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MASTER’S DEGREE PROJECT

IN REAL ESTATE AND CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION PROJECT MANAGEMENT MASTER OF SCIENCE, 30 CREDITS, SECOND LEVEL

STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN 2020

Exploring Lean in construction projects

- How can the workflow be improved by observing value streams?

EMELIE AHRENGART AND ELSA HÄGGSTRÖM

TECHNOLOGY

ROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

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Master of Science Thesis

Title: Exploring Lean in construction projects - How can the workflow be improved by observing value streams? Authors: Emelie Ahrengart and Elsa Häggström

Department: Real Estate and Construction management Master Thesis number:

Supervisor: Tina Karrbom Gustavsson

Keywords: Lean, Lean construction, Value Stream Mapping, Waste, Construction management

Abstract

Research reveal that the construction industry does not have the same level of growth and development in performance compared to the manufacturing industry, and that Lean could be one solution to improve performance. Most research about Lean in the construction industry that exist today focus on simulating future scenarios. Hence miss analysing the impact Lean has on the current situation of construction projects, and its usability and possibility to set the framework for how to improve performances in construction projects. Thus, there is a gap in research concerning the evaluation on current process flows.

This research explores Lean as a management method to understand how it has been used in the construction industry and how it could be used in construction projects to improve process flows. This will be done by using the method Value Stream Mapping, a method within Lean that is used to identify Non-Value-Adding activities in the process flow to point out what activities can be improved.

The case study in this research explores two different value streams within two construction projects; deliveries and mounting one side of the framework of interior walls. Thus, the research will explore if and how the value stream differentiates between the two projects, with the aim to understand the reason for the results to understand how future construction projects could improve their process flows within a value stream. Data will be collected and analysed qualitative by combining observations and interviews.

The value stream for deliveries differentiated between the projects. Project A had 73% Non-Value-Adding activities with a cycle time of 3,1 m2/min whilst Project B had 65% with a cycle time of 2,7 m2/min. In both

projects Non-Value-Adding activities were categorized as Waiting, Movement, Transport and Overproduction. The value stream for mounting in Project A had 31% Non-Value-Adding activities with a cycle time of 2,9 m2/hour whilst Project B had 41% Non-Value-Adding activities with a cycle time of 1,7 m2/hour. In both project

activities were categorized as Waiting, Transport, Incorrect processing and Movement. However, in Project B Overproduction was also identified as a Non-Value-Adding activity.

Findings from the study shows that even though construction projects are complex and consist of variabilities, it is possible to observe value streams to identify Non-Value-Adding activities. Nevertheless, it is crucial to adjust the method to the construction industry since the theory of Value Stream Mapping originate from the manufacturing industry. This research recommends excluding number of resources as a category from the method and instead evaluate resources based on the total time, and to categorize inspections and reading drawing as Value-Adding activities instead of Non-Value-Value-Adding. The study reveals that construction projects that work with Lean and its method Value Stream Mapping are given new opportunities to improve process flows. Thus, construction projects could be able to improve processes without needing to invest in more resources, material and tools. Not only could projects lower construction costs but also improve production time as Non-Value-Adding activities are reduced. Thus, the research believes Lean and its method Value Stream Mapping could improve performances within the construction industry.

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Acknowledgement

This Master Thesis has been the final step within the fulfilment of Master of Science in Real Estate and Construction Management at The Royal Institute of Technology, KTH. The Master Thesis has been completed during spring 2020 and covered 30 credits.

Firstly, we would like to thank our supervisor from The Royal Institute of Technology and our supervisor from Company X, the contractor in the case study. We would like to thank both supervisors for assisting us during our research. Not only for helping us reflecting and analysing data, but also for helping us to think in a wider perspective.

We would also like to thank everybody who agreed on participating in our study and that took time answering our questions. All support was highly appreciated and helped us to complete this master thesis.

Stockholm, June 2020

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Examensarbete

Titel: Utforska Lean i byggprojekt - Hur kan arbetsflödet förbättras genom att observera värdeströmmar? Författare: Emelie Ahrengart och Elsa Häggström

Institution: Fastigheter och byggande Examensarbete Master nummer: Handledare: Tina Karrbom Gustavsson

Nyckelord: Lean, värdeflödesanalys, slöseri, byggprojektledning

Sammanfattning

Tidigare forskning menar att Lean skulle kunna vara en lösning på det faktum att byggindustrin inte har haft lika stor tillväxt och utveckling som bilindustrin. Den forskning som finns idag gällande Lean i byggindustrin fokuserar på att simulera framtida scenarier av den effekt Lean skulle kunna ge. Därav försummas analysering av den faktiska effekten Lean har i pågående situationer samt användbarheten och möjligheten att fastställa ramverk för hur man kan förbättra prestationer och tillväxt i byggprojekt.

Denna studie utforskar Lean som en ledarskapsmetod. Studien fördjupar sig i Lean för att förstå hur det tidigare har använts i byggindustrin och förstå dess användbarhet och möjlighet att förbättra processflöden i byggprojekt. Value Stream Mapping, en metod inom Lean kommer att användas för att identifiera icke-värdeskapande aktiviteter i process flöden samt för att se vilka aktiviteter som kan förbättras eller elimineras.

Fallstudien i denna forskning undersöker två olika värdeflöden inom två byggprojekt; ta emot leveranser och enkling av innerväggarna. Studien kommer att undersöka om och hur värdeflödena skiljer sig mellan de två projekten, med syfte att förstå orsaken till resultaten och förstå hur framtida byggprojekt kan förbättra processer inom värdeflödena. Data samlas in och analyseras kvalitativt genom att kombinera observationer och intervjuer.

I värdeflödet för leveranser hade Projekt A 73% icke-värdeskapande aktiviteter med en produktionstid på 3,1 m2/min medan Projekt B hade 65% icke-värdeskapande aktiviteter med en produktionstid på 2,7 m2/min.

Aktiviteterna i projekten kategoriserades som slöseri i form av, väntande, rörelse, transport och överproduktion. I värdeflödet för monteringen hade Projekt A 31% icke-värdeskapande aktiviteter med en produktionstid på 2,9 m2/h medan Projekt B hade 41% icke-värdeskapande aktiviteter med en produktionstid på 1,7 m2/h. I. I båda

projekten kategoriserades icke-värdeskapande aktiviteter som slöseri i form av, väntande, rörelse, transport och fel bearbetning. Projekt B hade även slöseri i form av överproduktion.

