Constructing 'the Other': A Study of Cultural Representation in English Language Textbooks

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FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND SOCIETY Department of culture, languages and media

Degree Project with Specialisation in Subject:

English Studies in Education

15 Credits, Second Cycle

Constructing ‘the Other’

A Study of Cultural Representation in English Language Textbooks

Konstruktionen av ‘den Andre’

En studie av kulturell representation i engelska läromedel

Amanda Andersson

Johanna Ivanoff

Master of Arts in Secondary Education, 300 credits Examiner: _{Chrysogonus Siddha}

English Studies in Education Malilang

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Preface

We would like to thank our supervisor Damon Tutunjian for his generous and honest support and guidance during this process, but also for challenging us to take our degree project to the next level. Moreover, we hereby confirm that we have spent an equal amount of time and effort into all steps of the project, from pre-research to revision and editing. During the process, the support and assistance we have received from each other is what have kept this project going. It has been a rewarding experience, and we are certain this project and the knowledge gained from it will be valuable for us in our future profession.

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Abstract

Educational textbooks have the power to influence pupils’ perception of the world. In the subject of English, this specifically concerns learning about cultures in different parts of the world where English is used. The purpose of this study is to identify the characteristics of cultural representation in two English Language Teaching (ELT) textbooks with the aim to make the hidden curriculum _{visible and to raise awareness among publishing houses and} teachers. Using a Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) based on Fairclough’s (2001) three-dimensional model in combination with Barthes’ (1977) Visual Semiotics methodology, we investigated which regions and countries were presented and how their cultures were constructed through texts and images. These findings were further compared to the cultural values and content of the Swedish curriculum, the genre of textbooks, and existing _{hegemonic discourses} _{in society. In the analysis, Kachru’s (1986) Circles of World} Englishes, Machin and Mayr’s (2012) toolkit for CDA, McKay’s (2010) interpretation of Anderson’s (1983) imagined communities_{, and Said’s (2003) concept of Orientalism were} applied. Our findings show that the inner circle dominates and is depicted as superior in contrast to the outer and expanding circles. Although the textbooks include a variation of different cultures which is in line with the curriculum, representation of the outer and expanding circles is often stereotypical and underdeveloped which reinforces _hegemonic discourses _{instead of acting to restructure them. This corresponds to previous studies in the} genre, and hence, educators must work to ensure that _{the hidden curriculum in ELT textbooks} is continuously made visible and challenged.

Keywords: _{English Language Textbooks, ELT textbooks, cultural representation, Critical}

Discourse Analysis, CDA, Visual Semiotics, Circles of World Englishes, the hidden curriculum, hegemonic discourses, imagined communities, Orientalism, ‘the Other’

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List of Tables

Table 1a Sub-questions for Linguistic Features of the Text Practice 24

Table 1b Sub-questions for Visual Features of the Text Practice 24

Table 2 Countries and Regions in Blueprint 28

Table 3 Countries and Regions in Echo 29

Table 4 Kachru’s Circles of World Englishes in Blueprint and Echo 29

Table 5 Inner Circle Region Representation in Blueprint 30

Table 6 Inner Circle Region Representation in Echo 31

Table 7 Inner Circle Character Representation in Blueprint 33

Table 8 Inner Circle Character Representation in Echo 34

Table 9 Outer Circle Region Representation in Blueprint 36

Table 10 Outer Circle Region Representation in Echo 36

Table 11 Outer Circle Character Representation in Blueprint 37

Table 12 Outer Circle Character Representation in Echo 37

Table 13 Expanding Circle Region Representation in Blueprint 39

Table 14 Expanding Circle Region Representation in Echo 40

Table 15 Expanding Circle Character Representation in Blueprint 41

Table 16 Expanding Circle Character Representation in Echo 41

List of Figures

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1 Introduction

There is no doubt that educational textbooks raise questions of power. Even though Sweden followed in the footsteps of many countries as they decentralised state control over the textbook industry in 1991, textbooks have continued to shape discourse and norms through which pupils make sense of the world (Eilard, 2008; Englund, 2011). In fact, Schissler (1990) claims that in addition to transmitting knowledge, textbooks also serve to anchor the political and social norms of a society. This implicit socialisation process has become known as _the hidden curriculum _{(Jackson, 1990; Kalmus, 2004). As part of the ideological socialisation,} textbooks “tell children what their elders want them to know” (Kalmus, 2004, p. 469). In other words, the representation of a given topic as present in a given textbook has the power to influence pupils’ perception of themselves and others.

Previous research on representations of different groups and cultures in textbooks has primarily focused on the evaluation of books designed for the social sciences subjects. Pingel (2010) explains that these provide reference points in time and space through which pupils ultimately learn who they are. By controlling this narrative, textbook authors and publishers may impact the construction of individual and collective identities, and therefore, textbooks of this kind can never free themselves from values and norms, nor claim to be objective. However, in the last decades, Pingel (2010) states that researchers have begun to emphasize that language textbooks also play a major role in such processes, and Slobin (1996) claims that there resides in every language a specific world view.

In Sweden, the inspection of textbooks since 1991 has typically been carried out by universities, publishing houses, the National Agency for Education (Skolverket), or the media (Carlson & von Brömssen, 2011). However, although textbooks can be selected at the departmental level, the final responsibility of revision for usage lies on each individual teacher. Despite this, a study conducted by Stridsman (2014) in the journal Skolvärlden shows that with the increase of new textbooks after the new curriculum in 2011, eight out of ten Swedish teachers report that they do not have the time to properly review textbooks. This is extremely worrying since, at the same time, Skolveket’s (2006a) report on textbook usage in Sweden shows that approximately three out of four English teachers use a textbook every lesson.

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Furthermore, both Wikman (2004) and Skolverket (2006a) report that many teachers depend on textbooks because they believe it ensures that they are following the goals of the syllabus. This is particularly apparent in upper secondary education since the textbooks aim to correspond to one specific course such as English 5, 6 or 7. Nevertheless, Skolverket’s (2006b) study of 24 textbooks for different subjects demonstrated that the examined books were not in line with the democratic stance and the values of the Swedish curriculum. Therefore, it is imperative that when conducting a textbook analysis, researchers take into account to what extent the textbook corresponds to the policy documents that they were designed for. Accordingly, the Swedish curriculum highlights the importance of pupils developing their intercultural competence and a global identity as well as empathy (Skolverket, 2013). A similar focus can also be found in the syllabus for English, where one of the overall goals is for pupils to develop their ability “[...] to discuss and reflect on living conditions, social issues and cultural features in different contexts and parts of the world where English is used” (Skolverket, 2018, p.3).

