Racism, Mark Twain and Close Reading in the English Language Classroom

Örebro University

Department of Humanities, Education and Social Sciences English

Racism, Mark Twain and Close Reading in

the English Language Classroom

Hannes Wikman 960309-xxxx

Degree Project Essay Term 8

Abstract

This essay argues that Mark Twain’s novels The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and Pudd’nhead Wilson can be applied in Swedish upper secondary schools to address racial inequality in the purpose of achieving intercultural competence and understanding. Racism is a vast issue, evident in both schools and in our society, locally as well as globally, where ethnical minorities are abused or disfavored societal privileges. This leaves teachers with the vital task of counteracting racism in classrooms, in accordance with the educational goals of imparting democratic values. The essay is conducted through a Close Reading, which is beneficial in exposing a text’s complexity by examining its literary aspects. The primary focus from the Close Reading is put on narration and its subordinate categories. Word choice, repetition or metaphors are highlighted and analyzed from the selected passages as they are literary aspects that the students can react to and further discuss in relation to racism in their everyday lives. The findings show that Twain’s ways of narrating racism and stimulating empathy are integral features in promoting an increased understanding to meet the curriculum’s requirements.

Keywords: Racism, racial inequality, intercultural competence, understanding, narrative imagination, narration, empathy, democratic values, Close Reading.

Table of contents

Introduction ... 1

Historical/Social Context: ... 3

Literature and understanding ... 18

Conclusion ... 23

1

Introduction

This essay discusses two novels by the American author, Mark Twain. It argues that American literature in upper-secondary school can promote the goals of developing democratic values by highlighting intercultural competence as a means of understanding cultural differences. An important part of this process is stimulating empathy in the reader. Both novels discussed here, Pudd’nhead Wilson and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, have a strong emphasis on racism. In addition, both are well-known literary texts written by an important author with whom students of English literature should be familiar. Reading fiction is an important part of trainee students’ education and an integral part of the English syllabus under the heading of “reception”, for English 5 and 6 in upper-secondary school, drawn up by “Skolverket”, Sweden’s National Agency for Education of which more later. Henceforth, this agency will be referred to as “Skolverket” (55-60). This essay illustrates the advantages of Close Reading of both literary works as a means of discussing racism in society today. Racial abuse is a feature of everyday life at school (Arneback & Jämte, 7-8) and a topic which, though difficult to approach in the classroom, must be faced. Fiction provides an excellent “forum’ for discussing this sensitive topic.

Martha C. Nussbaum claims that reading novels is one of the basic strategies for creating “improved world citizens” by furthering the ability to express compassion to unknown others through the function of “narrative imagination” (Nussbaum, 90). Nussbaum sees narrative imagination as an “essential preparation for moral interaction” (90), underlining fiction’s capability to cultivate a “sympathetic responsiveness to another’s needs” (90). It also enables the reader to understand what circumstances determine those needs.

Through literary imagination, i.e. becoming engaged with and concerned for the fictional characters and their fates, stimulates empathy. According to Suzanne Keen, empathy can be defined as an individual’s habit of sharing another individual’s emotions. Keen claims that “narratives in prose and film infamously manipulate our feelings and call upon our built-in capacity to feel with others” (Keen, 6). Nugrahenny Zacharias supports this view, arguing that literature is beneficial for “promoting emotional empathy” (Zacharias, 30). These claims suggest that selectively picked texts also have the potential to facilitate compassion. This is important in relation to the topic of this essay as it argues that empathy can be utilized as an

2 educational approach for achieving the goal of intercultural understanding in schools. From this perspective, Skolverket states that students should be able to “samspela i möten med andra människor utifrån respekt för skillnader i livsvillkor, kultur, språk, religion och historia” (interact with other people based on respect for differences in living conditions, culture, religion and history, Skolverket,11).

Extracts from both of Twain’s works have been selected for discussion. The method underlying the discussion is Close Reading, the main feature of the approach to literature known as “New Criticism”. For the author Steven Lynn, New Criticism is synonymous with Close Reading (Lynn, 14). By adopting Close Reading, focus is on the text itself and not on the author. Neither is it on the circumstances of his or her life or on the reader’s personal response to the text. While Close Reading emphasizes the unity of the text, it will be used to demonstrate how racism is an important feature of the novels discussed here. It will be

conducted by highlighting examples in the selected passages. At the same time, it is important to acknowledge that unity is an important feature of New Criticism. Due to limited space, it is not possible to discuss more than six extracts from Twain’s novels.

For this essay, three passages, taken from different parts from each novel, have been selected. The passages vary in length, but the majority consist of short paragraphs, i.e. between one hundred to three hundred words. The chosen literary works illustrate a different culture and different historical period to our own, so in this way racism can be discussed in the classroom in a more relaxed way because there is a contextual and chronological distance. Arneback & Jämte argue that school materials of historical perspectives provide students with historical awareness; a crucial element to highlight how past ideas and events are part of the ongoing evolution of racism, helping students reflect on their own situation and context (Arneback & Jämte, 213). The two novels discussed in this essay depict racism and its historical insight as part of the process of narration. It is important to keep in mind that literature, specifically older literature, illustrates settings that are one step removed from the students’ reality and therefore less personal and possibly less sensitive as a subject.

The focus in this essay is on narration, first- and third-person, as it reveals aspects of characters’ thinking, particularly in terms of racism. Through Close Reading, the chosen excerpts will be discussed in the classroom to consider the effects of word choice and repetition, metaphors and similes on students’ reactions to racism in the two texts. Students will mark these aforementioned literary aspects that catch their attention. By Close Reading the passages from the two chosen books, the goal is for the students to relate the literary examples to present-day circumstances. In this way, racism can be discussed in the context of

3 literature and does thus not point to particular people or communities, which could,

potentially, make discussions awkward and too personal. From this stage, teachers can then proceed to introducing discussions about issues or racism in the chosen excerpts. They can be divided into larger groups, which report back to the whole class. The most interesting points can then be summarized either by the teacher or a designated ‘representative’ from each group. Such discussions are very much in line with the goals of preventing xenophobia and intolerance as identified in the official curriculum (Skolverket, 5).