Studien visar att trots att byggprojekt är komplexa och varierande, är det möjligt att observera värdeströmmar för att identifiera aktiviteter som inte tillför värde. Det är däremot nödvändigt att anpassa metoden till byggindustrin då Value Stream Mapping grundar sin teori från bilindustrin. Studien rekommenderar att utesluta antalet resurser som en slöserikategori och istället utvärdera resurser genom att se på den totala tiden samt att kategorisera inspektioner och läsa ritning som värdeskapande aktiviteter i stället för icke-värdeskapande. Studien visar att byggprojekt som arbetar med Lean och dess metod Value Stream Mapping ges möjligheter att förbättra sina processflöden. Således skulle byggprojekt kunna förbättra processer utan att behöva investera i mer resurser, material och verktyg och därmed kunna sänka byggkostnaderna. Slutligen skulle byggprojekt kunna förbättra sina produktionstider då icke-värdeskapande aktiviteter reduceras. Studien visar därmed att Lean och dess metod Value Stream Mapping skulle kunna förbättra tillväxten inom byggindustrin.

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Förord

Detta examensarbete utgör det sista momenten i Mastersprogrammet Fastigheter och Byggande på Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan, KTH. Examensarbetet har genomförts under våren 2020 och täcker 30 högskolepoäng.

Först och främst vill vi tacka vår handledare från Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan och vår handledare från Företag X, entreprenören i fallstudien. Vi vill tacka båda handledarna för att ha hjälpt oss under vår forskning med att reflektera och analysera data och få oss att tänka i ett större perspektiv.

Vi vill även tacka alla som valde att delta i vår studie och tog sin tid för att svara på våra frågor och hjälpa oss. All hjälp har varit väldigt uppskattad och gav oss möjlighet att slutföra vår masteruppsats.

Stockholm, June 2020

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Table of Content

1. Introduction ... 1 1.1 Background ... 1 1.2 Purpose ... 2 1.3 Limitations ... 2 2. Literature ... 3

2.1 Construction Industry Performance ... 3

2.2 Lean ... 4

2.2.1 The culture behind Lean ... 6

2.2.2 Lean in Construction ... 6

2.2.3 Value Stream Mapping in Construction Projects... 7

3. Theoretical framework ... 11

3.1 Value Stream Mapping... 11

3.1.1 Current State Map ... 13

3.1.2 Future State Map ... 14

4. Method ... 16 4.1 Research Approach ... 16 4.2 Case Study ... 16 4.2.1 Project A ... 16 4.2.2 Project B... 17 4.3 Structured Observations ... 18

4.4 Semi- structured Interviews ... 20

4.5 Issues related to data quality ... 20

4.6 Ethical Considerations... 21

5. Findings... 22

5.1 Coding Project A and Project B ... 22

5.1.1 Value-Adding ... 22

5.1.2 Necessary but Non-Value-Adding ... 22

5.1.3 Non-Value-Adding ... 22

5.2 Value Stream Mapping, Project A ... 23

5.2.1 Current State of Delivery ... 23

5.2.2 Current State of Mounting ... 26

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5.3.1 Current State of Delivery ... 28

5.3.2 Current State of Mounting ... 31

6. Discussion ... 35

6.1 Value stream for deliveries ... 35

6.2 Value stream for mounting ... 36

6.3 Value Stream Mapping in construction projects ... 38

7. Conclusion ... 40

7.1 Recommendations ... 41

7.2 Future Research ... 42

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1. INTRODUCTION

Research reveal that the construction industry does not have the same level of growth and development in performance compared to the manufacturing industry (Pekuri, et al., 2011). Pekuri et al (2011) explain that the problem with growth in performance can be explained as a consequent of ignoring important factors such as that the construction industry is a labour intense industry and that the industry repeatedly fails to coordinate construction projects. Not only are problems in performance a consequence of labour and coordination but also a consequent of poor project management (Ramani & KSD, 2019). Normally, project managers try to solve problems by incorporating more resources and introducing new technologies instead of finding the source of the problem (Modig & Åhlström, 2014)

Kaplan et al (2001) explain that it is common to measure performance based on financial results. Kagioglou et al (2001) explain that since financial results are based on the outcomes of actions in a process flow it can become difficult to improve problems since the source is not identified. Thus, Pekuri et al (2011) explain that by developing new measurement of performance that focus on current processes, performances in the construction industry could make progress. Pekuri et al (2011) suggest that by using process-oriented performance indicators it becomes possible to point out areas for improvements as process-oriented performance indicators focus on identifying Non-Value-Adding activities in the process flow. Thus, by leaving performance measurements that focus on the financial results, which are based on past actions, and instead focus on process-oriented performance that focus on the current process flow, the construction industry can start working with areas for improvements (Pekuri, et al., 2011).

In Lean, performance is used as an indicator to acknowledge the success of a company, considering the clients satisfaction and willingness to pay, with the aim to continuously improve processes and eliminate Non-Value-Adding activities (Paro & Gerolamo, 2017). Thus, by implementing Lean, the construction industry could decrease Non-Value-Adding activities and improve process flows.

1.1

Background

Lean is not a new concept and has been commonly used in process-oriented manufacturing industries, nonetheless it is relatively new to the project-oriented construction industry (Ramani & KSD, 2019). Paro and Gerolamo (2017) define Lean as continuously improvement of processes and eliminating Non-Value-Adding activities to increase value for the client. Lean is also a company culture that stand for respect for people and can be seen as a philosophy, a principle, a method and a tool that is feasible to use to improve performance (Ansah, et al., 2016; Sacks, 2016). When deciding to implement Lean in a company the company could begin its journey by using the method Value Stream Mapping (Petersson, et al., 2010). Value Stream Mapping point out areas for improvements by identifying Non-Value-Adding activities in the process flow. Since the construction industry is complex with a lot of variability it becomes

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2 difficult to benchmark how Lean and its method Value Stream Mapping should be used. Thus, research explain that companies within the construction industry need to create their own understanding for how to use it (Jasti & Sharma, 2014). Most of the research about Lean in the construction industry that exist today focus simulating future scenarios of Lean in construction projects and miss analysing the impact Lean has on the current situation (Goienetxea Uriarte, et al., 2020). Thus, there is still today a gap in research concerning the evaluation of current process flows and its usability and possibility to set the framework for how to improve performances (Goienetxea Uriarte, et al., 2020).

1.2

Purpose

The purpose of this research is to explore how the construction industry could improve performance by improving process flows when using the Lean-method Value Stream Mapping. Even though Lean is well-established in the process-oriented manufacturing industry it is relatively new to the project-oriented construction industry. Thus, in construction projects, process flows normally get enhanced by incorporating more resources and introducing new technologies. Hence Non-Value-Adding activities in the processes still occur.