The curriculum thus can be considered to follow a skill-oriented approach where the content remains unspecified, and _{the hidden curriculum in textbooks illustrates what content} and values are actually being taught. In the current study we will examine to what extent cultural representations in English Language Teaching (ELT) textbooks challenge or reinforce _{hegemonic discourses in society in order to identify the cultural characteristics of} the hidden curriculum in two widely used textbooks designed for the basic course of English in upper secondary school: _{Blueprint A Version 3.0 (2017) and Echo Main Issues 5 (2013),} henceforth referred to as _{Blueprint and Echo.}

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2 Statement of Purpose

The purpose of this study is to identify the characteristics of cultural representation in two ELT textbooks produced for Swedish upper secondary school, _{Blueprint and Echo. We seek} to determine to what degree the texts and images are in line with the genre of ELT textbooks, the intercultural values of the Swedish curriculum and the cultural content from the syllabus for English. Subsequently, we investigate whether existing_{hegemonic discourses} _{in society} are challenged or not. Through this work, we hope to raise awareness at publishing houses that produce such texts and aid teachers in choosing and using textbooks in a critical and constructive way. This research thus does not comprise an attempt to highlight mistakes or to take a stand for or against the use of textbooks. Instead, our goal is to take steps to help make the hidden curriculum _{more visible.}

2.1 Research Questions

1. Which regions and countries are represented in _Blueprint_{and Echo and how are their} cultures constructed and represented through language and images?

2. To what extent do the identified discourses correlate with the genre of ELT textbooks and the cultural values and content as described in the Swedish curriculum and syllabus for English 5?

3. To what extent do the identified discourses in cultural representation reinforce or restructure existing _{hegemonic discourses in society?}

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3 Background

In this section, we begin by presenting the historical role of textbooks in the Swedish educational system as well as research on textbook evaluations in Sweden. We then turn to a presentation of the key theoretical concepts underpinning our study, including Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) using Fairclough’s (2001) three-dimensional model and Van Dijk’s (1993) principles of the theory. This is then followed by a review of recent textbook studies that have applied these theories. We next present Barthes’ (1977) conceptualisation of Visual Semiotics and provide a discussion of cultural representation in textbook studies, including Kachru’s (1986) Circles of World Englishes, McKay’s (2010) interpretation of Anderson’s (1983) imagined communities_{, and Said’s (2003) concept of Orientalism. Finally,} we present and discuss the Swedish policy documents for English in so far as they relate to cultural values and content.

3.1 The History of Textbooks in Sweden

The current curriculum for upper secondary school in Sweden does not provide guidelines for what teaching material is preferred or how it should be used. It only states that it is the responsibility of the principal to provide pupils with quality teaching material (Skolverket, 2013). This is in contrast to previous curricula which provided detailed regulations for the content of teaching, and for which suggestions for both teaching materials and textbooks were often given. From 1938 until 1991 the Swedish state had an official approval committee, regulated by law, responsible for evaluating and approving material used in schools. Only textbooks approved by the committee were allowed to be used in teaching, and the national committee for curriculum of 1992 even stated that the textbook was the actual syllabus (Skolverket, 2006a). The function of the approval committee was therefore to analyse and evaluate that content, scope, and disposition of textbooks were aligned to the syllabus for each subject, and was further thought to control and aid the development of an equal education for all pupils across the country (Skolverket, 2006a; Johnsson Harrie, 2009).

One unfortunate by-product of state evaluations is that when the state is responsible for approving textbooks, it thus also potentially controls what pupils learn and do not learn,

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as well as _{the hidden curriculum. The concept of the hidden curriculum was first coined by} Philip Jackson (1990) who investigated classroom dynamics in elementary schools in the US and found that pupils were implicitly socialised into the classroom context. For example, they were taught to pay attention and be subordinate to their teachers. In the context of textbooks, Kalmus (2004) argues that implicit norms and values in textbooks can influence pupils' learning without their awareness. She claims that this is also part of the socialisation process of _{the hidden curriculum. In the 1960s and 1970s political debates emerged in Sweden} regarding this potential hidden curriculum in textbooks, eventually leading to the repeal of the approval committee in 1991. It was then determined that objectivity was difficult to quantify, and that it could be influenced by the observer’s own subjectivity (Johnsson Harrie, 2009).

Since the textbook approval committee’s repeal, evaluations have been carried out by academic disciplines, such as universities, the publishing companies themselves, media, and even parents (Carlson and von Brömssen, 2011). Skolverket is still entitled to evaluate material, but has no approving function, and since the decentralisation, textbook evaluations have only been carried out twice by state agencies (Skolverket, 2006b; Ohlander, 2010). Official evaluations are hence, as Johnsson Harrie (2009) states, no longer a highly prioritised matter.

As a consequence, when the organisation of the Swedish school system became decentralised and skill-oriented, other demands on the design of the curriculum became evident. According to Holmqvist (2006), the means by which pupils acquire knowledge has since moved from the textbook to teachers. In theory this may be the case; however, as Wikman (2004) argues, the increased room for interpretation in current syllabi, could in fact contribute to an extended use of textbooks for the belief that textbooks show what pupils need to learn. Historically, textbooks bear with them authority and an implicit guarantee of knowledge learning.

A report from Skolverket (2006a) based off interviews with 17 teachers and questionnaires with 472 teachers in the Stockholm region shows that many English teachers do indeed hold the belief that the use of textbooks provides assurance that they are following the goals of the syllabus, which confirms Wikman’s (2004) argument that textbooks impose authority. Hence, teachers who find the steering documents an important consideration tend to use textbooks more frequently.

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Furthermore, it is argued in the report that since the subject of English has moved away from a focus on correctness and grammar to communicative language teaching, where pupils should be able to understand and use the language, it could be expected that teachers would feel free to use other types of teaching materials apart from textbooks. However, as shown in the report, this is not the case. All teachers that were interviewed in the study state that the textbook is the foundation of teaching, and planning is carried out with the material as a guiding source.

Consequently, the report by Skolverket (2006a) depicts English as a subject where teachers still rely heavily on textbooks and approximately three out of four teachers use a textbook every lesson. It is thus evident that textbooks continue to provide the foundation for teaching English in Sweden, and not much has changed since the days of the approval committee. Although the report was carried out in 2006, and a new curriculum and syllabus have emerged since then, it is the latest report of this kind.