Historical/Social Context:

Racism is a complicated phenomenon to define, although it can be described as a

categorization of people into different, “races” based on their ethnical background (Arneback & Jämte, 60). Out of these categories, the various “races” are identified and sorted into

specific groups, to which are attached generalized traits and stereotypes. Some groups or races are rated as superior to others, which can potentially lead to violation and abuse of the groups identified as divergent (Arneback & Jämte, 60-61). In both The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and Pudd’nhead Wilson, the protagonists’ skin color is the most conspicuous element signifying difference. Black-skinned people are depicted as inferior to white-skinned, who are clearly the dominant race (Arneback & Jämte, 60).

As specified by Skolverket, teachers must find ways when following the guidelines set by the Swedish school system to emphasize value-systems, social justice and human rights. These obligations play pivotal roles in the teacher’s profession but are also important human qualities for creating tolerant, respectful students in a society where racism is still present (Arneback & Jämte, 2017).

Furthermore, Skolverket advocates increased understanding and compassion for others, and states that “främlingsfientlighet och intolerans måste bemötas med kunskap, öppen diskussion och aktiva insatser” (“xenophobia and intolerance must be confronted with

knowledge, open discussion and active measures”, 5). This essay will explore the potential of literature to foster both intercultural competence and democratic values in the context of racism.

4 The challenges of promoting intercultural competence to prevent racism can also be

connected to Nussbaum’s concepts of achieving “world citizenship” (69). Nussbaum advocates that “we must educate people who can operate as world citizens with sensitivity and understanding” (Nussbaum, 52.) The concepts of world citizenship and Skolverket’s value-systems will also be discussed in the essay, along with cultural racism, as part of understanding racism, what it means and what it can lead to.

On a similar note, Sara Gharzarian and Alexander Johnson have examined the

possibility of using Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn in Swedish schools as a method for addressing racial inequality and prejudice in the classroom. The authors conclude that the novel is a successful device for discussing these issues, as well as contributing to the students’ critical thinking and their understanding of freedom, equality and solidarity

(Gharzarian & Johnson, 34). In this essay, critical thinking refers to the questioning of norms and prejudice and the evaluation of perceived ideas and information. Additionally, Gharzarian & Johnson claim that students appreciate Twain’s way of applying dialect to his characters through the use of non-standard spelling and grammar. It creates a feeling of authenticity (35). This is promising for my essay, where dialect also features in Pudd’nhead Wilson.

Expressions such as “I’s a-gwyne to” (Twain, Huck Finn 44) and “Yo’s lyin!” (Twain,

Pudd’nhead, 130) are common phrases in both novels. However, Gharzarian & Johnson admit that Twain’s use of the negative words “nigger” or “negro” made the students feel

uncomfortable. According to the authors, the students were offended by the word and further “showed great sympathy towards the black community and the slaves” (34).

Reminiscent of this essay and Gharzarian and Johnson’s (2014), the African American community is also emphasized by Erik Malm, who makes a strong case for using literature in the EFL (English as a Foreign Language) classroom to cultivate cultural understanding. He highlights two different works, The Color Purple (Walker) and For Colored Girls Who Have Considered Suicide When the Rainbow is Enuf (Shange).

Malm believes that Nussbaum’s function of narrative imagination (Nussbaum, 90) in literature is vital for cultivating involvement and empathy, which enables the reader to immerse him- or herself in the characters’ lives and situations. Likewise, Twain’s novels in this essay can trigger the students’ thoughts about power, racial discourse, and social justice by cultivating understanding of different cultures. This essay demonstrates the potential of promoting understanding of social conventions and empathy by analyzing excerpts from literary texts and their depictions of racism.

5 The following discussion of selected passages from Twain’s novels focuses on empathy in literature and how this quality can be related to real life. Classroom discussions have the potential to enable teachers to demonstrate how intolerance is often borne of ignorance. As Zacharias and Malm demonstrate, such methods can lead to intercultural competence through empathy (Keen, 7). This can be achieved in literary texts, where the empathy “‘arises out of natural desire to care about others”’ (Keen, 7). Empathy is a function of the use of certain narrative devices. Keen outlines that the oral storytelling of one or several characters tends to invite the reader to increased levels of enthusiasm (Keen, 5-6). The author informs that by becoming enthused in the involved characters and their fates, the reader also becomes attentive in his or her reading, paving the way for immersion (6). This immersion and sharing of feelings are vital parts of the essay, since they can facilitate the desired cultural

understanding among students in order to prevent racism.

Zacharias acknowledges that while culture and literature are taught separately, literature is in fact “the best way to facilitate culture learning” (27.) Zacharias demonstrates that carefully selected literary texts have the potential to raise cultural awareness and provide students with “personal enjoyment and emotional gain throughout the process” (Zacharias, 27). According to Zacharias, literature develops students’ ability to break down and question cultural values, helping them to reflect on their own culture in relation to others. When students have become aware of other cultures and their norms through contrasting them, they can think more

critically about cultural values in relation to their own culture. This can lead to intercultural competence, where social interactions take place in multicultural classrooms without any obstacles of cultural differences (Zacharias, 33).

Like Zacharias, Nussbaum claims that awareness of cultural difference is vital in gaining intercultural competence (Nussbaum, 68). Nussbaum states that “the world citizen must develop sympathetic understanding of distant cultures and of ethnic, racial, and religious minorities within her own” (69). Nussbaum implies here that functioning citizens of the world need to promote intercultural understanding. We must acknowledge one other’s humanity, regardless of cultural background, if we are to avoid prejudice. Nussbaum’s concept of “world citizen” is very much in line with the educational goals of striving for democratic values and respecting the human rights (Skolverket, 11).

Such understanding and tolerance features in the two novels discussed here. Gharzarian & Johnson conclude that The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn can be effectively used to help students to develop critical thinking while at the same time highlighting racial issues and

6 prejudice (34). My essay deviates nonetheless from Gharzarian & Johnson’s studies in two main areas.

Firstly, the authors conducted field studies for their research, using surveys that focused on teaching The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn in contemporary schools to promote critical thinking and addressing racial issues. This current work is reminiscent of Gharzarian & Johnson (6-7) in terms of its purpose, but this is a literary essay, containing a distinct structure by relying heavily on Close Reading and the function of empathy.

Secondly, the materials are different, examining The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn but also Pudd’nhead Wilson and their ways of depicting racism and facilitating discussions in upper secondary schools. This is a crucial asset for teachers attempting to prevent racism (Arneback & Jämte, 217-221).

