characteristics of action (Arendt 1958: 190-191). Arendt asserts that one of the main

characteristics within the pride of human beings, is that our beings and personalities can be reflected in the magnitude of our activities and the results from them (Arendt 1958: 211). However there exists terms that can be argued to judge the ability to act by claiming action and speech to be passive. The term Homo Faber means, according to Arendt, that the results

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9 of the actions established by man, can be more sustainable than the actor himself. Animal Laborans indicates that the lives we have are more worthy than anything else (Arendt 1958: 208). One should also question why we use action and why we need it. According to Arendt there exists several reasons, and two of them are that we need action to be able to protect ourselves and to reach ambitions which we have established. By acting we also reach truth. However, Arendt claims that the intended aims for action almost never are fulfilled.

Nevertheless, one of the greatest abilities of human beings is to be able to act since the meaning of man is to act and start new procedures (Arendt 1958: 179, 184, 238, 290). However, the results of action are unknown. In connection to this, human beings can never regret the procedures established by their actions. The inability to take back actions is

equalised with the inability to know the results of ones actions. Human beings cannot see the result of an action beforehand and that is because there are no endings to action, actions can live for eternity, hence people who act do not know what to expect (Arendt 1958: 231-233).

1.5.5 Critique

Arendt and her book, The Human Condition, are criticised and have been for a long time, hence it can be considered as one of the most debated books (Cane 2015: 55, Canovan 1958: xv). It has been claimed to be too limited in its scope, it has been questioned how action shall be interpreted and which different kinds of actions that are emphasised (Cane 2015: 59). However, the thoughts regarding action did also bring hope to people in war and movements, for example for people in the Civil Rights movement (Canovan 1958: xv).

Political action has been seen as lacking ethical strictness since Cane (2015) argues that Arendt seems unable to evaluate the concept of action critically, beyond

discussing it by its greatness (Cane 2015: 55-56). However Knauer (1980) argues that many of the critiques against the concept of political action and Arendt herself mainly exists because her texts and books are misinterpreted. For example, one critique emphasises that political action seems to have no purpose. Knauer (1980) argues this to be a misinterpretation because Arendt means that action has purpose but it is simply not shaped by it (Knauer 1980: 729). Instead Knauer claims that Arendt’s concept of political action is one of her most important works (Knauer 1980: 721-722). Arendt claims that political action is not shaped by its aims, and even though this is part of the concept one can also reflect upon the fact that most acts do have purposes, which is why action takes place. Therefore the purposes can be claimed to, in one way or another, shape the ways in which the action takes form.

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10 Despite existing critique, the concept of political action will be useful for the purpose of this thesis. This since it, as mentioned, will be used to illustrate how the migration can be a political action in the way that political action is a collective action, which takes place among people as a new beginning in the public realm to in this way create power, here as a possible enactment of rights.

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2. Background 2.1 Previous research

Arendt’s concepts political action as well as the right to have rights, are both frequently used as theoretical frameworks in studies. Most researches with an Arendtian approach have used the right to have rights from The Origins of Totalitarianism, and few have studied this chosen field in the light of political action.

For example there exists a study concerning the right to have rights for undocumented Zimbabwean migrants (Bloch 2010) and another regards the concept for children whom migrates (Bhabba 2010). Heuser (2008) uses the right to have rights in

connection to asylum and refugees. The author argues that migrants who have lost their rights in their home countries should be allowed within state democracies (Heuser 2008: 3, 7). In similarity, Gundogdu (2015) discusses statelessness since according to Arendt, rightlessness is a result of migrants’ statelessness. Arendt’s concept is approached by Gundogdu (2015) to illustrate issues for migrants since they as stateless are claimed to have lost their ability to act (Gundogdu 2015: 2, 5, 20). The terms stateless and refugees are not used in this thesis since the Romanian Romas migrate within the free movement, hence do not tend to end their citizenship but simply use their right within the EU. Nevertheless the ability to act will be emphasised but not in regard to statelessness as decreasing the ability, but possibly the difficult situation for the group in Romania as the major factor.