Subsequently, as Englund (2011) states, textbooks can be viewed as places where young people encounter the knowledge acquired by other people, which they in turn have to integrate and make their own. Therefore, since textbooks are still used to such a high degree in the subject of English, publishers of textbooks have a major responsibility for and influence of what pupils learn, and it is of utmost importance to evaluate them.

3.2 Critical Discourse Analysis

CDA is a multidisciplinary approach for the study of discourse that displays the relationship between language, power, society, and culture (Van Dijk, 1993). To better contextualise the CDA approach and to provide a background for the conceptualisation of _hegemonic discourses_{, we first introduce two concepts rooted in cultural and social studies, Focault’s} (1980) discourse and Gramsci’s (1999) hegemony. We then turn to an exposition of the central tenets of the CDA approach followed by examples of textbook analyses that have applied the theory.

The concept of discourse was developed by French philosopher Michel Foucault to explain how language, knowledge, and power interact. Foucault (1980) explains discourse as a framework for comprehending the world in which there are rules about what can be talked about and what can be said about it. Closely related to this is Antonio Gramsci’s concept of

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hegemony. According to Gramsci (1999), the dominant class of a society develops shared values and ideas that make up the invisible norms and rules of a community and culture. Hence, the term _{hegemonic discourse can be used to refer to how the dominant class and} culture constructs the way we are allowed to speak about a particular phenomenon in society.

CDA provides a valuable approach for identifying and challenging _hegemonic discourses_{. The CDA approach was developed by the Lancaster school of linguists, and it is} primarily associated with Norman Fairclough, Ruth Wodak, and Teun van Dijk. CDA cannot be defined as one homogenous approach, as there exist many versions. However, all versions are based on the idea that language is a social construction “that both shapes and is shaped by society” (Machin and Mayr, 2012, p.4). Therefore, an important contribution to its theory is Fairclough’s (2001) three-dimensional model that analyses discourse on three levels: 1) the text practice, which critically studies linguistic features of a text, 2) the discursive practice, which further investigates genre and intertextuality, and 3) the social practice, which finally examines whether dominant discourses are reinforced or reconstructed. All three dimensions need to be analysed as Fairclough claims that texts can never be understood in isolation.

Van Dijk (1993) states that the main aim of CDA and the three-dimensional model is to _{examine the ways in which power relations manifest in discourses and the inequality that} derives from such processes. Thus, the core of CDA lies in describing, explaining and critiquing _{hegemonic discourses. In this way, Van Dijk asserts CDA can help to reveal} misrepresentation or non-representation of those who suffer from dominance. _{This is what} Fairclough (2010) refers to as the normalisation process and the _{naturalisation of ideologies} which gives a specific ideological representation the status of common sense and makes it invisible. To identify such discourses, Machin and Mayr (2012) have developed a toolkit for CDA, and they claim that the approach is commonly used for the analysis of news, political speeches, advertisements, and textbooks.

In order to illustrate the use of CDA in textbook analysis, a few studies that apply the theory and method will now be presented. First, Svendsen (2015) used CDA in his research of textbooks designed for Danish upper secondary school in teaching media and communication. The purpose of his study was to identify how dominant principles of society influence the construction of pedagogic knowledge and identities in textbooks. He based his analysis on Fairclough’s three-dimensional model, and thus analysed the text, discursive practice and social practice. The text dimension was analysed through looking at the

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we-deixis and what implications this has for the reader. Svendsen argues that it gives a sense of common ground. Furthermore, the discursive practice was exposed through the references and compliance with curricula and steering documents from the state level. From the social practice Svendsen found that the textbooks reinforce discourses rather than challenge and reconstruct them. He explains that readers are not encouraged to be critical readers and critical awareness is thus played down.

In addition, Samadikhah and Shahrokhi (2015) conducted a study that investigated two textbooks for English as a foreign language (EFL) learners in Iran from a CDA perspective. The aim of this study was to investigate gender representation and how the textbooks represent males and females in conversations and activities, as well as to detect any underlying ideologies. They developed checklists in line with Fairclough’s (2001) model to analyse female and male characters, female and male pictorial representation, fitness in the gender dialogue, female and male titles, and activities. Their results showed that there was a significant difference in male and female characters in terms of discourse in the conversations and pictures. For example, in mixed gender conversations in the textbooks, the male characters always initiated conversations. Characters were also assigned different tasks and activities depending on their gender. The authors concluded that it is women who pay the price for inequality and prejudice, which implies a reinforcement of ruling discourses in the social practice.

Another Iranian study of ELT textbooks that used CDA was carried out by Mozaheb et al. (2018). They looked at the cultures and countries represented in the listening activities in an ELT textbook. Although the textbook authors claim to promote English as an international language, the results of the study showed that there was a bias towards certain cultures and countries. Western cultures were illustrated as modern and democratic with scientific backgrounds and rich histories, whereas other countries were depicted as dictatorships, primitive and superstitious. Western countries were also mentioned more frequently than countries in other parts of the world. This textbook, as well as the ones in the other two studies, hence complies with problematic _{hegemonic discourses} _{and does not} reconstruct or challenge them. Using CDA in textbook evaluations is therefore an important tool to raise critical awareness among both teachers and pupils, and to promote an egalitarian and democratic development of the society that surrounds us.

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3.3 Visual Semiotics

Visual Semiotic analysis is a subsection of semiotics that focuses on how visual images convey a message. This section introduces the theory of Visual Semiotics developed by Roland Barthes and concludes with a textbook investigation that applied Visual Semiotics in the analysis. Barthes’ (1977) theory assumes that images have two layers of meaning that consists of what or who is being depicted and what values and ideologies are expressed through the image. The first layer denotes what is depicted and the second layer connotes ideas or values. To identify these layers, Barthes enlists Saussure’s (1966) concepts of sign, signifier and signified. According to Saussure, a sign is made up of a signifier, the word or image of an object, and a signified, the mental concept of an object. By applying these ideas to an image, one can determine its denotation through signifiers, and its connotations through its signifieds. Barthes (1977) explains that whilst denotation reveals the literal meaning of an image, connotations can be realised through different message-bearing components.

In their toolkit for CDA and Visual Semiotics, Machin and Mayr (2012) outline such characteristics. For example, represented people in images can be collectivised or individualised, as well as generic or specific. Collectivisation is achieved through representing people as part of a homogenous group whilst individualisation invites the reader to view the events through a particular individual’s perspective. Further, being represented as specific implies that an individual or group is stereotypically presented as, for example, black or Muslim, and they are there to explicitly represent that specific collective. This has the effect of making the individual disappear behind particular elements that categorise them. In contrast, if a person or group is depicted as generic, they are presented as diverse people who just happen to be, for instance, black or Muslim. Additionally, the distance to and angle of the portrayed can connote intimacy or objectivity depending on from what perspective we are positioned as viewers. Lastly, Machin and Mayr stress the exclusion criteria by asking who and what is excluded from visuals, and who is backgrounded.