As follows, this research will explore the Lean method Value Stream Mapping as a management method to understand how it has previously been used in the construction industry and to understand its usability and possibility to set the framework for how to improve performances in construction projects. The purpose is to map the current state of value streams to identify Value-Adding, Necessary but Non-Value-Adding and Non-Value-Adding activities in the value stream with the aim to understand the current process flows and point out areas for improvements.

The following questions in the research:

1) How does the value stream for delivering and mounting one side of the framework of interior walls look like in two construction projects, and what improvements can be made?

2) How should Value Stream Mapping be used in construction projects to improve process flows?

1.3

Limitations

As construction projects are unique in terms of organization, location, prerequisites, size, design etc., the identified Non-Value-Adding activities could differ. Thus, benchmarking a resolution for how to use Value Stream Mapping in construction projects is difficult since the study is limited. In addition, since the study has a limited time, it might not be enough to receive a holistic picture of the value streams from the observations held. Furthermore, due to the limited time it might not be possible to see actual results of suggested improvement from the study. By broaden the study, looking at other construction projects, construction companies and locations, the resolution would be more trustworthy, and benchmarking might have been possible.

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2. LITERATURE

Research about Lean management methods have been studied, as well as how the method Value Stream Mapping within Lean can be used to improve process flows in the construction industry.

2.1

Construction Industry Performance

Traditionally and the most common way to measure a flow is to look at the resource flow, where the focus is on the resources that is needed to produce a product or to deliver a specific service (Modig & Åhlström, 2014). Thus, project managers normally try to incorporate more resources and introduce new technologies to create more value in the process flow and eliminate Non-Value-Adding activities. This however increase the risk of variabilities in the processes as management solves problems by adding more resources to the production rather than finding the source of the problem. Further on, it is common that construction projects focus on the push management system instead of the pull management system (Modig & Åhlström, 2014). Hence it is more common to have more resources in terms of equipment, material and workers, on-site than what is required.

Considering that the construction industry is complex, where every project is unique and continuously changing over time, research indicate that it becomes difficult to benchmark tools to improve performances (Dixit, et al., 2019; Haponava & Al‐Jibouri, 2010). Measurements of Non-Value-Adding activities is an effective way to assess the performance and point out potential improvements (Vilasini, et al., 2011). Winch (2010) explain that those construction projects that have implemented Lean to improve performances, have faced problems in production due to standardizing processes and not being able to handle changes. Winch (2010) explain that the problems arrive due to construction projects stay longer in the design and production face. Thus, it is common that construction projects need to handle changes of design during the execution. Comparing this with the manufacturing industry, where the design and production face are separated. Thus, the production does not have to handle changes of design during execution. Furthermore, Winch (2010) explain that it becomes difficult to standardize processes in construction projects due to projects being designed and constructed at different constructions sites that has different prerequisites. However, according to Sacks and Goldin (2007) not much efficiency and effectiveness are gained out of the traditional approaches that has been tried out in the construction industry. Given the fact that the construction industry has a high amount of Non-Value-Adding activities, Ramani & KSD (2019) explain that by implementing Lean in construction Non-Value-Adding activities can be reduced and processes can be improved.

In Lean, efficiency is measured by looking at the process flow, thus focus is on the movement of the unit in the process, or interactions between procedures measured in time or communication (Modig & Åhlström, 2014). The timeframe for a process is measured from when the process starts until the end of the process from the perspective of the moving unit (Modig & Åhlström, 2014). When analysing the processes using a Lean method, value is be divided into three different categories: Value-Adding, Necessary but Non-Value-Adding and

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4 Non-Value-Adding, where focus is on how to eliminate Non-Value-Adding activities in the process (Liker, 2003).

2.2

Lean

The history about Lean started after World War I when the automobile manufacturer Henry Ford commenced mass production (Womack, et al., 2007). Comparing the traditional craft production to mass production, skilled workers in the traditional craft production produced high exclusive products by using simple but flexible tools to meet the customer’s specific demands. In mass production on the other hand, standardized products were produced in high volumes by advanced and expensive machines and less skilled workers. Mass production had a more effective production, but less focus on meeting the specific customers demand. The machinery in mass production needed to have extra supplies, extra workers and extra space as the production was so sensitive of disruption, thus a smooth production flow was of high importance. Mass production normally lead to waste, overproduction and that employees were stuck for a longer period with the same tasks and work methods (Womack, et al., 2007). At the end of 1949, the family owned Japanese company Toyota, encountered a collapse in sales and a lot of workers had to go (Womack, et al., 2007). Also, Japan was lacking on resources because of the World War I (Ohno, 1988). To survive, Toyota had to rethink their business strategy and got inspiration from Ford’s mass production (Modig & Åhlström, 2014; Womack, et al., 2007). At this time, Toyota was a small company that during their 13 year as a company had produced 2685 cars, compared to Ford that produced 7000 cars per day in their Rouge fabric. Taiichi Ohno, known as the father of the Toyota Production System, and his team analysed the mass production at Fords Rouge fabric to understand how this could be implemented in Japan. They simply updated Fords mass production thinking by developing how to manufacture more efficiently to reduce costs and increase the quality, but also how to include people in the factory (Ohno, 1988). With the Toyota Production System, Toyota delivered more innovative products with faster speed and less waste compering to its competitors (Liker, 2003).

The term Lean came to by John Krafick from an article named Triumph of the Lean Production

System, year 1988. The article compared production levels at automobile manufacturer and

came up with two different production system; fragile and robust. A robust system means that productivity is created with advanced technology and economy of scale, in other words, mass production. A fragile system means that a fabric has low factory stock, low buffers and simple technology, in other words, Toyota Production System. However, Krafick, thought that fragile sounded negative and instead named the system: Lean. By doing so, it came to people’s knowledge that the production system Lean represented an effective production system (Modig & Åhlström, 2014).

The production system behind Lean is the Toyota Production System. According to Liker (2003) the Toyota Production System “is an operation management system to achieve goals of

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5 of the Toyota Production System is absolute elimination of Non-Value-Adding activities, this shows a simple thinking of how to work with continuous improvement all the time by reducing waste in the process flow (Ohno, 1988). To reduce waste, it is important to define value. Value should be defined by seeing through the customer’s eyes and observe the process and define the Value-Adding activities and the Non-Value-adding activities (Liker, 2003).

The fundamental to Lean is based on the Toyota Production System template, see figure 1. The Toyota Production System template can be described as the shape of a building, where the roof constitutes the vision for the company, the pillars constitutes the main principles and sub principles, at the bottom is the foundation for the building and in the centre of the template is the heart of Toyota Production System, the people.