It is important to know that these studies and several of others exist, but this thesis aims for using political action, which has not been equally as used in connection to migration. No studies have been found which uses political action in conjunction with Romanian Roma migration, which is why this thesis will study the migration of the minority group as a political action. There were even difficulties in finding research that used Arendt and political action as an approach towards migration. However, this can be argued to be positive since it allows this thesis to develop the limited field concerning the connection between political action and migration. Nevertheless this section will present existing research which have used Arendt and her political action as a point of departure in connection to migration, and these will be discussed together with how this thesis will be placed in relation to existing studies. Two studies will be emphasised which are both articles conducted at universities. San Martin (2008) which study is from the University of Buenos Aires in Argentina and the study of Krause (2008) is published by a University in London in the United Kingdom. The study of Krause (2008) concerns undocumented immigrants and the

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12 study of San Martin (2008) regards the immigrant’s inability to act in their host countries, both researches with an approach to political action.

Krause (2008) discusses undocumented migrants from an Arendtian view including both the right to have rights and human beings ability to act. According to Krause (2008), Arendt illustrates undocumented migrants as important political actors (Krause 2008: 1-2, 5, 17). Krause (2008) includes two concepts of Arendt in her study, but the ability to act is what will be emphasised in this discussion, since this thesis in comparison to the study of Krause, will use political action as its main concept.

Both Krause (2008) and San Martin (2008) acknowledges the political action of migrants and have both similarities and differences. Both of the studies interprets the political action in connection to activities made by immigrants and migrants, but Krause’s study includes migrants whom actively speaks while San Martin (2008) claims that to speak and act are difficult for immigrants (Krause 2008: 19, San Martin 2008: 141). Krause (2008) claims that Arendt illustrates a new way in which to approach the migrants, namely as political actors whose acts signifies new beginnings. In similarity to the theoretical framework in this thesis, she claims that it is by action and speech that we are given a place in this world. Freedom and its connection to action is also emphasised, namely that the terms belong together, because to be able to act is to have freedom (Krause 2008: 17). By giving an example of migrants protesting in France, Krause (2008) illustrates how political action can be seen among the migrants. The migrants who were gathered together, claimed their unwillingness to be undocumented immigrants, and their attempt to change the situation without succeeding. Krause (2008) quotes how they were claiming their existence in France, that they being there were their choice (Krause 2008: 19). In similarity, this thesis will study the possibility of seeing the migration, and therefore the existence of migrants somewhere else than in their home countries, as a possible active choice. However Krause (2008) emphasises the actions in their host country only as political actions to claim ones rights, this thesis will focus on that the act of migration as well as the actions that follows may be claims for rights.

In the study of Krause (2008) the political action can be seen in the way that the migrants protested and spoke for themselves and therefore received respect as well as

recognition from others. The group of people can also be claimed to have begun something new in the way that they started to consider the methods for citizenship with a democratic approach. Krause (2008) therefore means that this event gained fellowship between people (Krause 2008: 24). Therefore the political action in this study is shown clearly through speech and action by migrants who attempts to claim their rights.

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13 San Martin offers another, rather different and problematic view of the situation of

immigrants and their right to act. The study regards the fact that immigrants cannot use their right to act nor speak in the public sphere, a right which is emphasised by Arendt. By not being able use this right many immigrants are simply struggling for survival (San Martin 2008: 141). The human abilities which Arendt speaks of concerning action and speech and a person’s uniqueness, are simply lost in the case of immigrants since they cannot be in the public realm. By moving from one country to another, San Martin (2008) means that

immigrants only gain access to their private realm and not the public which makes them loose one of the main abilities as human beings. This since to be in the private realm means to be alone and since immigrants are having issues with acting in public, there is no one there to recognise their existence. This means that their existence does not affect anybody. For immigrants this also means that they are not able to present themselves nor interact with action or spoken words with others (San Martin 2008: 142-144). By emphasising the public sphere as unreachable for immigrants the writer offers another view of the political action than Krause (2008) in the way that San Martin (2008) emphasises the public and private realms as the main issues for immigrants.

San Martin (2008) goes as far as claiming that immigrants have to stay silent in the private realm, which is a demand by the host state (San Martin 2008: 149). In comparison to this, Krause (2008), as we have seen, illustrates another possibility for migrants, namely to actively speak and act (Krause 2008: 19). In similarity to San Martin (2008) and Krause (2008) this thesis will study the ability to use the Arendtian concept of political action for a group of migrants. Although in comparison to San Martin (2008) who examines the inability to act in the state of residence, and Krause (2008) who emphasises the ability in the host states, this study will primarily emphasise how the migration itself can be understood as the main political action.