Moreover, in Visual Semiotic analysis, one must also consider the relationship to other structures, and the degree of subjectivity in the interpretation. First, Barthes (1977) argues that a photograph is not an isolated structure, as it communicates with other present structures such as the caption of the image and the title and the text to which it belongs.

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Historically, he suggests that the image often made the text clearer through a reduction from text to image. But in recent years, he has shifted to claiming that the text and the image often amplify one another, which consequently leads to naturalisation of the cultural message. Moreover, Barthes addresses that the interpretation and analysis of an image is always limited to a person’s knowledge of signs and their signifieds. Therefore, the reading is closely dependent on one’s cultural background, as Longhurst’s et al. (2017) claim: “seeing is always cultured seeing” (p.361).

Isnaini et al. (2019) used Barthes’ (1977) Visual Semiotic theory to examine to what degree a set of ELT textbooks commonly used in Indonesia depict multicultural values, and how these values correlate to the current curriculum in Indonesia. The authors hypothesised that there was a higher chance for Indionesian learners of English to communicate with other EFL learners than with native speakers of English. Therefore, their point of departure was that intercultural communication is important, and textbooks need to be rich in illustrating non-native English cultures.

In their investigation, Isnaini et al. examined all pictures with implicit and explicit messages of culture. Four different types that illustrate multicultural values were identified: ways of giving respect to other people’s traditions or ways of life, perspectives, cultural products, and gender roles. The process included coding pictures according to which of the four types they belonged to and grouping them into target culture, which refers to English speaking countries, source culture, which refers to Indonesian culture, and international culture, which refers to all other countries in the world. The images were then analysed according to Barthes’ (1977) two layers of meaning: denotation and connotation. Their analysis showed that the textbook illustrated the social practice and heterogeneity of the population in Indonesia and provided real-life situations of school communities in Indonesia. However, the source culture dominated the number of images, and no images depicted target cultures. The researchers concluded that more inclusion of target culture and international culture in ELT textbooks was needed in order for learners to develop intercultural communicative competence.

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3.4 Cultural Representation

Similar to the study of cultural representation in textbooks by Isnaini et al. (2019) outlined above, Nault (2006) raises the importance for English educators to rethink whose culture should be taught and how culture-related course material should be designed and selected. He argues for teaching pupils critical cultural awareness in English studies, citing a need for them to gain new perspectives on themselves and society. Furthermore, Nault claims that a fact-based approach to culture in ELT inaccurately distinguishes between language and culture and prevents pupils from developing interculturality and a plurilingual view which are necessary to have in order to communicate in a multicultural setting. To make visible such cultural characteristics in textbooks, this section first defines two concepts important for the analysis of cultural representation, namely Braj Kachru’s (1986) Circles of World Englishes, and _Orientalism _{developed by Edward Said (2003). In addition, two studies that have} analysed cultural representation in ELT textbooks are displayed, followed by a subsection that outlines the premises of cultural awareness in the Swedish policy documents.

Kachru (1986) differentiates between three types of users of English that are depicted in three concentric circles based on geographical regions (see Figure 1), commonly referred to as World Englishes. The first type of users refers to native English speakers who have English as their first language and use English in almost all functions. It is made up of speakers from, for example, the US, Great Britain and Australia and are assigned members of the inner circle. The second group of users, the outer circle, includes nonnative speakers who use English for institutional purposes, such as speakers from India and South Africa. The last group of users belong to the expanding circle which is composed of countries and regions that use English as a foreign language in limited ways, such as speakers from China, Brazil, and Sweden. Through this tool, variations of cultures can be determined and challenged.

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Figure 1

Kachru’s Circles of World Englishes

Note_{. Figure adapted from Kachru (2005, p. 14).}

To further challenge cultural representation in _{the hidden curriculum, we can invoke the} concepts of _{imagined communities and Orientalism.} _{The former was first developed by} Benedict Anderson (1983) to analyse the spread of nationalism. He defines _imagined communities as socially constructed entities experienced by members of one particular group or nation. Through these communities, he explains that nations can be perceived as cultural artefacts rather than dynamic and diverse societies. _{McKay (2010) expands the} conceptualisation of _{imagined communities by applying it to English language learning. In} this context, an _{imagined community is something learners aspire to be part of and functions} as an incentive for learning English. She argues that English provides linguistic power by opening up for possibilities of work and education in the inner circle. Thus, the inner circle becomes an_{imagined community.}

Furthermore, Said (2003) defines_{Orientalism in three different ways: as an academic} discipline, as a worldview, and as a _{hegemonic discourse. The latter definition identifies the} Occident’s patronizing discourse of the Orient, historical terms for the West and the East. Said outlines how texts and images depicting the meeting with the Near East, India and Islamic countries were produced as Europeans gained close experience in these regions in the

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nineteenth century. In these productions, the regions were portrayed as inferior and primitive, creating dichotomies to the European identity viewed as superior and civilized. Said argues that through such representations, the West and the East emerge as man-made constructed ideas rather than natural geographical places which is further related to Anderson’s (1983) conceptualisation of _{imagined communities. By producing the Orient, Said (2003) claims that} Europeans not only justified their presence in these regions, but they also strengthened their own culture and identity by contrasting themselves to ‘the other’.

Stuart Hall (1992, 1997) extends Said’s ideas as he discusses the discourse of ‘the West and the Rest’ and ‘the spectacle of the other’. Like Said, Hall argues that the narrative of the East is based on myth and fantasy that allowed for the European collective identity to develop, rather than ideas about place and geography. However, Hall broadens the discourse as he considers what the West and the East could represent in a post-modern world. Firstly, he defines the contemporary West as representing “a society that is developed, industrialized, urbanized, capitalist, secular, and modern” (Hall, 1992, p.277). Therefore, all societies that hold these characteristics can be said to belong to the West. So, although the West first appeared in western Europe, it is no longer exclusive to Europe as the United States and Japan must be included, nor is all of Europe the West. Similar to Said (2003), Hall (1992) asserts that this categorisation into western and non-western societies allows for the creation of images in our minds through which we view the West as urban and developed, whereas the non-western societies are considered to be non-industrial, rural, agricultural, and ultimately under-developed.