Before proceeding, it is necessary to address the concepts of culture and intercultural competence. Zacharias points out that the term “culture” is dynamic, consisting of several different aspects and meanings (28). A simple definition states that “culture is defined as the knowledge acquired from the society where one lives” (Zacharias, 28.) Here, the knowledge gained is seen as the tool for constructing one’s perception of reality. Culture can be

understood more precisely by dividing the concept into categories, here highlighting “ideas” and “behaviors”. “Ideas” mirror the concept of beliefs, values or institutions while

“behaviors”, concern customs, habits, dresses, foods or leisure (28-29). The aspects of “ideas” and “behaviors” will be particularly relevant in the following discussion, as they are important elements of the chosen passages discussed below.

The concept of “ideas” (Zacharias) is a regular feature of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn in the context of social norms related to race, constituting racism. This is shown in the early stages of the novel, through the eyes of Huck Finn’s father, Pap, and his criticism of the increased power a “mulatter”, a person of both African and American descent, is given in society (Twain, Huck Finn 27). Nonetheless, the colored person is described as a “free nigger” (27) by Huck’s father. Pap criticizes the government for allowing the person (Twain, Huck Finn 27) basic privileges of working and voting, as evidenced in the quotation below.

And that ain’t the wust. They said he could vote when he was at home. Well, that let me out. Thinks I, what is the country a-coming to? It was ‘lection day, and I was just about to go and vote myself if I warn’t too drunk to get there; but when they told me there was a state in this country where they’d let that nigger vote, I drawed out. I says I’ll never vote agin. (Twain, Huck Finn 27)

7 In the above passage, there is an abundance of words characterized by non-standard grammar and spelling, here emphasized by Pap in the typical example: “And that ain’t the wust” (27). Neither “ain’t” nor “wust” (worst) is considered formal or conventional grammar but provides authenticity. The statement, “they said he could vote” (27), is central to the passage, paving the way for the following sentences that center around Pap’s anecdote. The narrator’s italicization of the word “vote” (27) emphasizes Pap’s amazement that a person of African American descent can have such a right. It also signals that black people do not usually possess the right to vote, as shown in Pap’s clear irritation and disgust.

These first few sentences lead up to Pap’s question “what is this country a-coming to?” (27), referring to America, of course, and the ongoing development among certain states of granting suffrage to black people. Pap is reminiscing about the last time it was “‘lection day” (27), having decided to vote “myself if I warn’t too drunk” (27). From this opening phrase, examples of the unconventional spelling of “lection” (election) and “warn’t” (were not) reinforces Pap’s southern identity.

The phrase “too drunk to get there” (27) also affirms the character’s addiction to

alcoholism, indicating that voting is not as prioritized to Pap as drinking. Pap belongs to the lowest levels of society, driven by jealousy over his son’s fortune of living with the Widow Douglas and her intentions of civilizing Huck (Twain, Huck Finn 19-20). Pap himself is both uneducated and poor. He is also plagued by greed, forcing Huck to share some of his money so he can continue drinking (Twain, Huck Finn 21). Instead of taking advantage of his privilege and duty as a citizen, Pap informs that “when they told me there was a state in this country where they let that nigger vote, I drawed out” (Twain, Huck Finn 27). From this quotation, the students can be asked to investigate what picture they form of Pap after reading this and point to specific words that formed their perception. The examined passage above highlights that social structures and prejudice are represented in Pap’s point of view, here narrated through a first person perspective (Kennedy & Gioia, 27). Pap’s belief that black-skinned people should be omitted their civil right of voting is a case of “ethnical

discrimination”, a form of racism outlined by Arneback & Jämte as a person being abused or disfavored social privileges with regards to his or her skin color or ethnical affiliations (Arneback & Jämte, 27). Not only does this passage depict underlying racist structures where black men in most states during Twain’s lifetime were deliberately excluded from voting, it is also rather ironic: With Pap giving up his own right to vote as a white man through stating that he “drawed out” (Twain, Huck Finn 27), he indirectly hands it over it to the very ethnic

8 group he appears to despise. This can be interpreted as a way by the narrator of satirizing the unequal society of that time, questioning the contradictory nature of racism, rather than criticizing the government’s regulations. From this excerpt, students can be asked to discuss Pap’s opinions about black people in relation to racism or current fundamental values in Sweden, i.e “the human rights” (Skolverket, 11). The discussion can address privileges in society based on a person’s background, using Pap’s skepticism towards Afro-American people as an example. Students can also reflect on how other ethnical groups are perceived today, whether or not they are treated the same as native Swedes socially and in other regards. The cultural aspect of “behaviors” (Zacharias), is evident in Pudd’nhead Wilson. From this novel, racial identity and its expected social roles will be presented in the following

passage. As already established, being aware of culture and learning its fundamental values is a solid foundation on which to build “intercultural competence” (Zacharias, 33).

In the following, the aim is to examine Twain’s narrative style in terms of how it can enable the reader to become immersed in the fictional characters, their thoughts and feelings, and related these to social structures and racial inequality. Twain’s use of satire through characters such as Tom Driscoll in Pudd’nhead Wilson is a central device in criticizing the prevailing perceptions of black people. One example is to be found in chapter 10, “The Nymph Revealed” (Twain, Pudd’nhead 65-66). The satire is evident when Tom learns that he is a “nigger”, he wishes he was “dead” (65), because he has lost the privileges of a white person. Students are likely to react to the controversial and frequently recurring word “nigger” (Twain, Pudd’nhead 65), a commonly used word in the text and additionally seen as a highly controversial term reported by Mårten Sundholm (3). This phenomenon is discussed in Gharzarian & Johnson’s work, where it is noted that the students “took great offense” by its repeated appearance (Gharzarian & Johnson, 34). The inserted passage below from

Pudd’nhead Wilson outlines Tom Driscoll’s thoughts as he reflects on racial questions and the cruel fate that awaits every Afro-American (Twain, Pudd’nhead 65).

He began to think. Sufficiently bitter thinkings they were. They wandered along something after this fashion: “Why were niggers and whites made? What crime did the uncreated first nigger commit that the curse of birth was decreed for him? And why is this awful difference made between white and black?... How hard the nigger’s fate seems, this morning! – yet until last night such a thought never entered my head. (Twain, Pudd’nhead 65)

9 The passage starts off with “he began to think” (65): a short but effective sentence, clearly indicating that Tom’s deepest thoughts will permeate the paragraph. His speculations are presented as “sufficiently bitter thinkings” (65). The word “sufficiently” (65) is interesting in this context. What is being implied here? The adverb relates to how Tom’s “bitter” (65), pessimistic “thinkings” (65), non-standard language for “reflections” (65), are “sufficiently” (65) bringing him down into depression and misery. The following phrase is a metaphor, “wandered along” (65), embodies that his thoughts “wandered along” (65). The vagueness of the word “wander” (65) reflects his confused thoughts. Tom then asks himself “why were niggers and whites made?” (65). This confusion could form the basis of a fruitful discussion in class about what racial discrimination is, and why it ever came about.