Figure 1 The Toyota Production System Template inspired by (Petersson, et al., 2010)

The main principle, Just In Time, aims to achieve short and predictable lead time (Petersson, et al., 2010). Just In Time means that the system wants to produce and deliver the right parts, in the right amount, at the right time using the minimum necessary resources. In other words, to produce small quantities, with short lead times, to meet specific customer needs (Liker, 2003). Just In Time has further on developed into three sub-principles: takt, continuous flow and pull-system (Petersson, et al., 2010).

The other main principle, Jidoka, aim to achieve high and predictable quality without the need for inspections (Petersson, et al., 2010). Jidoka means autonomation, that only require the human attention if a problem occur (Ohno, 1988). Jidoka has further on developed into two sub-principles: Built-in quality and Stop the process (Petersson, et al., 2010).

In the centre of the Toyota Production System is people and it is important with continuous improvement to attain the stability. Thus, people need to be trained to be able to identify Non-Value-Adding activities and solve problems and understand the reason for the problem exists (Liker, 2003). A difference between mass production and Lean production is the different mind sets. A mass producer is satisfied with “good enough”, a good level of supply and a very limited variation of the standardized product. A Lean producer, on the other hand, is not satisfied until

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6 everything is perfect, which never occur, since Lean production is about continuous improvement (Womack, et al., 2007).

2.2.1 The culture behind Lean

The Toyota Way includes the foundation of the Toyota culture and it is supported by two pillars: “Continuous Improvement” and “Respect for People” (Liker, 2003). With these two pillars it is possible to create an atmosphere that embrace change (Liker, 2003). Under these two pillars Toyota created five important values (Modig & Åhlström, 2014):

Continuous improvement

• Challenge – Create a long-term vision and meet challenges with courage and creativity. • Kaizen – Work with continuous improvement throughout the company to create

innovation and development.

• Genchi Genbutsu – Go to the source to find facts to make correct decisions. Respect for people

• Respect – Respect for other people, understand each other, take responsibility and do your best to create mutual trust.

• Collaboration – Stimulate personal and professional development, share opportunities for development and maximize both individual and group performance.

Two important Japanese terms and important Lean concepts are muda and kaizen. Muda is used by Toyota managers and employees when talking about Non-Value-Adding activities, in other words, anything that takes times but does not add value for the customer (Liker, 2003).

Kaizen means continuous improvement in every part of the company where one important step

is to identify Non-Value-Adding activities (Liker, 2003).

2.2.2 Lean in Construction

In 1997 Louis Alarcón wrote a book that collected 40 research papers about Lean construction where he pointed out the problems the construction industry has concerning growth of performance. In the book Alarcón compared the construction industry with the manufacturing industry, as the manufacturing industry has improved performances significant more than the construction industry. Alarcón explained that the improvements have not been a result of the new technologies in the processes but instead a result of the manufacturing industry implementing Lean. Hence, the manufacturing industry has increased the performance by improving process flows (Liker & Franz, 2011) Alarcón also pointed out that the problems with performances in the construction industry is a result of poor project management as managers are not able to identify problems in the processes (Alarcón, 1997). However, the problem with performances in the construction industry still today exist (Ramani & KSD, 2019). A study in the UK identified 25% to 50% Non-Value-Adding activities due to coordinating labour and managing, moving, and installing materials (Vilasini, et al., 2011). Pekuri et al (2011) explain that performance should be measured as process-performance indicators. Thus, process-performance should be measured as Value-Adding activities,

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Non-7 Value-Adding activities and cycle time to adapt the production philosophy Lean in the construction industry (Pekuri, et al., 2011; Ramani & KSD, 2019).

As Lean originate from the manufacturing industry, research show different ways of how it should be used and implemented in the construction industry (Ramani & KSD, 2019). Understandable, it is important to recognise the differences and similarities between the industries to understand how Lean techniques can be applied (Ramani & KSD, 2019). The manufacturing industry separate production and deliveries so they are independent of each other, hence production can run smoothly without needing to consider how the deliveries are handled and in turn deliveries can run smoothly without needing to consider how the production runs (Bajjou, et al., 2017). The construction industry on the other hand perform on-site production and does not separate production and deliveries. Thus, the industry needs to consider how both production and deliveries will be affected by each other if one of them stops or are behind schedule, as well as consider how site conditions affect them. In addition, the manufacturing industry creates standardized projects and are therefore able to continually learn and make improvements as well as predict the process and minimize the risk of variability. In the construction industry, where each project is unique, it becomes hard to predict the process and minimize the risk of variability. The process is dependent of both the contractor and its suppliers, but also dependent of site conditions (Bajjou, et al., 2017). Due to the complexity of the projects, research reveal that the most important factors to consider is how to create value and how to eliminate Non-Value-Adding activities (Bajjou, et al., 2017). Liker (2003) explain that with a Lean approach, it is possible to both create value and eliminate Non-Value-Adding activities. If a construction project decides to implement Lean, it is essential that the customers demand is stable and predictable (Sullivan, 2011). Sullivan (2011) explain that if the customers demand is not stable nor predictable it increases the risk of a construction project failing in performances as it becomes difficult to fulfil the customers’ demands and needs if it continually changes. Further on, Sullivan (2011) explain that obstacles arise since it becomes difficult to define what is value in the process flow. Consequently, it becomes difficult to set mutual goals and needs for those who are involved in the process, such as contractors, subcontractors, craftsmen and suppliers. The deviation between what people consider is value is one of the major obstacles of using Lean in the construction industry. However, by setting clear goals and by having good communication with those involved in the process, it becomes possible to minimize the risk of failing (Sullivan, 2011).

2.2.3 Value Stream Mapping in Construction Projects

Efficiency in processes can be analysed by looking at the processes with focus on what activities are Non-Value-Adding in the process and how they can be eliminated (Modig & Åhlström, 2014). Hence, the flow can be improved by reducing the Non-Value-Adding activities in processes (Ansah, et al., 2016; Sacks, 2016). The Lean principle continuous improvement can be applied when using the method Value Stream Mapping (Petersson, et al., 2010). The method visualise the flow in a process and identifies what type of activities the flow consists of, with the main focus on the Non-Value-Adding (Jasti & Sharma, 2014; Rother & Shook, 2003).