Moreover, Hall (1992) stresses that the term ‘the West’ makes western societies appear homogenous with one way of viewing and talking about cultures. Therefore, he warns us not to disregard the variations within both the West and the East. He asks us to consider the differences between, for example, Germanic Northern and Latin Southern cultures, as well as between the Middle East, the Far East Africa, Latin America, indigenous North America and Australasia. Although these variations are crucial, Hall also points out that the very discourse of the West and the Rest itself neglects them as it simplifies and generalises.

A few studies have investigated cultural representation in ELT textbooks, for example the aforementioned study by Isnaini et al. (2019). Another comparative study by Meidani and Pishghadam (2012) analysed to what extent four textbooks comply with the concept of English as an international language. They investigated how the textbooks refer to Kachru’s

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(1986) Circles of World Englishes, to what extent they include non-native accents and dialogues in non-native speaking countries, how the textbooks treat learners’ home culture and finally, how they depict famous people. Therefore, countries and dialogues were categorised according to Kachru’s model. In order to calculate references to inner, outer and expanding circles the researchers used five general cultural themes developed by Pfister and Borzelli (1977), which include social, personal, religion/arts/humanities, political systems and environmental concerns. For the analysis, both images and written texts were assessed. The study of the four textbooks showed varied results, where one textbook had 92% reference to the inner circle, and another only 29%.

Although the researchers found a tendency moving towards more inclusion of outer and expanding circles in the textbooks, they state that there are still biases regarding what is presented from these circles and that they are far from presenting a democratised view of English as an international language. Concerning the representation of home cultures, one textbook had no representation of learners’ home culture at all. One textbook asked learners to make comparisons between their home cultures and the inner circle countries, thereby making the inner circle countries the norm. The two other textbooks made attempts of linking the global with the local. The final point being investigated, inclusion of famous people, almost only referred to famous people from the inner circle. The researchers argue that this carries with it implicit social and political discourses that underpin the status of inner circle English.

In a related study, Caukill (2011) investigated representation of identities in two international ELT textbooks through a quantitative analysis and found that there are neo-colonialist ideological messages in them, which connects the English language with the West. Caukill researched what identities were represented and whether they represented an English speaking world or not, as well as who was represented and who was hidden. The elements analysed were nationality, ethnic appearance, social position/occupation, sex and age. Her research findings show that western identities dominate, primarily British followed by North American. Identities from South America, India and African countries occurred less than 1%. In cases where no nationality was evident, a majority were Caucasian, only 9% were non-Caucasian and 26% were hidden from view. The type of jobs associated with characters were highly paid jobs, such as doctors and managers. These findings show that there are limited occasions for learners to engage in intercultural understanding when the

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only values and characters they meet in textbooks are white and middle class with highly paid occupations, and when native speakers are depicted as more superior. As Caukill argues, this does not reflect who uses and learns English worldwide, but rather confirms the existence of a _{hegemonic discourse based on Orientalism.}

As Caukill (2011) demonstrates, and as was stated in the beginning of this section, it is necessary to rethink whose culture should be taught in English education and how course material should be designed in order for English to be recognised as an international language (see also Nault, 2006). Furthermore, Caukill (2011) argues that identities of all people included in a textbook need to be represented explicitly and in a positive way, without bias, in order for pupils to develop intercultural competence and understanding. The development of this ability is one of the major goals in the curriculum for upper secondary school and the syllabus for English, which are outlined below.

3.4.1 Cultural Representation in the Curriculum

In the curriculum, Skolverket (2013) states that the education must rest upon “the inviolability of human life, individual freedom and integrity, the equal value of all people, equality between women and men, and solidarity between people” (p.4), which is said to be achieved through the ethics of Christian tradition and Western humanism. It is further argued that the internationalisation of Swedish society poses the challenge of living with and appreciating different values that exist in a culturally diverse environment. Since the school can be a place where different cultures meet, Skolverket stresses the significance that schools must aim to develop this tolerance among students and staff. Hence, all discrimination must be confronted, and instead, students should acquire the ability to understand and empathise with others. This ability is claimed to be strengthened through first learning about Swedish culture and history which, according to Skolverket (2013), establishes “...a secure identity and awareness of one’s own cultural origins and sharing a common cultural heritage” (p.4).

However, there are also recurring references to an international perspective. The development of pupils’ individual identity must not stop at what is specifically Swedish, but also include Nordic, European, and global dimensions. When pupils develop their identities in relation to a global context, Skolverket (2013) claims that international solidarity can grow. A goal for pupils is, therefore, to be able to communicate with people with respect to “differences in living conditions, culture, language, religion and history” (Skolverket, 2013,

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p.10). This goal is further developed in the syllabus for English where the international perspective is elaborated.

For example, in the syllabus, Skolverket (2018) suggests that knowing English can provide new perspectives on the surrounding world. Pupils should develop a confidence to use English in different situations and for different purposes, they should be encouraged to be curious in language and culture, and they should develop a sense of plurilingualism that enables different languages to interact. Furthermore, one of the five overall goals of learning English in Sweden relates to the cultural component of language and is expressed in the following way for English 5: “Living conditions, attitudes, values and traditions, as well as social, political and cultural conditions in different contexts and parts of the world where English is used. The spread of English and its position in the world” (Skolverket, 2018, p.3). To provide further explanation of the cultural component in the syllabus, the concept is entangled in the commentary material. It demonstrates that the concept of culture is wide and includes more than just literature and art. All sides of social life are incorporated in the concept, thereby comprising how people act, interact and communicate in everyday life, values and expectations, as well as expected norms in a particular society. Hence, the more pupils know about living conditions, societal issues and cultural features in different areas where English is used, the better equipped they are to adapt the language to different situations, purposes and receivers (Skolverket, 2017). Cultural competence is hence part of a pupil’s communicative competence.

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4 Method

The purpose of this study is to identify the characteristics of cultural representation in two ELT textbooks in order to raise awareness among teachers and publishing houses. To achieve this, we investigated which regions and countries were represented in _{Echo and Blueprint}_and how their cultures were constructed and represented through language and images. These findings were then used to determine to what extent the identified discourses correlate with the genre of ELT textbooks and cultural values and content in the Swedish policy documents. Furthermore, we aimed to establish whether these discourses challenge or reinforce hegemonic discourses in society. In this section, we outline our methods in terms of stages of textbook selection, procedure of textbook evaluation, analysis, and ethical considerations.