Furthermore, Tom wonders “what crime” (65) the “uncreated first nigger commit” (65), acknowledging the hate, prejudice and suspicion every Afro American is approached by in his or her lifetime. Tom further highlights the tough conditions black people are forced to endure by uttering the words “the curse of birth” (65). This phrase is a metaphor to hint that the racial abuse and prejudice is “decreed” (65) long before actual birth. Again, Tom questions the distinction made between white and black human beings, asking why “is this awful difference made” (65) to indicate that he is able to see the inequality of it, indirectly labelling the

ongoing racism as “awful” (65). His thoughts continue with exclaiming “how hard the nigger’s fate seems, this morning!” (65). Having previously grown up and lived with the privileges of the superior race, Tom is now filled with new perspectives and prerequisites of having to live like a black man, outlining that his fate “seems” (65) “hard” (65). It appears that Tom has had an epiphany, realizing for the first time who he is. This is reinforced by the narratorial comment, “yet until last night such a thought never entered my head” (65).

This last quotation by Tom in the passage is an example of first person narration, indicated in the singular pronoun “my” (65). The final sentence moves the narration of the story into Tom’s head: also synonymous to the form of “participant narrator” according to Kennedy & Gioia (27). The first person point of view is effectful in this sense, where Tom’s awareness and thoughts about racial inequality can be emphasized as his “thinkings” had never before “entered my head” (65). The same passage is also influenced by third person narration, evident in the word “he” (65) which signals that the narrator is providing distance and is placed outside of the story. Since this passage is only focused on Tom and his inner thoughts, the form of narration is reminiscent of the “limited omniscience” (Kennedy & Gioia, 27). It is further evident in Tom’s “bitter thinkings” (65) and how they “wandered along” (65),

10 highlighting the thoughts as vital for outlining the “awful difference” (65) made between black and white people.

The passage quoted above (Twain, Pudd’nhead 65) could be further reflected in the classroom. Here, Tom’s questioning of racial inequality through the quotation “awful difference…between black and white” (Twain, Pudd’nhead 65) is capable of promoting critical thinking in class, reminiscent of Gharzarian and Johnson’s findings (34). Moreover, students can be asked to underline specific words or phrases that they believe point to racism. Other examples could focus on word choice, such as “niggers and whites” (65), or the

metaphor “the curse of birth” (65) which can be further explored in either smaller groups, or whole class. The narrator’s question “why were niggers and whites made?” (65) is as already mentioned an appropriate opener for discussions. The students can reflect if people in

contemporary society tend to separate ethnical minorities and if so, why this distinction is made and how these minorities are perceived. Furthermore, students can be given time to consider Tom’s thoughts about the tough reality the black man has to endure and his

inevitable “hard fate” (65). Why has not Tom thought about this racial cruelty until this point of the novel? From these discussions, the aims are that students can think and reflect more critically about norms, prejudices and stereotypes in their surroundings to understand the structure of racism (Arneback & Jämte, 172-176).

Before proceeding, teachers should ask their headmaster or headmistress for permission to discuss racism, since it can be a sensitive topic in culturally diverse classrooms. Teachers are sometimes uncertain about introducing such controversial issues, particularly because they are so complex and can lead to difficult questions (Arneback & Jämte, 8). Here, the hope is that racism can be perceived as something easier to talk about through the literary works as opposed to historical books conveying the same issue. Through narrative imagination, the reader becomes involved in the characters (Keen, 7) and that is a dimension only literary texts can provide: a promising aspect in terms of further fulfilling understanding and compassion in accordance with Skolverket’s objectives of empathy (Skolverket, 11).

Once the headmaster or headmistress’s approval has been gained, discussions can be started. Tom’s thoughts about the biological racism he is reflecting over (Arneback & Jämte, 60-65) can be seen used as an opening for class discussion, allowing students to reflect over their own experiences of, and opinions on racism. This is an opportunity for activating students,

11 letting them reflect on racism, past and present and fictional. Questions could center around what forms racism can take today and how these might be related to what has happened in the past. Also, students can discuss to what extent racism is the result of differentiation,

categorization and evaluation of different ethnical groups in society, and to what extent labelling and the use of stereotypes affect how we see different races (Arneback & Jämte, 60-64, 68).

Not only does the highlighted passage in below in Pudd’nhead Wilson (Twain,

Pudd’nhead 66) enable discussions surrounding racial inequality in relation to the students’ everyday lives, but it can also stimulate empathy.

The following passage could be presented after a short talk about how we talk about ‘the other’. What the students come up with can be compared with how Twain’s narrator describes ‘the other’, without actually using the word ‘racist’ or ‘racism’. The passage below outlines Tom Driscoll’s inner battle with how he is supposed to behave after finding out about his real legacies, which label him a slave. The Close Reading connected to the passage below will highlight aspects of symbolism, repetition, expressed thoughts, feelings and word choice that the students will hopefully react to and empathize with as part of the process of engaging with racial questions and discussions. After the students have read the text, they should be given an opportunity to reflect on what form of racism is presented in the passage. When they have done this, they can think about how racism features in society today. The frequently used word “nigger” in this passage could be an appropriate starting point for discussions about how the students perceive its meaning while also thinking about what words we use today to address ‘the other’. Due to the length of the following passage, it is divided into two parts, beginning below:

For days he wandered in lonely places, thinking, thinking, thinking – trying to get his bearings. It was new work. If he met a friend, he found that the habit of a lifetime had in some mysterious way vanished – his arm hung limp, instead of involuntarily extending the hand for a shake. (Twain, Pudd’nhead 66)

Having Tom drifting around on his own “for days” (66) “in lonely places” (66) emphasizes the degree of depression he is going through and his need for solitude. He is still stunned by the information that suddenly he has become a black man. The need to be alone is particularly significant to Tom at this stage, hinting at his unstable state of mind and his inability to

12 interact with others. The narrator’s repetition of the word “thinking, thinking, thinking” (66) further highlights the systematic process of coming to terms with his new identity. The repetition suggests that Tom is reflecting over his situation, who he really is and how he can move on. His struggle to find his way is emphasized by the compass metaphor, “trying to get his bearings”. It suggests that there is a way but it first it must be found and then followed.