Krause (2008) mentions activities of migrants as possible political actions emphasised by Arendt. Hence it is possible to acknowledge that Krause (2008) and San Martin (2008), looks at the activities of migrants, here undocumented migrants, to gain their political action. Both Krause (2008) and San Martin (2008) seems to agree upon the meaning of the Arendtian concept of political action. This since Krause (2008) argues that acting and speaking together, collectively, is important since the public sphere is created when we act together (Krause 2008: 20). Power, which according to Arendt arises when we act together, is deeply connected to the action of activists (Krause 2008: 22). Equally San Martin (2008) argues that acting must take place in a community of people since our actions and words need

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14 to be recognised by others, and the ability to act is also what makes us human beings unique (San Martin 2008: 145). As far as the understanding and the discussion of the theoretical framework in this thesis, this is also the understanding which is received, namely that action needs to take place in the public realm together with people so power can be actualised and actions and spoken words can be recognised. Although the authors argues similar in this matter, they are, as mentioned, emphasising different aspects of action for migrants; the inability to act and the ability to act. In similarity to Krause (2008), this study will attempt to put more emphasis on the ability to act than the inability.

Krause (2008) also claims that Arendt may add a new approach to the discussion of undocumented migrants (Krause 2008: 22). In similarity to Krause, this thesis will use the Arendtian perspective of migration since it is believed to be a new, interesting approach to understand a phenomenon. What differs these studies in relation to this thesis is the fact that they both look at activities occurring after the migration only, while this study will emphasise the migration as the main activity of political action. This is a difference which may lead to a development of the existing field. The focus in these studies is put on the fact that the group of people concerned are migrants, immigrants or undocumented migrants, while the focus in this study will be that it is a group of Romanian Romas whom migrates.

San Martin (2008) claims that immigration shall be considered as a procedure and not as an issue for today’s society (San Martin 2008: 154). Although one can tend to agree, it is important to be reasonable and understand that migration tends to create issues and questions both in home countries and states of residences, hence it is important to know how one shall understand the movement of migration. One way in doing this, will be with this thesis, by connecting Arendt’s concept of political action to the specific migration of Romanian Romas.

It has been acknowledged that several of studies have used Arendt’s concept the right to have rights in connection to migration and that less studies have used political action in connection to the subject. No studies were found which have used political action in regard to Romanian Roma migration, which is why this thesis will approach the migration in a new light. This thesis will, as mentioned, not discuss the inability for migrants to act within the host states, but rather more in similarity to Krause, the ability to act but with the difference that the migration will be emphasised as the main activity of political action.

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15

2.2 Migration to Western Europe

This section will provide an insight of the migration to Sweden and Western Europe to receive a knowledge of the current migration.

The migration of Romanian Romas within the EU has increased since communism in Romania ceased to exist, as well as it is a consequence of Romania’s

membership in the EU, which took place in January 2007 (ERRC 2011/2012: 27, European Union).

“Citizenship of the Union confers on every citizen of the Union a primary and individual right to move and reside freely within the

territory of the Member States, subject to the limitations and conditions laid down in the Treaty and to the measures adopted

to give it effect” (EU directive 2004/38/EC: 2, article 1).

Directive 2004/38/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of the European Union from 29’Th of April 2004, concerns the right of EU-citizens to move and reside within the member states in the EU (EU directive 2004/38/EC: 2).This therefore is one of the essential rights for EU-citizens. The right of migration within the free movement has transformed since its establishment in 1957 where it primarily regarded persons involved in economic activities such as employment or suppliers of services. It later came to include migration within the EU for all persons whom holds a nationality of a member state, which then led to free movement and the right to live within the EU. The movement includes residence in an EU state for less than three months but it is obliged to during the visit have identity documents to prove ones identity, hence EU-citizenship. Migrants may also be asked to register their existence in the host state during a limited period of time (European Parliament).

According to the organisation ERRC many of the Romanian Romas are migrating within the EU to find better opportunities, and when choosing which country to reside within, they generally look for factors including employment opportunities and other improvements in comparison to their home country (ERRC 2011/2012: 27). It is important to understand that the EU-migrants concerns groups of various nations and history but their existence in Sweden and elsewhere, can, as mentioned, be claimed to have increased the last years. Many of the so called EU-migrants, in this study Romanian Romas, are often seen in the state of residence begging, playing music or selling magazines. According to Göteborgs Stadsmission, many of these people derive from difficult backgrounds where their

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16 human rights are violated (Göteborgs Kyrkliga Stadsmission).

Furthermore, what is common for specifically Romanian Roma migrants, is that they have various issues when migrating within the free movement. This is illustrated in for example evictions and deportations home to Romania from Western European countries including France, Italy and Denmark (ERRC 2011/2012: 28).