4.1 Selection of Materials

In order to select appropriate textbooks for analysis, we followed the stages of textbook research as described in _{UNESCOs Guidebook on Textbook Research and Textbook Revision} (Pingel, 2010). Since we did a horizontal study in which we investigated the presentation of a particular topic in contemporary textbooks, our aim was to find two of the most popular coursebooks designed for English 5. Level 5 was a given choice as it is the only mandatory course in English in upper secondary school, and two textbooks were considered reasonable due to the chosen methodology and the time frame. Firstly, we identified two of the largest publishing houses in the area based on their annual turnover presented on their websites: Liber and Natur & Kultur. Secondly, we determined the most relevant coursebook for English 5 in each house. Natur & Kultur only has one traditional textbook for English 5, thus the selection was clear. Liber has two textbooks for English 5, however one _{was published in} 2012 and has not been revised until this date. The second textbook _{was revised in 2017 and} therefore deemed more relevant for this study. Through this process, the textbooks we decided to analyse were thus _{Echo 5 Main Issues} _{from Natur & Kultur (2013), and Blueprint}

A Version 3.0 _{from Liber (2017). Although Pingel (2010) acknowledges that the newest}

textbooks are often not the most commonly used, the relevance of our study decreases if we do not choose textbooks to which we can contrast the present Swedish curriculum.

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4.2 Procedure

Our procedure for textbook evaluation comprised collection of data, coding of data, and tabulation. The methodology was shaped by the constructionist approach to representation which can be divided into two perspectives: the semiotic approach, _{the poetics of language,} and the discourse approach, _{the politics of language (Hall, 1997). Hence, in this section, the} application of CDA and Visual Semiotics are displayed through specific sub-questions developed in line with Machin and Mayr’s (2012) toolkit for the theories.

We began by determining which regions and countries are represented in the textbooks. In order to do this, we took a quantitative approach which involved counting and documenting the settings and/or areas described in each text. Even if a country/region was mentioned several times in one text, it was only counted as one occurrence. Moreover, some texts represented several countries/regions, and thus, each country/region was counted as an occurence. Therefore, the number of countries/regions in _Echo_{(19) exceeded the number of} analysed texts (11). In contrast, the analysed texts in _Blueprint _{(38) were greater than the} occurrences of countries/regions (35). This is due to the fact that some texts could not be assigned to a specific country/region, but contained famous characters with known nationalities. These texts were thus included in the qualitative analysis of character representation described below. Finally, the texts that could not be assigned to any specific country/region or nationality were excluded from all statistics.

We then investigated how regions and countries were represented in the texts and images. This approach was qualitative in nature and made use of CDA and Visual Semiotics. Based on these theories, we developed tangible sub-questions (see Table 1a and Table 1b) to identify specific cultural characteristics that were investigated one text at a time. First, we studied the texts, and then we conducted the Visual Semiotic analysis. In Blueprint, _{38 texts} and 70 pictures were analysed, and in _{Echo, the analysis comprised 11 longer texts and 58} pictures. In the former, there were a few shorter texts as preparation for listening exercises, and the inclusion criteria were that if they represented a person whose origin was known and/or a region, the texts and associated images were included.

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Table 1a

Sub-questions for Linguistic Features of the Text Practice Sub-questions for texts

Region representation

What activities are associated with the regions?

What possibilities and challenges are associated with the regions? What adjectives are used to describe the regions?

Character representation

Who are the main characters and what is their origin? What social and/or occupational belonging do they have? What adjectives are used to describe the main characters?

Table 1b

Sub-questions for Visual Features of the Text Practice Sub-questions for images

Relationship to texts

In what ways do the images correlate to the discourses of the texts?

Are there any countries/regions or cultures that appear in the text that are excluded from images?

Iconography

What do the images denote? What do the images connote?

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4.3 Analysis

When the data was gathered, the analysis for the results and discussion section commenced. Fairclough’s three-dimensional model was used as a framework for categorising the data into three primary components: the text practice, the discursive practice, and the social practice. In the text practice, we applied Kachru’s (1986) Circles of World Englishes as an analytical tool for further categorisation, allowing us to address the question of which regions and countries were represented in the textbooks. To further answer how the cultures were represented and constructed, we iterated through the assembled countries and regions and classified the activities, possibilities, challenges into overarching concepts. Characters' origin and social/occupational positions were accounted for, and the adjectives for each region, origin, and character were listed. These were tabulated and explained along with the visual analysis. In the visual analysis, Machin and Mayr’s (2012) concepts _{collectivisation and} individualisation, generic and specific, and the effects of angle and distance were applied as elements of connotation.

In regard to the discursive practice we analysed correlation to genre and intertextuality. This was done by comparing the identified linguistic and visual features to previous studies of cultural representation in ELT textbooks as well as the Swedish policy documents as far as they relate to cultural values and content, thereby addressing our second research question.

Finally, in the social practice section, we contrasted the text practice and the discursive practice to the _{hegemonic discourses of Orientalism} _{and imagined communities.} This allowed us to identify to what extent the identified discourses of cultural representation in the textbooks reinforce or restructure existing hegemonic discourses in society. Through these three sub-analyses, we thus sought to make _{the hidden curriculum visible and to} problematise these discourses.

4.4 Ethical Considerations

According to Jorgensen and Phillips (2002), Fairclough is concerned about the public use of research results, and hence, researchers need to consider ethical aspects of their work. He

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implies that results can be used for social engineering. However, the purpose of CDA is rather to improve democratisation, to promote more egalitarian and liberal discourses, to address social wrongs, and to find possible ways of righting them (Fairclough, 2010). Machin and Mayr (2012) further states that CDA and Visual Semiotics methodologies do not reveal the intentions of authors or publishing houses, nor readers’ interpretation of the texts. Thus, we do not set out to blame the creators of the textbooks, but rather to shed light on problematic representations and promote more democratic discourses. Moreover, we can only establish whether the contents and discourses of the textbooks provide opportunity for the development of intercultural and communicative competence, but not whether this is developed in reality or not.

In other words, determining the pedagogical effects of the analysed textbooks is not possible in this type of study. As Englund (2011) argues, a textbook analysis does not consider how a textbook is used in the classroom, and the investigation of the interrelationship between teacher, pupils, and textbooks remains as a neglected research area. Furthermore, we have not included additional material such as the teacher’s guide or exercises. Pingel (2010) argues that although additional material might clarify the authors’ pedagogical intentions, pupils make sense of the texts without them, and faults of biased texts cannot be overlooked because the teachers are offered more detailed accounts in their material. Thus, possible biases in texts and images will be investigated, presented, and discussed, but not the pedagogical effects of them.