The following sentence “it was new work” (66) is the shortest sentence in the whole passage, but also the most intense as it demonstrates a clear shift in lifestyle and the impact this has. It sums up what Tom is going through and also functions as an introduction to the ensuing sentences, conveying what his new black identity actually means in practice. Meeting the same old white friends Tom has known all his life and has spent time with suddenly becomes problematic. He is acknowledging that the “habit of a lifetime” (66) has suddenly been shattered. An entire childhood of learned habits, customs and privileges belonging to the superior race has suddenly been turned upside down. This is indicated by the five simple but fateful words, “in some mysterious way vanished” (66). His change of attitude is highlighted by the fact that Tom is no longer able to even shake hands with one of his white friends: his arm “hung limp” (66). Tom is in essence paralyzed. The second part of the passage continues below:

It was the “nigger” in him asserting its humility, and he blushed and was abashed. And the “nigger” in him was surprised when the white friend put out his hand for a shake with him. He found the “nigger” in him involuntary giving the road, on the sidewalk, to a white rowdy and loafer. When Rowena, the dearest thing his heart knew, the idol of his secret worship, invited him in, the “nigger” in him made an embarrassed excuse and was afraid to enter and sit with the dread white folks on equal terms. (Twain, Pudd’nhead 66)

The same “involuntary” (66) habit causes Tom to change his behavior radically, “giving the road” (66) to whites. The following phrase “on the sidewalk” symbolizes the subordinate position of the black man. Furthermore, the racial inequality mirrored in the text is heightened when the person Tom is feeling obliged to give space to is no more than a “white rowdy loafer” (66). “Loafer” is a synonym for an idler: a lazy person, likely to be unemployed, and without any manners or sophistication. Tom’s submission to the “loafer” (66) emphasizes his loss of power and evident experienced humiliation, as he is forced to yield even to the lowest

13 of social classes. It would be appropriate for the students to look up this word so that they understand the significance of the narrator’s choice of words in its context.

For the remainder of this passage, the phrase “the nigger in him” (66) is used repeatedly to point out the significant reason for his altered lifestyle. It is blamed for all the social obstacles put in his way, such as “giving the road” (66) and his ensuing depression. It is the “the nigger in him” (66), his underlying identity, that causes his “humility” (66) as he feels “ashamed and abashed” (66) in his interaction with his white acquaintances. Tom can no longer take any form of friendship for granted, as illustrated by the word “surprised” (66) when a “white friend put out his hand for a shake” (66).

Rowena is the girl of his dreams, “the dearest thing his heart knew” (66). Tom also appears to be secretly in love with this girl, expressing his affections by the words “the idol of his worship” (66). Tom’s compassion for Rowena has to be sacrificed as, out of fear, he forces himself to come up with an “embarrassed excuse” (66) when he is invited by her into her family. The “nigger” (66) in Tom makes him “afraid to enter and sit with the dread white folks” (66). It is unthinkable for him to find himself in the same company as the white people, as indicated by the word “dread” (66). The final two words, “equal terms” (66), with which the narrator concludes, are powerful, since they sum up Tom’s acceptance of his new and radically changed circumstances that are no fault of his own.

This excerpt above could lead to discussions about how changed circumstances, including an apparent change of national identity, can affect our lives and our roles in society.

Carter (31) argues that, unlike other authors who have written similar works on race and slavery, the narrator stands out because he wrote The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn from the viewpoint of someone who lived in a slave state before the civil war took place. The narrator’s former experiences of racism both during childhood and at work lend credibility to his story. Indeed, the book, written in 1885, is the result of the narrator’s “internal journey from accepting slavery as a societal fact to asserting that slavery is inexcusable” (Carter, 31.) Carter argues that because the narrator grew up at a time where slavery was part of daily life, and because of his own work experiences, he was able to present a broader view of society than many of his contemporaries.

As a result, the narrator can do something that straight factual accounts cannot: through imagination, and focusing on characters’ emotions, factual events come alive and meaningful on a personal level. The passage below is a compelling example of this potential. It is the

14 moment when the protagonist Huckleberry Finn changes his mind about giving up the

runaway slave Jim in chapter 16 “The Rattlesnake-skin Does Its Work” (Twain, Huck Finn 88-89). This excerpt reaches its culmination when Jim expresses his great delight over his approaching freedom as he hides on the raft. Huck, having decided to give Jim away, starts hesitating when he notices how ecstatic Jim is, and when he hears about Jim’s plan to reach a free state. Since this passage is quite long, it has been divided into two sections.

“Pooty soon I’ll be a-shout’n’ for joy, en I’ll say, it’s all on accounts o’ Huck; I’s a free man, en I couldn’t ever ben free ef it hadn’ ben for Huck; Huck done it. Jim won’t ever forgit you, Huck; you’s de bes’ fren’ Jim’s ever had; en you’s de only fren’ ole Jim’s got now”.

I was paddling off, all in a sweat to tell on him, but when he says this, it seemed to kind of take the tuck all out of me. (Twain, Huck Finn 88-89)

The language and word choice spoken by Jim is noticeable from the first few lines, mirroring the Afro-American dialect by its non-standard English. The majority of the words are either incorrectly spelled or informally inserted through contractions such as “hadn’” (had not, 88) making it worth rereading in the classroom for students to better understand its complexity. The word “pooty” is another word for “pretty”, starting off the passage followed by the phrase that Jim will be “shout’n’ for joy” (88) as soon as he is free, expressing his excitement over having almost reached freedom. This is followed by Jim thanking Huck “en (and) I’ll say, it’s all accounts o’ (of) Huck” (88), referring to Huck’s decision to hide him from the officers instead of giving him up. Jim points out that “I’s (I am) a free man, en (and) couldn’t ever ben (been) ef (it) hadn’ ben for Huck; Huck done it” (88). Despite the rather short phrase, Huck’s name is repeated by Jim twice in its final few words. This repetition demonstrates Jim’s perceived humanity and dignity in Huck, which the escaped slave clearly highlights. Huck’s vital role in making Jim free is also emphasized by Jim in the word choices of “couldn’t ever ben” and “hadn’ ben”, where Huck emerges as the hero through his act of opposing the law.

In many cases, slaves were sold “down the river” (Twain, Pudd’nhead 18), meaning they ended up at plantations in the deepest South where they were forced to endure extreme working conditions. This is described in Puddn’head Wilson as “condemning them to hell” (18) meaning that the slaves eventually perished from pure, physical and mental exhaust. These living conditions will be further explored in a separate passage later on.