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3. Discriminations of Roma

It is of relevance to clarify the general and current situation as well as the rights of the group in their home country Romania to therefore, in accordance with the purpose, illustrate how the migration can be understood through the Arendtian concept of political action as an enactment of rights. In this way it is possible to receive an additional understanding of the act of

migration made by these people. This chapter will support the understandings of the articles presented in the next chapter, and will provide a knowledge in the sense that this empirical chapter will together with the articles be analysed in the analysis in the light of political action as an enactment of rights.

The Romanian Constitution strictly proclaims equality of its population in regard to existing law and forbids discriminatory actions. The state accepted an Anti-discrimination law in 2000 which includes all forms of Anti-discrimination, for example the

abandonment of discrimination against groups which can be considered as disfavoured, which is relevant for the minority group of Roma (Csonta & Marin 2012: 9-11). Article 2 in the Anti-discrimination law defines discrimination in the sense of making distinctions between people which results in a limited access to human rights, and an example of this can be to belong to a minority group (Country Report 2013: 23).

According to the European Union’s framework regarding the integration of all Roma in Europe, a majority of the Roma are though still experiencing racism and hostility which is a fact that EU is not willing to approve of. The EU therefore emphasizes that this has to change which means that conversations within EU, and with the Roma themselves are vital. A beginning to a solution can be argued to be two folded, since all actors needs to be involved and play their part. In accordance with the European Union’s charter on Fundamental Human rights it is necessary to make sure that every Roma person is treated with dignity and with equal rights just as any other person (European Commission 2011: 2). In similarity, in the National Report of Romania regarding discrimination of Roma (2012), it is claimed that Roma are facing issues in their everyday life. This can be acknowledged in connection with the large number of prejudices, including thoughts of them as being passive and angry, to mention a few (Csonta & Marin 2012: 20). The Romanian NGO, Romani CRISS, is an agent of assistance for the vulnerable minority group, and according to them there exists several of areas in need of improvement to support the human rights of Romanian Roma; health care, schooling, evictions as well as breaches regarding equal justice and living standards (Romani CRISS 2009: 6-11).

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18 Living standards, health care, education and labour market in Romania will be introduced here since these areas also are spoken of repeatedly by Romanian Roma migrants in the articles in the next chapter. The areas are discussed in the articles in regard to the situation in Romania, but also in concern to which rights they want to receive, all in conjunction with the act of migration since they have left Romania for Sweden. Hence the articles and the

empirical chapter of discrimination shall be seen in conjunction to one another to in this way form a perception of the migration in connection to Arendt and as an enactment of rights. By discussing the following areas of current discrimination it can better be understood how the minority group possibly uses political action in form of migration as an active choice and in a way to enact rights.

3.1 Living standard

The housing situations for many Roma are in need of improvement. Expulsions of Roma as well as them being transported to other cities, villages, or communities are common and so are being placed in areas which are not appropriate for decent living, including lack of sanitary possibilities (Csonta & Marin 2012: 24). This results in an exclusion of the evicted Roma since they are located to places specific for them. According to Amnesty International (2014/15) not all of the Romas who find themselves being evicted are given new housing, which may lead to homelessness (Amnesty International 2014/15).

3.2 Health care

In a poll established in 2011 a majority of the people whom took part of the interviews claimed that they had bad experiences in health care because of their identity as Roma (Csonta & Marin 2012: 24-25). As Romani CRISS emphasizes in the matter, the right to health is interconnected to the basic human right; the right to life (Romani CRISS 2009: 7). One of the problems for Roma seems to be that many lack insurance and the benefits which are included, and this together with difficult financial situations can lead to the absence of health care (Jitariu & Wamsiedel 2009: 151). Discriminations made by hospitals in regard to for example not treating people of Roma origin or keeping them waiting for an unnecessary long time, of course also affects their health in a poor way (Romani CRISS 2009: 7).

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3.3 Education

Furthermore, Roma children are experiencing treatment of discriminatory character in school which can be shown through the professors by sometimes letting children from Romani homes be separated from others. This sort of exclusion of children is not accepted. Not all children is able to be present in school which also has its causes in forms of discriminatory attitudes and difficulties regarding identification. Disrupted education is common since families usually have financial issues which results in difficulties to send their children to school when proper clothing and food cannot be supplied (Csonta & Marin 2012: 21-24, Romani CRISS 2009: 8). Additionally the EU framework, which aims for inclusion of the minority group in all of Europe, strengthens the argument of the difficulties for Roma children in school in several of countries, where they, as mentioned, are divided from other children. Hence children who do not attend school are in risk of having issues in the labour market in the future (European Commission 2011: 5).