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5 Results and Discussion

The purpose of this study is to make the cultural characteristics of _{the hidden curriculum} _in two ELT textbooks visible in order to raise awareness among publishing houses and aid teachers in choosing and using textbooks. First, we investigate the text practice and address our first research question regarding which countries and regions are represented and how their cultures are represented through language and images. The countries and regions are divided into Kachru’s (1986) Circles of World Englishes, and the cultural representation through language and images is further sectioned and tabulated according to the inner, outer, and expanding circles. We then turn to our second research question, which pertains to discursive practices in the text. This is addressed by comparing our findings to other studies of the cultural representation in the genre of ELT textbooks. Additionally, the intertextuality and alignment between the identified discourses in the textbooks and the cultural values and content of the curriculum and syllabus is analysed and discussed. Finally in relation to our third research question, we contrast our findings from the text- and discursive practices to the hegemonic discourses of _{Orientalism and imagined communities and determine to what} extent these are restructured or reinforced.

5.1 The Text Practice

In this section, we first present the quantitative analysis of countries and regions. Then, the qualitative analysis of cultural characteristics is presented. Hence, activities, possibilities, challenges and adjectives describing regions and countries, as well as characters’ origin, social and occupational positions and adjectives are tabulated and discussed. Additionally, the relationship between images, texts and discourses as well as their denotation and connotation are accounted for. In each section of cultural representation, the tabulation and discussion of regions and countries in text and images are followed by character representation in text and images.

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5.1.1 Presence of Countries and Regions

Overall, representation of inner circle countries is dominant in both textbooks (see Tables 2, 3, and 4). However,_Blueprint _{is more oriented towards the inner circle which comprises 80%} of all represented regions, and the US stands out as it occurs 19 times out of 35 (54.2%). The corresponding numbers from _Echo _{are 53% for the inner circle where the US occurs only 3} times out of 19 (15.8%). Moreover, as can be seen in Tables 2 and 3, 19 different countries are represented in _{Echo, whereas Blueprint only includes 6 identified countries and} unspecified regions that can be assigned to, for instance, the inner and outer circles. This demonstrates that there is greater variation in _{Echo in relation to Kachru’s (1986) Circles of} World Englishes. In addition, the expanding circle has a greater presence than the outer circle in both textbooks, with 28% versus 17% in _{Echo and 14% versus 6% in Blueprint. However,} in the latter, the expanding circle is only represented through undefined countries in Northern Africa, the West, and through global dilemmas. According to Pingel (2010), the overrepresentation of inner circle countries have implications for the development of communicative and intercultural competence as described in the curriculum and syllabus which will be further discussed in the discursive practice.

Table 2

Countries and Regions in Blueprint

Countries and Regions Occurrences Percent

USA 19 54.2% UK and Ireland 6 17.1% Australia 1 2.8% Canada 1 2.8% Malawi 1 2.8% Northern Africa 1 2.8% Inner Circle 1 2.8% Outer Circle 1 2.8% Global 2 5.7% The West 2 5.7% Total 35

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Table 3

Countries and Regions in Echo

Countries and Regions Occurrences Percent

USA 3 15.8% UK 4 21.0% Australia 1 5.3% Canada 1 5.3% Jamaica 1 5.3% South Africa 1 5.3% Singapore 1 5.3% India 1 5.3% Mexico 1 5.3% Italy 1 5.3% Colombia 1 5.3% Argentina 1 5.3% Sweden 1 5.3% Japan 1 5.3% Total 19 Table 4

Kachru’s Circles of World Englishes in Blueprint and Echo

Circles Blueprint Echo

Inner 80% 53%

Outer 6% 16%

Expanding 14% 31%

5.1.2 Cultural Representation of the Inner Circle

In _{Blueprint, the inner circle is represented through the USA, UK, Ireland, Australia, and} Canada, thereby excluding New Zealand, the Carribean islands and explicit reference to Scotland and Wales. Although Jamaica is present through the presentation of the origin of Bob Marley, the country is not included as a region in itself. Common features are leisure activities, choice of education, stress due to competition and pressure, and use of social

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media. Moreover, the inner circle is presented as a capitalistic society with sales and marketing as a recurring occupation and consumerism as a constant possibility.

Similarly to _{Blueprint, the inner circle in Echo is represented by the USA, UK,} Australia and Canada in addition to Jamaica. Excluded from representation are Ireland and New Zealand, whereas only brief referrals to Scotland and Wales are made. Equivalent to Blueprint_{, frequent characteristics of the inner circle include leisure activities, choice of} education, and use of social media, but also an existing support system and music and fame. Moreover, both textbooks present the USA as a country with possibilities, whereas there is a greater inclusion of challenges in the UK, such as hooliganism, obesity, prejudice or ethical dilemmas. These representations relate to the concept of _{imagined communities which will be} further discussed in the social practice dimension. Tables 5 and 6 display how the discourse of the inner circle is constructed in both textbooks through activities, possibilities, challenges, and adjectives.

Table 5

Inner Circle Region Representation in Blueprint

Country/ Activities Possibilities Challenges Adjectives

Region USA studying, working, leisure activities, summer camp, supporting each other, bullying, evacuating, seeking danger, seeking happiness, first love, dating, drugs, drinking alcohol, innovation, research, social media, online activism, slavery, resistance, learning to swim, education, choice of higher education, well paid work, upwardly mobile, advancement, vacation alternatives, health benefits from drugs, choice of hospital treatment, consumerism, improving lifestyle, positive thinking, finding oneself, changing and pride, insecurity, the weather, pressure from parents, peers, and school, bullying, love/relationships, finding oneself, sales and marketing, observing suffering, unemployment, financial difficulties, gender inequality, segregation, racism, discrimination, surrounded by nature, thick, dense, and dark woods, black and dark sky, French and Spanish heritage, biggest city, famous, catastrophic and massive flooding, playful, dependent (on slavery), bloody, white, black, ashamed, democratic

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protests, discrimination, racism, CRM acts, brutal violence, police brutality, working for the superior class, charity work influencing society, social media as a mobilising force police brutality, brutal violence, neo-Nazism, prison system, white supremacy UK and Ireland sales and marketing, court trial, shoplifting, child abuse/corporal punishment, immigration, influence of media, social media choice of hospital treatment, religious freedom sexism, gender inequality, obesity, ethical dilemma, child abuse, integration, pressure of social media and school, bullying

--

Canada sales and marketing influence of media stress of competition --

Australia exchange studies higher education, travelling, -- -- Inner Circle speaking English as a native language speaking English as a native language -- -- Table 6