15 Continuing the passage above (Twain, Huck Finn), Jim shows his deepest gratitude

towards Huck, by saying “Jim won’t ever forgit you” (89), believing Huck has saved his life. What Jim does not know is that Huck has secretly decided to give him up, thereby following the social code of the time, but now has a change of heart as he sees Jim’s happiness. The last phrase Jim utters is crucial for this turning point in the story and Huck’s perception of the runaway slave. Jim labels Huck “de bes’ fren’ Jim’s ever had” and admits that “you’s de only fren’ ole Jim’s got now” (89). This truly demonstrates Jim’s expressed affections for Huck, specifically through the italization of the word “only” (89). The phrase also illustrates the friendship that has developed between the two characters. In the same sequence as Jim is paying tribute to Huck, Huck is sitting in his canoe, on his way to the men to give up Jim. Significantly, this part of the story is narrated from Huck’s point of view, who is seen as “paddling off” (89). In this sequence, he is “all in a sweat”, indicating his levels of agitation and adrenaline prior to approaching the slave-hunters to “tell on him” (89).

However, Huck’s heart softens when he hears Jim expressing his appreciativeness. Here, Huck explains that “but when he says this” (89), referring to Jim’s expressed gratitude and appreciation over their friendship, “it seemed to kind of take the tuck all out of me” (89). This closing sentence describes Huck’s change of mind as he starts to empathize with Jim,

realizing deep down how much he values him and their friendship. The phrase “take the tuck all out of me” is applied to showcase how Huck’s initial determination of unveiling Jim slowly starts fading away as he is having seconds thoughts over his initial decision.

Just before the next passage, Huck’s thoughts are highlighted as he reflects on how he has helped Jim to break free from the officers instead of giving him away, expressing that he was “feeling bad and low”, knowing he had “done wrong” by discarding societal moral codes and (Twain, Huck Finn 91). The passage can be used as a discussion starter in class, where the students can consider if it is ever right to break the law and if so, when. Perhaps some students will believe that opposing rules is never right, and here they can justify their answers and opinions, further reflecting over possible consequences for the way humans act.

Then I thought a minute, and says to myself, hold on; s’pose you’d ‘a’ done right and give Jim up, would you felt better than what you do now? No, says I, I’d feel bad – I’d feel just the same way I do now. Well, then, says I, what’s the use you learning to

16 do right when it’s troublesome to do right and ain’t no trouble to do wrong, and the wages is just the same? (Twain, Huck Finn 91)

Huck’s conversation with himself is introduced in the opening sentence “Then I thought a minute, and says to myself, hold on” (91) to declare that he is about to cogitate, counselling his conscience. The inner dialogue continues with Huck asking himself, “S’pose (suppose) you’d ‘a’ done right and give Jim up, would you felt better now?” (91). It becomes clear that Huck is plagued by remorse over not handing Jim in, as he feels that would have been the “right”(91) thing for him to do, having grown up with considering runaway slaves as lost property rather than human beings. Huck then responds to his question with “no, says I, I’d feel bad – I’d feel just the same way I do now” (91). His answer reflects his great affection for Jim. He realizes that he has come to value him as a close friend despite their racial

differences. Again, this can work in the classroom as a discussion starter, where the students can reflect over the interplay between friendships and cultural affiliations. and their interplay with origins and cultural affiliations.

Back to the passage, Huck continues his inner conversation with “well, then, says I” (91): a phrase filled with commas, indicating interruptions to emphasize his uncertainties as he comes to term with what he has done. He asks himself, “what’s the use you learning to do right when it’s troublesome to do right and ain’t no trouble to do wrong, and the wages is just the same?” (91). In this passage, Huck questions the concepts of morality and adherence to social norms. Deep down, Huck knows that turning the escaped slave in would be ethically correct,

civilized and legal thing to. However, Huck is pointing out that it is only “troublesome to do right” (91), hinting that his actual conscience is telling him to choose another, more human path instead of listening to what society has taught him. Huck believes it “ain’t no trouble to do wrong” (91) hinting that he can see beyond racial distinctions and instead support Jim in his struggle for freedom.

On the one hand, Huck is aware that this is not what society wishes of him, but on the other it is not something that bothers him. It becomes clear that Huck is torn as he sees that his “wages” (91), i.e. the outcome of his choices, are the same. Helping Jim will make Huck feel guilty because he has rejected society’s norms as established by the white inhabitants. The thought of Huck acting on the basis of the “wrong” (91) principles, though, is not presented as problematic because he knows that his empathy for the runaway slave is too strong to

17 disregard. As a result, he wins the inner moral battle. This example from the novel can also be mirrored in concepts of “world citizenship” through Huck’s way of appreciating Jim despite of their ethnical differences, focusing on the common humanity rather than local cultures or cultural belongings (Nussbaum, 69).

This form of intercultural understanding can also be found in Skolverket (5), which highlights the importance of equality and democratic values. Skolverket states that: “utbildningen ska förmedla och förankra respekt för de mänskliga rättigheterna och de grundläggande demokratiska värderingar som det svenska samhället vilar på” (“education should impart and establish respect for human rights and the fundamental democratic values on which Swedish society is based” Skolverket, 5). Ethical values are further emphasized through the statement of “människolivets okränkbarhet, individens frihet och integritet, alla människors lika värde, jämställdhet mellan kvinnor och män samt solidaritet mellan

människor…” (“the inviolability of human life, individual freedom and integrity, the equal value of all people, equality between women and men, and solidarity between people…” (Skolverket, 5).

Despite these educational goals advocating democratic values, Arneback & Jämte (8) claim that racism is still a real issue in schools across the country, i.e. in Sweden. Children and pupils of certain ethnic groups are more likely to be exposed to have their rights and values violated and they may be discriminated against. Inequality also exists with respect to the distribution of privileges, power and resources and how these are based on ethnical background. This has been noted by among others, the journalist Amie Bramme Sey, who points to racial discrimination not only in the labor and housing market, but also the current racism in Sweden’s schools (Bramme Sey). As this essay is being written, there is also an ongoing situation in America concerning racial inequality between white and black people. Protests and violence have recently erupted across the country as a result of African American George Floyd’s death, where he was physically restrained by a police officer in Minneapolis (BBC News). Due to the limited space and the essay’s focus on investigating racism in Sweden, I have chosen not to dive any further into this area but would have done so in a longer essay. Still, it makes it even more relevant that such issues of racism are addressed as early as possible, starting in schools. This task that all teachers eventually face is experienced as something challenging, given that racism is a complex societal issue and a sensitive topic as well to deal with among teachers (Arneback & Jämte, 8). This aspect of the novels is

18 particularly relevant in relation to the curriculum goal of increasing the ability to empathise (Skolverket, 11).