3.4 Labour market

Romania is mentioned in the EU framework, and constitutes one of the states with the largest number of Romas where 21 % of newly employed can be considered as Romas. Hence granting Roma access to the labour market will enhance their possibilities in the receiving of basic human rights (European Commission 2011: 2). The former President of Romania, Traina Basescu, has on numerous occasions expressed himself strictly against Roma. He has, in public, said that nomad Roma do not wish to enter the labour market because they earn their lively hood on criminal businesses (Amnesty International 2014/15). The Romania National Report concur that these stereotypes of Roma exist to this day among both

authorities and society, namely believing that the minority group do not desire to enter in to the labour market. According to the Romania National Report, the Roma who participated in interviews discussed factors of discrimination, their outer looks and lack of necessary

knowledge to be issues which stands in the way for entering the labour market (Csonta & Marin 2012: 25-26).

These four areas of discrimination including health, housing, school and work, will be used in the analysis together with the following chapter concerning the six articles. The articles also illustrate the discriminations and they are seen in conjunction with the migration, spoken of by the Romanian Romas themselves.

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4. Cases

4.1 “The children who were left”

The first article addresses two parallel worlds, Romania on one side and Sweden on the other. It concerns a poor family of Roma origin in Romania, where the parents leave their children with the grandparents and migrate to Sweden to earn money.

The article begins with approaching the 13 children and their grandparents in Romania. They live in a small house with one room of 12 square meter and the description tells us that it is in bad condition and built out of questionable material. The children says that they are missing their parents, but at the same time they know that they have migrated to earn money which can result in a new house. Therefore despite the bad clothing, hunger and lack of shoes, Sweden brings them a new kind of hope. To work seems not familiar since all they know is begging. This is illustrated when a 14 year old boy says he wants to leave Romania to beg so he can receive enough money to build a new home.

The grandfather in the family says that “God has forgotten about us Roma” (Lindberg2 2015). He dreams back to the time of communism when things were easier regarding labour, housing and food. Today, he argues, they need to migrate to earn their livelihood. Therefore the grandfather is satisfied when his children are begging in Sweden, although not much money has been seen yet, he is certain that they will earn enough money to be able to build a new house.

Two of the parents are present in the article and they migrated to Sweden together. Their situation in Sweden is described as difficult. The father explains how they together decided to move to Sweden after they heard that it was possible to earn money. This was their possibility to earn money for their livelihood. The mother and father to five of the children are sleeping outside in the cold winter under a concrete viaduct. Begging can be dangerous, the father once had a man pee on him while the mother was hit in the head with a bottle, thrown by someone. Today, there exists many people of the Roma minority group in Sweden and therefore the competition is hard. The parents expresses their longing for their children back home in Romania, but at the same time they do not earn enough money for the day to be able to buy tickets home. Hence the father claims that their aim for building a house will not be reached (Lindberg2 2014/2015). In this story the importance of family is

acknowledged, both in the way of the parents migrating together and their will to migrate to improve the situation of their family including children and grandparents. In this way an understanding is reached in the sense that the parents are migrating together to build a better

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21 life for their family, hence the entire family, even the ones in Romania, are a part of the migration.

Key words: Family, money, begging, bad housing, hope.

4.2 “The journey to Sweden”

The article specifically concerns the journey of a Roma family from Romania, and their journey by bus all the way to Sweden. Since the article regards a family it is expressed from a quite collective perspective, rather than an individualistic one since they are migrating

together. There are many people of Roma origin whom pay around 1400 Swedish crones for a one way ticket with bus to Sweden, and a majority of them ends up begging on the streets. The journey begins in the main capital of Romania, Bucharest, and the destination is the main capital of Sweden, Stockholm. The article also illustrates how the passengers, including this family, do not have decent food with them on the long journey because of the difficult financial situations. The family whom the article concerns, have borrowed money to be able to go and it is stressed how important it is that the loan is paid back in the given frame of time for them to not lose their home in Romania. Seven hundred Swedish crones is all the family of six have, and once in Sweden they do not yet know where to sleep. The father says that the children are not aware of the questions regarding the living situation in Sweden, instead they are excited of what’s to come. He also expresses his excitement over the journey, claiming that their situation will improve once they arrive in the foreign country. In Romania, he says, they are treated differently because of their ethnicity. He says that the atmosphere in Sweden is much friendlier and he believes it will be easier to earn their livelihood.

