"It was that Trolle thing" Negotiating history in Grade 6 : A matter of teachers' text choice

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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Linguistics

and

Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/linged

“It

was

that

Trolle

thing” Negotiating

history

in

Grade

6:

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matter

of

teachers’

text

choice

Robert

Walldén

Faculty of Education and Society, Malmö University, Malmö 205 06, Sweden

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Article history: Received 23 June 2020 Revised 8 October 2020 Accepted 12 October 2020 Keywords: Classroom discourse Disciplinary literacy History teaching Primary education Teaching material

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Acrucialissueforliteracyresearchishowteachingpracticesareshapedtopromotediverselearners’ en-gagementwithcontentknowledgeanduseofdisciplinarylanguage.Inthisarticle,basedonaclassroom studyinSweden,IexploretheteachingoftwohistoricaleventswheretheparticipantGrade 6teacher createdopportunitiesforwritingand peerinteractioninthecontentarea.Usingdiscourseanalysis in-formedbysystemic-functionallinguistics,thestudy contributestoexistingresearchbyhighlightingthe roleofteachers’text choicesintheshapingofdisciplinaryliteracypracticesintheteachingofhistory. Thetextschosenandrejectedbytheparticipantteacherareanalyzedandputinrelationtotranscriptsof peerinteractionandsamplesofstudents’writing.Theresultsshowthatthetextschosen– unlikethose rejected– largelyreliedoneverydaylinguisticresources.Asthestudents’peerinteractionand writing closelymirroredthetextspresentedtothem,theiropportunitiestousetheresourcesofabstractlanguage commonlyassociatedwithschoolhistoryseemedrestricted.Implicationsforteachingarediscussed.

1. Introduction

The overall concern of this article is how opportunities are shaped for students’ development of disciplinary literacy and engagement with subject-specific texts (e.g. Colombi & Schleppe- grell, 2002 ; Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008 ). The focus is on teaching in a Grade 6 (12-year-old students) history class in a Swedish school located in an area with a significant percentage of migrant language learners. Teachers in such educational contexts are often asked to avoid lowering expectations and instead combine a high degree of support with a greater challenge (e.g. Cummins, 20 0 0 ; Gibbons, 2006 ; Mariani, 1997 , discussed in Nygård Larsson, 2018 ; Walldén, 2019 ). The key concern to be addressed in this study is how to promote students’ abilities to move between everyday use of language and the more technical and abstract language associated with the learning of specific subject content. While previous research has pointed to the importance of organizing writing and interaction in structured and conscious ways (cf. Hammond & Gib- bons, 2005 ; Martin, 2013 ; Rose & Martin, 2012 , see also coming section), I will take a different approach in this study by highlighting how the text material chosen by the teacher shaped the opportunities for students’ engagement in disciplinary literacy practices. In a study of literature education, Karvonen, Tainio & Routarinne (2018) argue that the properties of curriculum material

E-mail address: robert.wallden@mau.se

are often analyzed without consideration of how they are medi- ated and transformed in teaching practice. While I share this perspective, I would also argue that the opposite is true: ways of negotiating disciplinary knowledge through speaking and writing can be foregrounded without suﬃcient attention to properties of the material used in instruction. Therefore, the aim of this article is to explore disciplinary literacy practices in Grade 6 history teaching in light of a teacher’s text choice. I aim to address the following questions in particular:

• What characterizes the texts the teacher has chosen and rejected in the teaching of two historical events?

• How can the students’ writing and peer interaction, viewed in terms of bridging everyday and disciplinary discourse, be understood in relation to the texts used in instruction?

Drawing on students’ texts, spoken interactions and text material, including the texts the teacher actively rejected, I will be able to contribute to a discussion around how discursive practices can be shaped by the texts they are based on.

2. Engagingwithhistorythroughlanguage

Linguistic challenges and literacy expectations connected to learning and communicating knowledge in history have been re- searched extensively. Studies building on systemic-functional linguistics (SFL) and genre theory have described genres associated https://doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2020.100884

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with history. An important ﬁnding is called the learner’s pathway (e.g. Coﬃn, 1997 ; Martin & Rose, 2008 ; Christie & Derewianka, 2010 ), which outlines how students, in reading about history in textbooks and expressing their own knowledge in writing, typically need to progress from simple, chronologically organized accounts to recounts and explanations, followed by discussions and exposi- tions, in which cause and effect interplay with the rhetorical struc- turing of arguments and perspectives. SFL analysis has also shown that disciplines belonging to the humanities, such as history, rely on linguistic resources of abstraction, such as expanded noun groups, nominalization and adjectivization (e.g. Martin, 1990/1993 ; Unsworth, 1999 ). Studies of texts used in the teaching of history have also pointed to how logical connections are often implicit or realized within the clause (e.g. Achugar & Schleppegrell, 2005 ; Fitzgerald, 2019 ; Martin, 2002 ).