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8 As Value Stream Mapping originate from the manufacturing industry it becomes difficult to use the same categorization that have been applied in the manufacturing industry, as those mappings does not require to consider complex, on-site and unique projects production (Dinesh, et al., 2017). Modifications in the method needs to be done where each process flow require different tools and graphic symbols to visualize wastes (Dinesh, et al., 2017)

Further on, when comparing a Value Stream Mapping state in these complex situations, Dinesh et al (2017) recommend excluding analyses of micro-concepts, hence takt time, flow and pull systems. Instead, performing a Value Stream Mapping in complex situations, such as analysing the flow in construction projects or in the supply-chain, require the mapping to focus on one value flow. Further on, Dinesh et al (2017) explain that when performing a Value Stream Mapping in these situations, it is still possible to make approximations and simplifications about data in the flow. Performing approximations and simplifications in a Value Stream Mapping require the study to contain a research team that understand the process. It also requires the research team to perform Gemba-walks, which means to go out and see the process in real life. The Gemba-walk is important to perform as without it, it is not possible to understand problems with the value stream. The Gemba-walk diagnoses the problem with the flow and identifies processes by understanding the time it takes performing activities and how this will be affected by the layout of the site or by movement patterns. In addition, the Gemba-walk provides a holistic picture for how resources affect the flow, or for how the choice of material or equipment affect the flow.

Time measure for activities should be separated as preparation time, mounting time and inspection time, but also as transportation time and break time, cleaning time, charging machines time and other waste times. Time measures should be doublechecked with supervisors, engineers and managers. However, Dinesh et al (2017) exposes problems making assumptions of time estimations as it is missing realistic, representative and verifiable time measurement of Non-Value-Adding activities. Dinesh et al (2017) encourage to use a combination of direct observations and indirect observations in the Value Stream Mapping to be able to create assumptions of time estimations. The direct observation should be generated by field professionals, supervisors and operators, while the indirect observing should be generated by looking at logbook records, finger scanner records and time punching machine databases. In the future, a database over direct and indirect observations could lead to a trustworthy approximation of time measurements.

Dinesh et al (2017) also revealed that the problem with a process flow exists due to people involved in the process flow only focus on specific problems and specific coordination hassles, thus they miss the big picture. Further on, it was exposed that problems with the process flows origin due to bad preparations of activities for instance, the floor is not prepared and contain nuts and bolts causing delays in the work as the nuts and bolts had to been taken away before the work could begin.

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9 Dinesh et al (2017) proposed initiatives such as, better coordination between planning and production schedule to reduce waiting time, cleanliness of floor to reduce unnecessary processing of the floor, more periodic inspection and employee training as well as development of checklist for regular follow-ups to improve the process flow. The following initiatives in the study reduced Non-Value-Adding activities by 29,78% in the process flow and reduced the overall cycle time by 17,3%. Overall, the study revealed the strength of having a process-oriented approach since it is an efficient way to expose unnecessary activities in the process. In a study performed by Ramani and KSD (2019), Value Stream Mapping was used to explore Non-Value-Adding activities in a steel erection project. According to Ramani and KSD (2019), some modifications had to be done when applying the method compared to when using it in the manufacturing industry. Ramani and KSD (2019) explain that since a construction project consist of different processes within the whole project, each process could be a seen as a sub-construction that should be analysed when performing Value Stream Mapping in sub-construction projects. Ramani and KSD (2019) explain that when the sub-construction is selected, the map of the current state could be drawn. To do this, information needs to be collected directly at the construction site and the whole process should be tracked several times to obtain data for the chosen task. Ramani and KSD (2019) observed activities including duration, resource used and construction method. The observation occurred for two weeks and engineers at the site were also interviewed. An average time was calculated for the time taken for the different activities that was observed. Ramani and KSD (2019) analysed every aspect of the map such as waiting time, lead time and labour and equipment productivity. The results showed that Non-Value-Adding activities were mainly caused by repeated processes in the project. One example was improper stacking of the structural steel members which made it difficult to identify the required steel when needed since the cycle for the erection process begins with identification of the materials to be used from the prearranged stacks. The steel members were identified and taken from the stack, and since the stacks were not in any specific order, a lot of time was consumed in locating and taking out the steel members and to relocate and rearrange it. Moreover, a crane transported the steel members after identification, but the crane had trouble moving since the site was not in good condition causing time waste for every movement. Also, a tree on site was in the way for the crane to move around freely. Ramani and KSD (2019) explain that by using a Lean method, Non-Value-Adding activities could be identified, and improvement actions was suggested for a new process flow that had shorter lead time, higher quality and lower cost. Also, improvements in site logistics saved about 30% of time in the overall productivity. From the current state, the map of future state was drawn, the map showed how the Non-Value-activities were generated and how to handle or eliminate the activities. The total project time was calculated to 45 days and the project saved 13 days after the recommendations for improvement was implemented (Ramani & KSD, 2019).

Another study performed by Rosenbaum et al (2014), Value Stream Mapping was used to manage production and environmental waste in construction. The study was done on a medical centre construction project. The first step was to decide which construction element to be analysed. In this study data was collected by direct observations and interviews for 2 months and the staff hours of field measurement was counted to 430 hours. The observation method

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10 was done by the observer studying several activities for 5 minutes to collect the indicators for the Value Stream Mapping. The indicators included duration, setup time, cycle time, Value-Adding time, pauses, abandonment of activities, utilization of works, energy and material resources and the emissions. Some indicators were observed on site and some were calculated. By using the calculated indicators and observations, the current state map was developed and analysed. The data collected got validated by different experts involved in the project. By using a Lean approach, the future state map was created, and recommendations was made to establish an implementation plan to produce the future state (Rosenbaum, et al., 2014). The problems that Rosenbaum et al (2014) identified in the study was: process variability, human resource management difficulties, large inventories, value stream synchronization, low Value-Adding percentage, material resources supply, reception of supplies, planning and control issues, waste management and site sustainability.

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11

3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

To be able to understand how to categorize and analyse data, Saunders et al (2016) propose researcher to find a valid theory. Thus, data collected from the case study will be based on the theoretical framework of the Lean method Value Stream Mapping.

3.1

Value Stream Mapping

Value Stream Mapping is a method within Lean that is used to improve workflow in a value stream (Petersson, et al., 2010). The method is born from the concept that improvement of work takes place somewhere in a Value Stream (Petersson, et al., 2010). Improvement of work can be described as Kaizen that stand for continuous improvement and represent a change for the better (Liker, 2003). Kaizen can be divided into two parts: process Kaizen and flow Kaizen. The first one describes and analyse how to improve specific processes while the later describes how to improve the flow that link the processes. The method Value Stream Mapping is used to provide a holistic picture of a flow, with the goal to visualize activities within a flow and identify Non-Value-Adding activities. The method aims to set an action plan for how to reduce Non-Value-Adding activities and improve the flow (Rother & Shook, 2003).