The family have been in Sweden before, but then three of the children stayed in Romania. This time they are all together so the longing for each other do not need to be. By interpreting the answers from the father, it is clear that the family, the affinity and the collective conduct is important. Although the father emphasizes his awareness of the

problematic situation, he is happy that they are together. The family explains that they lived in a car their first time in Sweden, and the money they earned from begging were sent back to Romania. They have hopes for Sweden this time as well, wishing to learn the language and let the children be educated. A wish to stay in Sweden clearly exists, as the father says that they are willing to live permanently in Sweden and gain a decent life. The mother in the family explains that she do not like to beg since it is embarrassing and difficult to ask people for things, but since no employment is possible, this is what they have to do. To travel to Sweden is a choice which is taken because of their four children and their right for a better life. Now,

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22 in Sweden, the family is living in a car which they have borrowed, the parents are begging and they express difficulties with their current situation (Lindberg1 2014/2015).

Key words: Hope, excitement, family, money, what they have to do, do not like to beg, education, employment not possible, their right for a better life.

4.3 “This is how the beggars live in Jönköping”

It is here described how 25 Romanian Romas, whom are in Sweden to beg, live in cars at a parking lot in Jönköping. The cars have been bought for decent prices, or alternatively some are gifts. They have items in the cars to make them comfortable at night, including blankets and sheets. One of the men has left his wife and children back home in Romania while he is in Sweden to earn money. He explains how he has been able to transfer money home to his family since the house is in need of reparation. If not, the winter will be difficult. Although his family is in Romania, he is not alone but lives together with a friend in one of the cars and they plan to return together to Romania by car when the time is right.

A woman in her later years explains how she begs all day, from morning to evening and how there is a variety of things she receives. Sometimes not just money, but clothing and toys as well. Her words indicates that the migrants living at the parking lot forms a sort of community together since she claims that they do things after a day of work,

including walking and cleaning. Furthermore, in the way the migrants talks about each other and know things about one another, it is clear that they know each other.

The life for many it seems, consists of sending money home, a woman also explains how money is sent back home to her husband whom is ill. Many of the people asked claim that during the period of Communism things were easier and they were allowed in the labour market. They claim that the main issue for them in Romania today is the fact that they cannot work since it impossible to get an employment. As mentioned in previous articles, they do not like to beg. Some say that they are embarrassed and that they would rather do

something else. The recurring dream and aim, seems to be to receive employment. A young man in his 20’s, is in Sweden with his mother and wife, once again a family who migrated together. He is apparently frustrated with their situation and says that he would work with anything, anywhere (Wallesjö 2014).

Key words: Begging, want to work, money, sleeping in cars, send money home, together, embarrassed.

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4.4 “The beggars”

The article regards the campus of Roma migrants in Pildammsparken in Malmö, where at the time ten tents existed. The food they were preparing for the time of the visit, was given to them and not bought.

According to Lundberg (2015) it was a year ago that Malmö started to

experience the presence of EU-migrants and around 20 people was, at the time of the article, living in Pildammsparken. At the time of the writing there existed discussions regarding whether the campus, where EU-migrants, including Romanian Romas, lived together, should cease to exist, but the problems then seem to have concerned the fact that many of the people in question had lived there for a long time, and it was questioned whether there existed a law which concerned the settling as illegal. Eleven people whom were living at the settlement left after discussing the matter with local authorities, but they can be claimed to have done so because of fear, just as a man who got beaten left because he was afraid.

In the article it is emphasized how the people at the camp receive gifts which are appreciated, while the situation in Romania is described as different. Still they are leaving, because they are afraid, every night someone needs to be awake and keep an eye on the settlement to protect one another. In this way we receive an understanding of the fellowship at the settlement. The next settlement in Malmö is at Industrigatan, where Roma migrants live together, and have been doing for a long time. Some people tell stories from their life and how they had employment at the time of the Communist regime, but since then they have been migrating to earn money since that is their only choice. A woman claims that they do not like to beg, but in Romania they have no food. What is repeated by the people in this article is the fact that they claim this to be their only opportunity (Lundberg 2014/2015).

Key words: No choice, fear, discrimination, do not want to beg, settlement, together.