There is no section in Skolverket’s curriculum that specifically addresses intercultural competence, but it can be clearly inferred in the section called “förståelse och

medmänsklighet” (“understanding and compassion”, 5). This section includes the statement, “främja förståelse för andra människor och förmåga till inlevelse” (“promote understanding of other people and the ability to empathize” (5). This “awareness” as a way of understanding culture ties in well with Zacharias’s concept of intercultural competence, as it works through the consideration of a student’s own culture in relation to others (Zacharias, 33). The future citizen who is the product of the Swedish school system should not only be capable of understanding culture, but also able of interacting and communicating beyond its national borders.

Literature and understanding

Zacharias claims that literature is an effective method for furthering cultural understanding. Novels or short stories provide the reader with fictional characters from various social backgrounds. In the present case, both novels depict the American South prior to the Civil War. Zacharias points out that the fictional world in books assists the reader in structuring society in real life. “Reading the literature of a historical period is, after all, one of the ways we have to help us imagine what life was like in that other foreign territory: our own

country’s past” (30). Lynn supports this view, highlighting that through “inhabiting a literary work, we can see how other people live; we can see /.../ through other people’s eyes” (3). Through the fictional characters, the reader can become immersed in how they think or feel, while simultaneously achieving knowledge of the setting in which they live.

Another example of this empathic feature, as highlighted by Lynn (3), can be found early in Pudd’nhead Wilson, where Tom’s father Judge Driscoll is furious over the fact that his money has mysteriously disappeared. He instantly suspects his house slaves, demanding a confession from the thief within the next minute or all of them will be sold down the river, which is almost certain death (Twain, Pudd’nhead 18). Steven Watson argues that, through his narrator, Twain is “pushing for social justice by showing how far blacks have fallen” in

19 the novel (Watson, 3). The passage below supports this claim, highlighting the extreme living conditions that could await these people if they did not behave.

“I done it!” “I done it!”

“I done it!” – have mercy, marster – Lord have mercy on us po’ niggers!”

“Very good, said the master, putting up his watch, I will sell you here though you don’t deserve it. You ought to be sold down the river.”

The culprits flung themselves prone, in an ecstasy of gratitude, and kissed his feet, declaring that they would never forget his goodness and never cease to pray for him as long as they lived. They were sincere, for like a god he had stretched forth his mighty hand and closed the gates of hell against them. (Twain, Pudd’nhead 18-19)

Out of pure dread, all slaves confess simultaneously to Driscoll as guilty of the petty theft by exclaiming “I done it!”, “I done it!”, “I done it!” (18-19). The repeated, non-standard phrase provides a southern dialect, which increases realism for the depicted slaves. As mentioned earlier in this essay, being sold down the river was equal to a certain death, becoming exposed to extreme working conditions until the body could not endure further physical or mental pain. One of the slaves therefore begs Judge Driscoll to spare them, addressing him as “marster” (master, 19) which signifies the level of power Driscoll possesses over his slaves. The phrase also uses alliteration: “mercy, marster” (19), which emphasizes the urgency of the slave’s plea. The word “Lord” (19) and repetition of the phrase “have mercy” (19), serve to emphasize the slave’s desperation as he reached out to God as a last resort. The phrase “us po’ (poor) niggers” (19) confirms the slaves as the weak, submissive and subordinate race, where they hope that this acknowledgement can influence Driscoll into sparing them.

The slaves’ quick confession and appeal are satisfying to Driscoll, who responds with “very good” (19) and is addressed once again as the “master” (19). In the same sequence he is “putting up his watch” (19), which clarifies that the slaves managed to confess their betrayal to their “master” (19) before time had ran out. Driscoll informs that “I will sell you here though you don’t deserve it” (19), meaning the slaves will be spared from the river and thus avoid the death sentence. Still, Driscoll believes that they deserve a harsher punishment for what they did, as evidenced in the words “you ought to be sold down the river” (19). The metaphor “flung themselves prone” (19) sums up the slaves’ relief and excitement, which is further highlighted in the expression “ecstasy of gratitude” (19).

20 Furthermore, the idiom that they “kissed his feet” (19) conveys the slaves’ ultimate

humiliation towards a white man. This could be interesting to discuss in class as it

encapsulates the prevailing racial injustice between white and black. The students can share their reactions of the slaves’ submissive behavior and how they felt when they read this passage. Driscoll is described in the simile “like a god” (19), which showcases his heroic status in the eyes of the slaves. The simile is followed by two consecutive metaphors: he had “stretched forth his mighty hand” (19) and “closed the gates of hell against them” (19). This form of death sentence could be discussed among students, where they could consider the word “condemnation” and reflect on who actually has the right to condemn. Driscoll goes from executioner to almighty “God” and savior. How could this happen and what does the narrator mean? These are important questions to discuss in class. The students can share their opinions about whether Driscoll can be evaluated as an empathetic man or not.

The students can pair up and underline or mark words, phrases or sentences that catch their attention. It can be of interest to discuss what aspects they have reacted to, and whether or not they could understand the concept of being “sold down the river” since the text does not specifically point out the indirect implications, i.e. receiving the death sentence. The passage could raise awareness of racial abuse and its consequences, providing the students with an historical context but with the added advantage of harnessing “narrative imagination” and the opportunity to become immersed in the characters and their lives and fates (Nussbaum, 90). With regard to the passage above, the narrative imagination can be stimulated by the students’ understanding of specific words in the text, such as “us po’ niggers” (Twain, Pudd’nhead 19) or “have mercy” (19) that will facilitate “sympathetic responsiveness to another’s needs” (Nussbaum, 90). Furthermore, students could be encouraged to reflect on racism and how ‘the other’ is illustrated in the passage and if they can identify different forms of slavery in contemporary society. Students might come up with such examples as forced marriage or human trafficking.

Moving on to a new passage, the following can be found towards the end of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Tom Sawyer’s attempt to escape from bondage, and the support of Huck Finn and Jim, stand in stark contrast to the eagerness of some local people to have a runaway slave hanged. A doctor intervenes, who lauds Jim for his recent efforts.