Before beginning to improve the workflow, the framework for what is value should be decided, based on what the customer demand and what the customer is willing to pay for (Petersson, et al., 2010; Ramani & KSD, 2019). The product-family to be observed should also be decided (Petersson, et al., 2010; Ramani & KSD, 2019). A product-family could for instance include activities to construct a framework or activities to construct interior walls. Sacks (2016) further explain that the flow within construction projects should be ‘work packages’ consisting of information about the flow for the crew, product, work method, design information and equipment. Normally the process flow for a product-family will cross several departments and functions, thus to minimize the risk of no one taking responsibility for the value stream, a value stream manager should be acknowledged (Rother & Shook, 2003).

Peterson et al (2010) and Ramani & KSD (2019) explain that Value Stream Mapping begins with setting the current state of the value stream. The method continues by analysing the data collected from the current state map to be able to identify Non-Value-Adding activities and to create a future state map for the flow. The process ends with setting recommendations and an action plan for the work needed to fulfil the future state map.

Activities in a Value Stream Mapping are categorized as: Value-Adding, Necessary but Non-Value-Adding and Non-Non-Value-Adding, where activities can contain information about the flow for products, materials and information (Jasti & Sharma, 2014; Rother & Shook, 2003). The concept behind Value-Adding activities are that they consist of those activities that add value

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12 for the customer, hence the client in construction projects. A rule of thumb for Value-Adding activities, “activities that in some way change the product add value” (Petersson, et al., 2010). The concept behind Necessary but Non-Value-Adding activities are that they constitutes of those activities that are necessary but does not change the product, for instance cleaning equipment (Petersson, et al., 2010). The concept behind Non-Value-Adding activities are that they constitutes of those activities that does not add a value for the final product and for the client (Alarcón, 1997; Josephson & Saukkoriipi, 2003). There are eight identified categories that can be used to eliminate Non-Value-Activities from the production according to Liker and Franz (2011): Overproduction, Waiting, Transport, Over or Incorrect processing, Inventory, Movement, Defects and Skills.

Overproduction

Producing more than necessary, hence more than the client demand (Liker & Franz, 2011). Or, uses more resources than needed to execute the work (Bajjou, et al., 2017).

Waiting

Time wasted due to a stop in the process flow, for instance due to waiting for instructions (Liker & Franz, 2011). Or, stop due to not being able to execute work due lack or inadequate material, equipment, work, information or planning (Bajjou, et al., 2017).

Transport

Unnecessary transportation of material and information, such as transportation of material in a non-optimize flow (Bajjou, et al., 2017; Liker & Franz, 2011). All internal transports should be seen as Non-Value-Adding activities, including machines that are used for transportation (Petersson, et al., 2010).

Over or Incorrect processing

Unneeded steps, over-engineering, having more functions than needed, inefficiently processing due to poor tool and product design (Liker & Franz, 2011). Using too much material, information, too good quality or having too many meetings (Bajjou, et al., 2017). Inspections should also be inappropriate processes since the reason for the activity to exist are due to unreliable processes (Petersson, et al., 2010).

Inventory

Too much material and goods stored in the production causing longer lead times, obsolescence, damaged goods and storage costs (Liker & Franz, 2011). Too much inventory on-site takes a lot of space and increase the risk of spending time searching for material on-site as well as stopping other work due to not enough space (Bajjou, et al., 2017).

Movement

Unnecessary movement for instance looking for, reaching for and walking to get information, equipment, material or to change a task (Bajjou, et al., 2017; Liker & Franz, 2011).

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13 Defects

Wasteful handling, time and effort due to what has been produced needs to be repaired, reworked or replaced (Liker & Franz, 2011). Fault in the construction phase that require to be prepared, either direct waste or indirect waste (Bajjou, et al., 2017). Direct waste are wastes caused by material, equipment and workers. Indirect waste are wastes due to lost revenue. Skills

Unused employee creativity by not listening or engaging the employees, in turn leading to time, ideas, skills, improvements, learning opportunities are being lost (Liker & Franz, 2011). Not enough time for the workers to leave feedback about improvements in the process (Bajjou, et al., 2017).

3.1.1 Current State Map

The first thing to do when identifying Non-Value-Adding steps in a process is to map the current process flow (Liker, 2003). To understand the process flow for a product family, on-site observation is required, the Gemba-walk. When the flow consists of material and information, the best type of Value Stream Mapping to perform would be a process activity mapping. The process activity mapping has high correlation and usefulness to identify wastes in terms of Waiting, Transport, Over or Incorrect processing and Movement, see table 1 (Hines & Rich, 1997). The process activity mapping has also medium correlation and usefulness to identify wastes in terms of Inventory and has a low correlation and usefulness to identify wastes as Overproduction, Defects and Skills, see table 1.

Table 1 Tools and Wastes in a Value Stream Mapping based on Hines and Rich (1997).

Tools /

Wastes

Over-production

Waiting Transport Over or

Incorrect processing

Inventory Movement Defects Skills

Process activity mapping Low correlation and usefulness High correlation and usefulness High correlation and usefulness High correlation and usefulness Medium correlation and usefulness High correlation and usefulness Low correlation and usefulness Low correlation and usefulness

Performing a process activity mapping require not only that information and material flows are presented, but also that time measures are displayed (Rother & Shook, 2003). The information flow should clarify information about the contractor, the client and the supplier, hence, who is involved in the information process. The material flow should clarify how many steps, so called process-boxes, the material goes through. The mapping consists of different process-boxes, where each process-box include material and information flows for a task. For every disconnection within the flow, a new process-box is drawn, see figure 2. A disconnection should be a Non-Value-Adding activity and could for instance appear if material needs to be moved from original storage location or by a task being stopped due to missing information about how the product should be construct. Thus, the goal is to map as few process-boxes as possible within the flow for a product-family since it indicates a good flow (Rother & Shook, 2003). Time measures could be explained taking the ratio between the Value-Adding, the Necessary but Non-Value-Adding and the Non-Value-Adding activities with the total amount

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14 of activities to receive the percentage of activities that exist in the process flow (Rother & Shook, 2003; Forbes & Ahmed, 2011). Time measures could also be explained by calculating the cycle time for the value stream (Jasti & Sharma, 2014; Rother & Shook, 2003). Thus, how long it takes to complete the task, which includes all Value-Adding, Necessary but Non-Value-Adding and Non-Value-Non-Value-Adding activities, see figure 2. After setting the current state map, preparations for the future state map can be performed (Rother & Shook, 2003).

Figure 2 Value Stream Mapping inspired by (Dinesh, et al., 2017; Rosenbaum, et al., 2014)

3.1.2 Future State Map

The future state map in Value Stream Mapping is created after analyses of the current state are finalised (Petersson, et al., 2010). A future state map begins by separating the Non-Value-Adding activities from the total amount of activities that were found in the current state map (Dinesh, et al., 2017). After separating the Non-Value-Adding activities, preparations continue by highlighting those Non-Value-Adding activities that can be improved or reduced from the flow (Dinesh, et al., 2017). The future state map aims to visualize a new flow that consist of less disconnections and Non-Value-Adding activities, hence has fewer process-boxes (Rother & Shook, 2003).