There are also studies which more generally point out charac- teristics of texts used in history teaching. Building on analyses of a large corpus of student texts, Christie and Derewianka (2010) note that school history is segmented in nature, building on various discourses about what constitutes history. Examples given include history as undisputed grand narratives centring on key historical ﬁgures, history as minority struggles, history as contested or en- tangled, and history as the interrogation of sources of evidence. Fitzgerald (2019) discusses how the use of traditional textbooks in the teaching of history in the United States has declined in favour of authentic historical sources. Similarly, in an analysis of the current Swedish national course syllabus for History, Samuelsson & Wendell (2016) point out that expectations have shifted from the reproduction of facts to students’ display of disciplinary thinking, which involves not only knowledge of important historical events but also the critical understanding of how this knowledge is re- produced, necessitating a critical evaluation of sources. However, Stolare (2014) study based on interviews with Swedish primary school history teachers indicates that teachers base their teaching on traditional textbooks reproducing a national taken-for-granted canon pertaining to the nation’s birth and development.

Regarding literacy expectations in school history, research on syllabuses and national tests in Sweden highlights steep but largely implicit expectations on the students’ use of language in produc- ing arguments and explanations ( Staf & Nord, 2018 ; Staf, 2019 ). The current syllabuses pertaining to social studies as well as science are widely perceived as accentuating how students are re- quired to deal with disciplinary content through metalinguistic activities such as “reasoning”, “discussing”, “explaining” and “giving proposals” (see Walldén, 2019 ; Molin & Grubbström, 2013 ). Inter- national research into teacher education has foregrounded preparing teacher candidates to create opportunities for the critical ex- amination of sources in history teaching, which would involve en- gaging students in historical discussions and reasoning ( Howard & Guidry, 2017 ; Meloche et al., 2020 ; Monte-Sano, De La Paz & Fel- ton, 2014 ).

Parts of the analysis in the present article highlight how students respond to disciplinary texts in writing and peer interaction. In a quantitative study, Monte-Sano & De La Paz (2012) show that writing can play a crucial role in developing disciplinary literacy in history. However, in an ethnography-inspired study of social studies in a Grade 7 class in Norway, Ohrem Bakke (2019) found that individual work and whole-class interaction are the dominant methods used, while opportunities for writing, other than during tests at the end of a teaching cycle, are rare. A Swedish study of writing practices in social studies in Grade 7 ( Lindh, 2019 ) shows similar ﬁndings. In this study, writing was not actively encouraged by the teacher and mainly used by the students to reproduce facts from the teaching material in preparation for written tests or as a basis for oral presentations. Olvegård (2014) , focusing on history teaching in upper secondary school, ﬁnds a lack of structured work

with disciplinary texts, resulting in second language learners’ un- successfully employing common sense understandings.

Regarding the opportunities offered in classroom interaction to move between everyday and disciplinary ways of using language, studies have shown that teachers tend to unpack abstract wordings in more concrete terms, while they seldom show learners how everyday wordings can be repackaged into disciplinary language ( Maton, 2013 ; Macnaught, Maton, Martin & Matruglio, 2013 ). Sim- ilar ﬁndings are evident in studies focusing on other school subjects ( Hipkiss, 2014 ; Walldén, 2019 ). A study highlighting teaching in Grade 11 ( Oteíza, Henriquez & Canelo, 2018 ) links analysis of discursive shifts with the use of interpersonal resources of expan- sion and retraction.

Regarding peer interaction, studies show that interacting in small groups can be beneficial for linguistically diverse students’ abilities to negotiate disciplinary texts ( Walldén 2020 ; Gonzáles- Howard & McNeill, 2016 ). While largely supporting these findings, a study of peer interaction in science teaching ( Nygård Larsson & Jakobsson, 2017 ; Nygård Larsson & Jakobsson, 2019 ) shows that some students who lack adequate support can be restricted to using everyday language instead of disciplinary language. This points to the importance of the teachers’ language awareness. In relation to scaffolding, emphasizing peer interaction as a way to process disciplinary texts can be seen as a way to hand over more respon- sibility to the students (cf. Smit, van Eerde & Bakker, 2013 ), something which can be counterproductive if students have received insufficient scaffolding beforehand ( Smit, Gijsel, Hotze & Bakker, 2018 ). Also, peer interaction can be expected to rely more on the resources of everyday language than text material and teacher talk (discussed in Veel, 1999) .