So there I had to stick plumb until daylight this morning; and I never see a nigger that was a better nuss or faithfuler, and yet he was risking his freedom to do it and was all tired out,

21 too, and I see plain enough he’d been worked main hard lately. I liked the nigger for that; I tell you, gentlemen, a nigger like that is worth a thousand dollars – and kind treatment, too. (Twain, Huck Finn 285)

This passage is narrated from the doctor’s point of view. It begins with the doctor informing the townspeople “so there I had to stick plumb until daylight this morning” (285), inferring that Tom’s wound was rather deep and that he needed to work all night to extract the bullet stuck in his leg. He then admits that “I never see a nigger that was a better nuss (nurse) or faithfuler” (285), praising Jim for his nursing skills and loyalty. Jim’s shown devotion is described further by the doctor expressing that “yet he was risking his freedom to do it and was all tired out too” (285).

The doctor knows that Jim is an escaped slave and could easily have turned him in for the reward. That Jim was “all tired out, too” (285) and it was “plain enough he’d been worked main hard lately” (285) emphasizes the narrator’s amazement at Jim’s dedication and determination to do everything possible to save Tom, despite his own physical condition. Putting his own health and freedom aside in order to help the doctor nursing Tom, the doctor “liked the nigger for that” (285). Expressing affection or appreciation for slaves in this era was not common, as they were perceived as mere property by white people (History.com Editors). The doctor’s admiration is therefore unique in the manners of opposing prevailing racism and its established societal norms (Arneback & Jämte, 79). The doctor elaborates his assessment of Jim further by assuring the locals that “I tell you, gentlemen, a nigger like that is worth a thousand dollars – and kind treatment, too” (Twain, Huck Finn 285).

Although the doctor’s intention is to stick up for Jim and praise him for his work, his quotations are still racist considering how he lessens and undermines African Americans as an ethnical group (Arneback & Jämte, 60-61). The doctor’s quotations are packed with

generalizations and prejudice, questioning black people’s abilities, based on the assumption that these individuals cannot be of any help due to their skin color. In gratitude to Jim’s recent efforts though, he can be appreciated and respected for his work in saving Tom, where his ethnicity no longer seems to be as relevant. The last phrase is plagued by a mixture of both dehumanizing and humanizing aspects. With the doctor estimating that “a nigger like that is worth a thousand dollars” (Twain, Huck Finn 285), he maintains his view of him as a

property, inflating his price on the market as if he was a quality product. At the same time, he believes that Jim deserves “kind treatment, too” (285), suggesting a more human treatment from the next owner who purchases him. This advocated, “kind treatment” (285) indicates the

22 doctor’s increased respect for Jim and is reminiscent of Nussbaum’s notion of “world

citizenship”, as it acknowledges Jim’s humanity despite his cultural background (Nussbaum, 69).

The above highlighted excerpt (Twain, Huck Finn 285) is another appropriate example to bring to the classroom. After reading the passage, students can discuss how they interpret the doctor’s comments and his admiration for Jim. The students can discuss how they perceive the doctor’s comments and praise of Jim in relation to racism. Can the doctor be considered non-racist for his intentions to pay tribute to Jim? Furthermore, students can reflect how ethnical minorities are represented in the media today, where an increased migration to Sweden could implicate multicultural classrooms, making it relevant to highlight.

According to journalist Erik Wiman, Sweden has seen high percentages of immigrants from Syria, Iraq and Afghanistan in the last five years due to the ongoing refugee crisis (Wiman). These nationalities from the Middle East could therefore feature in diverse classrooms, which is vital for students to discuss whether such groups are miscredited or undermined in society with respect to their origins. Conversely, the discussions could also address whether the Caucasian norm attracts greater attention than other groups. The teacher could bring assorted articles from the local papers in purpose of discussing recent incidents based on racial prejudice.

There are other active organs besides the media, such as the housing market, who

contributes to systematic inequalities in society. Arneback & Jämte state that “in the housing and labor market, schools, the political systems, mass media, welfare services, police – and law enforcement, groups belonging to the population’s normative majority are favored” (81). This is an important aspect to emphasize in the classroom to increase the students’

intercultural understanding. Racism based on ethnicity is relevant to this day where the norm relies on Caucasian origin in order to fully benefit from societal privileges (Arneback & Jämte, 81). The hope is that it becomes clear to the students that racism is comprehensive in its nature and not just evident through direct abuse, but also through the disfavoring of civic privileges. By encouraging increased critical thinking, the students are able to interact with each other in a multicultural classroom in accordance with Skolverket’s guidelines for promoting democratic values, preventing xenophobia and intolerance (Skolverket, 4).

23

Conclusion

Racism is evident in schools as well as in society, where ethnical minorities are either racially abused, or underprivileged in several ways. It is thus important to counteract racism at an early stage, beginning in the classroom, where it is possible to increase cultural awareness and understanding among students. Based on my findings, it becomes clear that teachers are faced with an immense responsibility of taking active measures to prevent racist attitudes and actions in schools, but also in the sense of preparing students for a life as functioning global citizens. Instead of perceiving this challenge as an obstacle, given the complex nature of racism, teachers should rather see the opportunities provided where they are able to really make a difference in a society plagued by racial injustice.

This essay has demonstrated that the novels The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and Pudd’nhead Wilson by Mark Twain are both useful tools in developing democratic values and intercultural understanding in upper-secondary schools. The texts’ ways of narrating racism and stimulating empathy are two major components for these targeted achievements.

The function of narrative imagination and how it enables the reader to become engaged in the fate of the fictional characters is the prerogative of fiction. While history books can

provide the students with accurate facts, the dimension of fiction enables the history to be told through the eyes of the characters. This is vital as it facilitates the discussions concerning racism, where the understanding and reflections over racism as a major societal problem is presented in a different and meaningful way.

Through Close Reading, readers are given the opportunity to experience the characters’ feelings and impulses. Nowhere is this more important than in the field of racism, which is a major and growing aspect of modern society.

The passages discussed in this essay highlight different themes, such as morality, friendship, ideas or behavior, all of which are more or less connected to racism. Repeated components, such as Twain’s controversial word choice “nigger” or the applied Southern dialect in both novels are possible features that will trigger the students’ engagement when Close Reading. Close Reading can thus promote intercultural competence in the classroom. It also enables students to cultivate reading skills that will be a benefit for life.

24

Works cited

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