Observation: The campus at Pildammsparken was torn down by Swedish authorities in spring 2015. The settlement at Industrigatan exists to this day but is threatened by evictions.

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4.5 “Relief at the camp when the eviction was cancelled”

At the time of the article, the planned eviction of the EU-migrants, among them Romanian Romas, at Industrigatan in Malmö was cancelled and the migrants were celebrating at the camp. It was a celebration of victory.

Industrigatan is the largest camp for EU-migrants in Malmö where

approximately 200 migrants seem to reside. In the article it is described how there were notes and flyers all over the shelters urging the Swedish authorities to not diminish their homes. The camp has been threatened by evictions since the residence do not fulfil the demands from the law regarding health and environment, hence living there may lead to health issues. Despite the living conditions, everyone in the settlement seem to be satisfied with the situation at Industrigatan since they compare it to live outside, without shelter. There seems to be a fellowship between the migrants. For example there is a married couple at the camp whom migrated to Sweden together. Additionally a woman proclaims that it feels safe at the settlement since she is not alone but together with other migrants. By claiming that the settlement already existed when she and her husband arrived, an indication is received that they perhaps knew of the camp beforehand and in some way were told by others that it existed. She also speaks of her family in Romania which is in need of support, therefore to be in Sweden is the only, and best, alternative to be able to help, even though she knows that they legally are not allowed to live at the privately owned territory. (Fjellman1 2015). Once again an understanding is received of the importance of family as well as the fellowship in living together with other migrants.

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4.6 “EU-migrants protested in Malmö City Council”

This article does not specifically address Romanian Roma as a group since the concept of EU-migrant is referring to all people who moves within the EU. We can assume though, that Romanian Roma likely were a part of this, together with, for example, Romanian migrants of non Roma origin. Despite this it is of importance since it says something about them and their acts as migrants.

Politicians in Malmö were discussing the situation of EU-migrants and the work that needs to be done to include and improve their situation in Malmö. The Swedish parties Vänsterpartiet, Folkpartiet and Miljöpartiet claimed that they were not happy with the

decision that had been made from the social resource committee since they are of the opinion that more can, and should be done. The present EU-migrants, as well as activists, seemed to support the parties in their opinion, but were silenced by a politician. This event is therefore a clear indicator on how the group of migrants joined together as an attempt to speak for their rights and their situation as migrants in Malmö in Sweden.

The parties concurred that they all agreed upon a shelter for these people, but they disagreed on when this shelter should be available. The Swedish political parties

Socialdemokraterna and Moderaterna aim for the winter, while Folkpartiet and Vänsterpartiet want a shelter which should be available at any season. Furthermore both Miljöpartiet and Vänsterpartiet want more permanent solutions, where not just the short term is in focus. An example would be to provide evicted EU-migrants from camps, to other secure places. Vänsterpartiet argued that the EU-migrants need to be able to access water and be guaranteed safety as well as sanitary facilitations. The response of the Swedish Democrats was that it is impossible to grant everyone all the things they need (Fjellman2 2015).

Key words: Housing, sanitary facilities, shelter, poor, together.

The six cases discussed have illustrated Romanian Roma migration from their perspective. Political action can be seen in the way that the importance of family and relationships are emphasised as well as their gathering together in settlements and acting in various ways. The analysis will now follow where the research questions will be answered regarding the

understanding of political action and how the concept can be seen in connection to the migration of the Romanian Romas as an enactment of rights.

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5. Analysis

5.1 Political action

5.1.1 Action as the main capacity

The following interpretation of Arendt’s concept political action is made after having studied the book of Arendt, The Human condition, hence the theoretical framework, as well as the previous research which uses the concept.

The concept of political action can be claimed to be one of Arendt’s most well-known discussions and has received critique in various ways. The concept is based on the human ability to act, which is a capacity that is unique for us humans. Action derives from the term Viva Activa which includes three concepts which are vital for human life in this world, namely work, labour and action. The term is connected to matters of public and political character, hence the political action. The same regards for speaking, which is almost the same as acting, meaning that speaking and acting are two capabilities that often are used together, and as mentioned, are specific for human beings. These two characteristics of human beings are what differs us from the animals. In Arendt’s book The Human Condition she emphasises the value and importance of us to be able to act and speak, because if we do not act, there is no purpose. By saying this, it can be analysed that if we do not act, we lose a bit of ourselves as human beings. This since in the way that Arendt discusses action and speech she indicates that to act is one of the greatest work of human beings since we contribute to the world. Our actions form the world, shape the world and the factors and activities within it. Since this is the case, to not act for a human being, must therefore be analysed to be seen as a loss. If we, as humans do not use our abilities to act and speak it would not only be a loss for us, meaning our humanity and worth as human beings, but also for the world. We can analyse that since the world is built on our actions and since we create the world and things within, the world is dependent on our actions to exist. Action gives human beings freedom since to have the capacity to act is making us free in the way we choose to act and create things for us and the world. This knowledge creates an understanding of how important our choices, actions and spoken words as human beings are.