A future state map can either be based on calculations or observations (Dinesh, et al., 2017). These calculations or observations of the improvements can be based on calculating the effect of improvements by using mathematical methods or by studying real life situations. When using mathematical methods, the improvements are presented as the ratio between Non-Value-Adding activities and the total amount of activities in the process flow, to identify the total amount of Non-Value-Adding activities in the new flow (Rother & Shook, 2003; Forbes &

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15 Ahmed, 2011). When incorporating improvements to the real process, improvements are presented by observing the flow in real time. Thus, the future state map evaluates the process flow similarly as the current state map, followed by proposing the action plan (Rother & Shook, 2003; Forbes & Ahmed, 2011).

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16

4. METHOD

The research includes a qualitative research design to answer the research question. The qualitative research design will use more than one qualitative data collection technique; thus, a multi-method qualitative study will be performed.

4.1

Research Approach

The research bases its result on socially constructed realities created by peoples’ actions in different situations where people will act differently due to different cultures, backgrounds and beliefs. Consequently, leading to multiple realities and interpretations of activities according to Saunders et al (2016). Therefore, the interpretivist philosophy has been adopted in this research. Saunders et al (2016) explain that if research questions are dependent of socially constructed realities, data should be collected by interacting with participants in the study. It was therefore decided to use a qualitative research design to answer the research questions. Data was collected from a case study where observations and interviews were used as data collection techniques. The research has been exploratory to understand and gain insight in how Lean and the method Value Stream Mapping could be used to improve process flows. Hyde (2000) and Saunders et al (2016) explain that exploratory studies adopt an inductive approach. Thus, it has been possible to draw generalisation from the observations and interviews even though observations in the two construction projects were held during a short period and only 4 interviews were held.

4.2

Case Study

The case study examines two construction projects that were chosen since they are similarly organized; the same contractor and client, both are new construction school projects with equivalent design, size, schedule and budget. However, the two projects differentiate in the choice of work method, material, site-organisation, supplier and craftsmen. The two construction projects are owned by the contractor who is the general contractor and has entered a design-bid-build contract with strategic partnering with the client.

Thus, the research will explore if and how the value stream for deliveries and mounting one side of the framework for interior walls differentiates between the two projects, with the aim to understand the reason of the results and how to improve process flows for future projects.

4.2.1 Project A

Project A is a new construction school project where the old school will be demolished after the new school is finalized. The school will be built in three levels and will have a capacity of 700 students. The project is divided in different zones to plan the work and the workflow. Figure 3 shows an illustration of the zone division for floor 0; zone 10 is 621 m2, zone 9 is 289 m2, zone 8 is 984 m2, zone 7 is 612 m2 and zone 6 is 969 m2, in total 3475 m2.

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17

Figure 3 Illustration Zoning for floor 0

Two companies were chosen to execute the work of deliveries and mounting in Project A: Supplier A and Subcontractor A. Preparations for deliveries in Project A was held by the contractor together with Supplier A, where Supplier A had the main responsibility for the planning. The contractor created a 3D model that Supplier A used to measure and calculate the amount of material to deliver, where the contractor double-checked Supplier A’s calculations. In Project A, pre-cut material was chosen for the construction method to decrease on-site production for measurements and cuttings of the material. The pre-cut steel girders should not require adjustments for heights, nor the pre-cut gypsum boards and pre-cut habito boards. The plan was to place steel girders directly on the outlays in the ceiling and in the floor. It was also planned that two boards should be placed over each other to reach the ceiling height. However, adjustments should be required for door and window openings and installations. Thus, it was calculated that some measurements and cuttings of the material should be performed on-site. Furthermore, Supplier A designed a delivery drawing to visualise where the material should be placed on-site when entering the construction site. Together with the delivery drawing Supplier A also created a QR-code placed on every material stack that gave digital information about where the material should be placed, which should be used by the craftsmen when receiving the deliveries. The plan for the QR-code was to ease the process flow when transporting the material to the storage location. In Project A, deliveries should occur first day of work in each zone, thus five deliveries should be performed for the one side of the framework for interior walls at floor 0. The contractor set a time-schedule that the craftsmen from Subcontractor A should follow, where it was planned that each zone in floor 0 for the one side of the framework for interior walls should take 10 days of work.

4.2.2 Project B

Project B is a new construction school project where the old school is demolished and replaced with a new school. The school will be built in three floors with a building area of 3500 m2. The project is divided in different zones when dividing the work and the workflow. Figure 4 shows an illustration on the zone division for floor 0; zone 0:1 is 968 m2, zone 0:2 is 1091 m2 and zone 0:3 is 1140 m2, in total 3199 m2.

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18 The estimated time for the different zones for mounting interior walls are:

• Zone 0:1 – 16 days • Zone 0:2 – 19 days • Zone 0:3 – 22 days

Figure 4 Illustration Zoning for floor 0

The contractor calculated the material to be used for the interior walls and decided where to place the material when it got delivered. The process for the observed workflow started with a preparation meeting on-site with site managers and craftsmen. Thus, craftsmen from the contractor performed the delivery process and the mounting process. The contractor ordered gypsum boards, horizontal plywood boards and pre-cut steel girders. The plan was to place steel girders directly on the outlays in the ceiling and in the floor and the pre-cut steel girders should not require adjustments for heights. The horizontal plywood boards should connect on top of each other and requires seven boards on top of each other to reach the ceiling height. However, only a small piece of the last board is required on top, this board should be cut on site. It was also planned that two gypsum boards should be placed over each other to reach the ceiling height, where one of the boards should be cut on site for height adjustment. Moreover, adjustments should also be required for door and window openings and installations. The material got delivered from Supplier B, which was not a part of the work process.

4.3

Structured Observations

The research will collect primary data through structured observations to analyse the frequency of actions and what actions the craftsmen in the two construction projects perform during the value stream of deliveries and mounting one side of the interior walls. Thus, Gemba-walks were held according to the theory of Value Stream Mapping. The structured observations in the research focused on understanding the amount of Non-Value-Adding activities that existed during the two value streams.

Activities were coded as Value-Adding, Necessary but Adding and Non-Value-Adding. In addition, Non-Value-Adding activities were coded as different types of wastes; Overproduction, Waiting, Transport, Over or Incorrect processing, Inventory, Movement, Defects and Skills.