Inner Circle Region Representation in Echo

Country/ Activities Possibilities Challenges Adjectives

Region

USA bullying, social media, supporting each other, leisure activities, outdoors activities, involvement in choice of education, higher education, finding oneself, mobility, police assistance, travelling to exotic places, influencing bullying, finding oneself, relationships, pressure from parents, peers, and school, stress, competition, missing person,

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local community, searching for missing person, charity work, slavery, fame, protesting society death, miscarriage, rape, prostitution, skin colour, discrimination UK leisure activities, hooliganism, recording music, social media, questioning culture and religion group belonging, support system, expressing opinions, religious freedom, immigration, multiculturalism hooliganism, violence, peer pressure, discrimination, racism, prejudice, unemployment, fact checking, shortage of medical staff --

Australia leisure activities, applying for work

creativity -- --

Canada selecting and ordering babies online, donating sperm and eggs, flying

having children infertility, ethical dilemma

expensive

Jamaica fame moving to USA poverty, interracial marriage

--

The visual analysis of images depicting the inner circle corresponds to the identified discourses in the tables. In both textbooks, the USA is illustrated through the described activities, and the contrast between nature and city. Through different angles, the viewer is invited to observe or participate in each environment. For example, in _{Blueprint, through a} ground level picture, the viewer can identify with the horror experienced by a main character in a thunderstorm. In contrast, the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina is depicted through two aerial pictures allowing observation from a superior position. Machin and Mayr (2012) state that these choices of angle and distance connote the degree of intimacy and identification with characters. Other inner circle regions are excluded from images in both books, which

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according to Machin and Mayr have significant ideological implications that will be further discussed in the remaining dimensions.

Furthermore, most characters in both textbooks are American high school or university students who are depicted as ambitious and driven or struggling to find their identities. Adjectives used to describe these characters include: _{intelligent, clever, smart, and} self-motivated_{, but also frustrated, lonely, confused, and distraught. Another common feature} in the inner circle is access to well-paid jobs. Adult characters are, for instance, doctors, psychologists, professors, and in the legal profession. Other characters include famous authors and musicians, and specifically for _{Echo, British characters are either in need of or} seeking assistance in order to improve their lives. Moreover, African-Americans are either famous individuals or referred to generically as a group, which is also evident in the visual analysis. Tables 7 and 8 outline the inner circle character representation.

Table 7

Inner Circle Character Representation in Blueprint

Origin Social Position/Occupation Adjectives

Undefined American

authors/writers, poet, actor, engineer, high school students, PhD student, university student, counsellors, psychologist professors, pizza delivery boy, lifeguards, housewives, leader of neo-Nazi movement

eighteen, nineteen, interested, sorry, scared, homesick, slow, starstruck, lonely, let down, fooled, tricked, hip, desperate, disappointed, sober, sexy, shy, beautiful, serious, excited, lucky, appreciative, grateful, nerdy, jealous, subservient, empowered, accepted, elitist, easy, pleasant, articulate, white, confused, skinny, charismatic

Mexican-American son of mailman, son of English professor

lonely, fifteen, skinny,

uncomfortable, alone, miserable, ashamed

African-American famous musician, gold

medallist/sprinter, maid, poet, CRM activists, victims of police brutality, authors, community organiser, activists, protesters, NASA workers,

black, female, powerful, diffuse, young, smart, restless, inventive, engaged, peaceful, vulnerable, exposed, enraged, astonished, neglected, disadvantaged, high, darker, beautiful, unarmed

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president

Filipino-American professional model -- British and Irish geology professor, children,

boxer, Jehovah’s witness, judge, lawyer, blood specialist, counsell, guardian, shoplifters, student, columnist

overweight, obese, grief-stricken, wild, foppish, unruffled, attentive, puzzled, seventeen, terrified, ill, desperate, intelligent, young, influenced, clever, capable, self-protective, frightened, tired

Canadian advertising agents --

Jamaican famous musician legendary

Inner Circle blogger, exchange student --

Table 8

Inner Circle Character Representation in Echo

Origin Social Position/Occupation Adjectives

Undefined American

high school student, college students, psychology professor, marine biology student, police officer, investigator, mother, bioethicist/chair of health and law program, medical student, boyfriend

smart, honest, strong, relieved, right, twentyone, missing, ambitious, well-liked, energetic, inquisitive, self-motivated, good, modest, aspiring, fantastic,

unhappy, frustrated, disappointed, distraught, upset, relieved, more java, hung over, sun stroke, sun burned, fake

African-American famous singer black, famous, excellent British hooligans, public service

employees, opinion column writers

regular, loyal, travelling,

passionate, fanatic, enthusiastic, anti-social, violent, appalled, fascinated

Immigrants in Britain

unemployed, nurse, student --

Canadian fire fighter, professional

marathon runner, middle school math teacher

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Jamaican famous musician poor, half-white, excellent

Inner Circle famous authors --

In both _{Blueprint and Echo, American characters are depicted as generic white individuals.} Often, pictures are close-ups or portrait pictures which allow for intimacy and identification with characters, and the camera is sometimes positioned behind the character allowing for the viewer to take his or her perspective (Machin and Mayr, 2012). Moreover, corresponding to the textual representation of African-Americans, the images either exclude any mention of this demographic or depict them as a singular group, unless they are famous. Similarly, in Blueprint_{, two Mexican-American boys are excluded from images. In contrast to the USA,} pictures portraying characters from the UK are often medium or long shots, creating a greater distance between viewer and characters. People of British origin are hence collectivised, mostly through occupation or activity. Lastly, although the texts about the UK describe characters suffering from issues of immigration and religious and cultural freedom, images either exclude these people or depict them as inferior through angle and perspective.

Hence, the representation of the inner circle is comprehensive and diverse. In both texts and images, there are norms of whiteness, education, and well-paid occupations that contribute to discourses that will be further addressed in the remaining practices.

5.1.3 Cultural Representation of the Outer Circle

The only country from the outer circle that receives representation in _{Blueprint is Malawi,} whereas India, South Africa and Singapore are used to represent the outer circle in _Echo. Recurrent characteristics of this circle include a focus on challenges, such as inequality, poverty, and famine. However, in both textbooks, there exists some presentation of the possibility and stated ambition to move to and study in the USA. Tables 9 and 10 illustrate activities, challenges, possibilities and adjectives that are used to describe the regions.

Constructing &apos;the Other&apos;: A Study of Cultural Representation in English Language Textbooks