5.1.2 The conditions of acting

Speaking and acting goes hand in hand and therefore they can be claimed to be equal, and can be analysed to be almost inseparable since by acting we do also speak. In The Human

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27 one can also claim that acting and speaking are inseparable and therefore almost the same, by acting we do also speak, hence a further explanation might not be needed. The terms are political and Arendt claims that if a human acts and speaks she proclaims herself in the world, meaning she presents and characterizes herself, she shows the world and everyone in it who she is. By doing this, it can be analysed that the actor is recognised which then makes the acts powerful. For an act to have purpose, the agent of the act must be seen.

To be able to act we must do so in public where people can see us, hence recognise us and our actions. This means that to act or speak in the private do not lead to anything since no one will see us nor our actions, which means that our actions may not have consequences. When acting in public, the person behind the act as well as the action are seen and therefore we know that it constitutes reality. We can analyse that by not seeing the actions someone has established alone in the private sphere, it is difficult to know if the actions did occur, who created them and what the results were. In a situation like this the actor and its activity are not recognised and therefore no power is exercised. Therefore, we can claim that the public realm is vital in the sense of understanding actions that takes place and also for the actions to be powerful. It can therefore be said that actions which are public, are also more pre-eminent than those actions in private, although Arendt also admits that some actions need to take place in private while others belong in the public realm. It can be understood that actions, for example migration or political demonstrations, should take place in the public realm since the aim is probably to be seen and declare the voices of the people involved.

This is also emphasised in the previous research, where one of the studies argues for the ability of people to act together in form of protesting which can be interpreted as an enactment of rights, hence we can argue that political action and enactment of rights seems compatible. These examples brings us to another characteristic of political action, namely that it must occur among a group of people. As said, action needs both people and society to survive. This can be shown in the way that we as human beings are political and social but mostly social, so we need to act in society, among people. When speech and action are

combined and used by a group of human beings whom are acting together, power is exercised. This can be claimed to be the reason to why collective actions are important. It can be

analysed that public realm and a group of people, are vital conditions for action to take place and therefore for power to be realised. By having studied previous researches which uses political action in connection to migration, an understanding has been made regarding the fact that political action can be used in various ways, knowing that people, and in this case

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28 action can be used, as mentioned, for example by protesting, but one can also see difficulties for people whom are in vulnerable situations to use political action because of lack of access to the public realm. It can therefore be analysed that political action may not be possible to conduct for everyone everywhere, since it needs to be exerted within the public sphere.

5.1.3 A unique, new beginning without ending

There are other characteristics of the concept of political action which are needed to be addressed to be able to understand what political action is, as well as how it can be used. Arendt addresses the plurality which exists in connection to action, namely that we as human beings live and reside in the world and that human beings are equal but we are all unique. It can be analysed to mean that we are equal but that does not mean that we are all the same as a result of the equality and us being human beings whom are able to act and speak. It can also be understood that being equal, indicates that we shall have the same abilities and rights as human beings. That is why we are equal, but unique as human beings since we differ from one another. Therefore one can claim that a human being who is acting, is able to create something of the action which is unique for that person.

Action can be argued to be closely connected to the concept of natality. Natality refers to us human beings as being born in to the world, something that we all have in

common. To be born indicates a new start and therefore one is able to make choices which will lead to new beginnings. Arendt means that it is almost the same as with action. By acting, human beings have the same kind of opportunity as with birth, namely to begin something new. In this sense meaning a second birth because we have been born once which is a new beginning, and when we decide to act we have the possibility to begin something new once again. Therefore action and natality are closely related to one another in the way that they both indicate a new chapter in a person’s life as well as they are able to create new things. Not only is natality and action able to create new things for us, but they can also establish a new us. It can be analysed that this is because the actions we choose to produce can create things for ourselves which affects who we are. Therefore action is creating something new for a person and not for a thing. Natality and action are parts of every activity we as human beings create and the connection between the terms therefore makes natality important within political thought as well.

References

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