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19 When performing the structured observations notetaking was done digitally including,

hour-minutes-seconds, number of resources involved in the task, as well as what the observed people

were doing. After the observations were done, the notetaking was summarized in an excel-sheet where activities were coded and calculated. By taking the time for the coded activity multiplied with the number of resources involved in the task the total time was calculated, see table 2. The process followed by summarizing the total amount of Value-Adding, Necessary but Adding and Adding for the value stream, see table 3. Non-Value-Adding activities were in turn summarized by the type of waste they belonged to, see table 4.

Table 2 Example showing coding and calculations from observations

Start-time Activity time Resource Total time = Activity time*Resource Activity VA, NVA, NNVA Category 07:50:00 00:10:00 2 00:20:00 Screw the boards VA Value-Adding

08:00:00 00:05:00 2 00:10:00 Find Tools NVA Movement

08:10:00 00:10:00 2 00:20:00 Preparing

machine NNVA Preparing

Table 3 Example showing summarizing of coding

Process A

Coding Total Time

(Activity time*Resource)

Percentage

(VA, NNVA, NVA time/Total time)

VA 00:55:00 38% (=VA/Total time)

NNVA 00:20:00 14% (=NNVA/Total time)

NVA 01:10:00 48% (=NVA/Total time)

Total time 02:25:00 100%

Table 4 Example showing summarizing of Non-Value-Adding activities

Non-Value-Adding categorization

Over-

production Waiting Transport

Over or Incorrect processing Movement Total % 14% 12% 10% 3% 9% Total hh:mm:ss 00:21:00 00:17:00 00:15:00 00:04:00 00:13:00

The observed activities in the excel-sheet got summarized in a table and connected with the current Value Stream Map. Categorization of activities was decided by using the Non-Value-adding categories from the method Value Stream Mapping. Categorization was also decided with the help of the production manager from the contractor who explained what activities where Value-Adding for the client. Categorization was also decided by taking part of the work preparation held by the site manager from Project B with the craftsmen which gave information

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20 about the prerequisite for how the process flows within the value stream should look like when delivering and mounting one side of the framework of the interior walls.

The value stream was divided in two process flows: the delivery of the material and the mounting of the material. The process flows were separated to get a deeper understanding of them. However, Winch (2010) explain that there is a risk of separating flows in different value streams as each value stream are included in a much broader value stream. Thus, it might be difficult making improvements in one value stream when it is included in a broader value stream. However, according to Dinesh et al (2017) and Ramani & KSD (2019) when performing a Value Stream Mapping in complex situations such as in construction projects, it is recommended to focus on one specific value stream. This value stream should include a product-family and should include all activities related to this product-family. This is recommended since construction project occur for a long period and consist of many different processes within the whole project (Ramani & KSD, 2019).

4.4

Semi- structured Interviews

The semi-structured interviews were held to get a wider understanding of how the process flow have been affected by the choice of work method and resources and how the process flows differentiate between two projects due to the choices made, as well as how Value Stream Mapping could be used as a method to keep track of the construction processes. Thus, interviews will be held with site managers.

The semi-structured interviews included some themes and some key questions, which according to Saunders et al (2016) is how a researcher might perform semi-structured interviews. Additional questions were raised during the interviews when the research questions needed to be explored further. The data was collected by note taking and audio recording. Thus, the researcher asked if the participant accepted audio recording before the recording started. The interviews were conducted face-to-face with one site manager at time. The purpose with the interview was to gather qualitatively data to be analysed and to understand the ’what, the ’how’ and ’why’, which according to Saunders et al (2016) provides additional information for your exploratory study to understand the relationship between variables and to add significance and depth to the data obtained. Moreover, according to Saunders et al (2016) it is important to be clear about the time required for the interview and the objectives of the interview. Therefore, before the interviews were held, a specific time and place was decided, and the key questions were handed out beforehand so the participants could prepare themselves.

4.5

Issues related to data quality

An exploratory research with an inductive research approach has been performed to be able to draw generalizations and conclusion from the result of the study, in agreement with Saunders et al (2016). As the research main focus is to observe how people act in different processes it was chosen to use both structured observations and semi-structured interviews to increase the trustworthiness of the study. By using both methods, a holistic picture of the process flow could

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21 be received. The structured observation gave a good indication for what the process flow looked like and the semi-structured interviews gave a good indication for how individuals’ act in different situations but also how their thoughts and opinions could affect the result from the observation.

The structured observations focused on analysing processes rather than outcomes of the products. If the research, according to Saunders et al (1026), would have only focused on the outcomes it could lead to misleading results due to the two construction projects using different resources who have different experiences, motivation and beliefs. When performing the observations, the researcher always tried to follow people with equal experiences and motivations. Saunders el al (2016) explain that there is also a risk related to the time of the study as it might be an untypical day the observations are being performed; thus, the observations have been held during different intervals throughout the time of the study. There is also a risk of reliability and dependability when performing a semi-structured interview. According to Saunders et al (2016), the reason is caused by the researcher not using standardised question formula. More so, how the researcher interacts with the participants and how the questions are asked impacts the data collection. To decrease the risk of not receiving a reliable and dependable semi-structured interview, all results from the interviews were analysed together with the result from the observations. In addition, there are also issues related to biases when performing semi-structured interviews. As Saunders et al (2016) explains, there is a risk of the researcher being biased when creating questions or when questions are being asked in a certain tone consequently affecting the responder who sense what answer the researcher would like to receive. There are also issues related to responder bias, where the problem often arises from the willingness of taking part of the study. To decrease the risk of responder biases no questions were specifically targeted towards one person but instead the questions were general with focus on the process flow. In addition, there were no leading questions asked neither any yes nor no questions.

4.6

Ethical Considerations

Ethical considerations in this study have been principles connected with integrity and objectivity as the study base its result on observations and interviews with people. It has been important be open and trustworthy with the participants and not focusing on creating a result to fulfil an imagination but instead reflecting the truth, in accordance with Saunders et al (2016). Nevertheless, privacy of those taking part have been considered, thus everybody had the option to decide if they agreed with being observed. Also, if they agreed with participating in the interviews. The aim was to collect data to answer and reflect over the research questions, but the participants had the right to decline to respond to any question asked. Moreover, the companies and the participants have been anonymized during the observations and interviews. The objective with adopting these principles and standards have been to prevent the study from conflicts and harms.

Figure

Figure 1 The Toyota Production System Template inspired by (Petersson, et al., 2010)
Table 1 Tools and Wastes in a Value Stream Mapping based on Hines and Rich (1997).
Figure 2 Value Stream Mapping inspired by (Dinesh, et al., 2017; Rosenbaum, et al., 2014)
Figure 3 Illustration Zoning for floor 0
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References

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