To summarize, previous research has highlighted linguistic challenges in history textbooks and drawn attention to the need for organizing interaction and writing in ways that support students’ negotiation of disciplinary knowledge. While I also perceive this as valuable, a previous study of the teaching of geography in Grade 6 ( Walldén, 2019 ) showed that high pedagogical ambitions can fall short if the texts chosen as the basis for the writing and interaction are not adequate in relation to the targeted disciplinary register. Drawing on the material generated in the present study, I explore the matter of text choice in primary school history teaching in a way in which, to my knowledge, has not been done in previous research.

3. Theoreticalframing

In the analysis, I use theories which illuminate the linguistic negotiation associated with disciplinary teaching and learning. An important inspiration is Macken-Horarik’s (1996) framework for critical literacy, describing how the achievement of disciplinary literacies involves traversing everyday, specialized, and reﬂexive knowledge domains. In the everyday domain, language functions as a part of reality and is used in face-to-face interaction and commentary on observable events. In contrast, in the

specialized domain, language is used for construing reality from the perspective of the relevant discipline. This domain involves systemically organized disciplinary knowledge which transcends the common-sense understandings reached in the everyday domain; therefore, knowledge attributed to this domain must be learnt through reading and writing. While the disciplinary knowledge domains are associated with reproductive literacy, the reﬂex-ive knowledge domain is connected to the critical understanding of how knowledge is construed from different perspectives ( Macken- Horarik, 1996 ; Macken-Horarik, 1998 ). Thus, language is used for challenging reality. While presenting arguments and critically in- terrogating sources is often seen as part-and-parcel of learning history (e.g. Fitzgerald, 2019 ; Meloche et al., 2020 ; Shanahan & Shana-

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han, 2008 ; Macken-Horarik, 1996 ; Macken-Horarik, 1998 ) has ar- gued that the path to critical literacy must build on reproductive literacy. Inspired by Macken-Horarik’s framework, I will explore the opportunities for students to enter specialized and reﬂexive knowledge domains, involving using resources of language to con- strue and challenge reality from the perspective of history, with a particular focus on the text choices of the participant teacher and the writing and peer interaction that builds on these texts.

In addition, the study takes inspiration from SFL-based research highlighting how learning subject content involves being able to move within and between the simple and concrete language of everyday speech and the abstract and technical language character- izing the relevant discipline (e.g. Macnaught, Maton, Martin & Ma- truglio, 2013 ; Martin, 2013 ; Nygård Larsson, 2018 ; Walldén, 2019 ). As history is characterized by abstract rather than technical language (cf. Martin, 1990/1993 ); Christie & Derewianka, 2010), I will contrast everyday wordings in the material with abstract wordings relevant to the content area. As previously stated, an important resource for abstract, disciplinary language is the process of nominalization and adjectivization. A technical term for this shift between grammatical categories, for example when a process (verb) is rep- resented as a thing (noun) or a quality (adjective), is grammatical metaphor (cf. Halliday, 1989/1993 ; Martin, 1990/1993 ). In contrast, resources of everyday language can function as a way to bring history closer to the students, for example by construing concrete examples and reporting what people thought or felt (e.g. Oteíza, Hen- riquez & Canelo, 2018 ). However, texts and interactions relying exclusively on everyday resources of language will not support students in approaching disciplinary discourse.

4. Methodandmaterial

In this section, I will present the participants and empirical data collected. I will also describe the content area taught and introduce the text material. In the ﬁnal subsection, I will describe the analysis.

4.1. Participants,empiricaldata,andethicalconsiderations

This article reports on the findings of a classroom study of history teaching in Grade 6 (12-year-old students) spanning 12 weeks and 32 lessons. The study involved one teacher and her two groups of Grade 6 students (40 in total), with the total material consisting of 37.5 hours of observations documented by field notes, 35 hours of audio recordings, and 336 photographed samples of students’ writing. Also, photographs were taken of teaching material and whiteboard instructions for additional context. The specific material forming the basis of empirical examples in the present article was collected during activities spanning five lessons and eight hours of teaching. These lessons and activities were chosen because they relate to two significant events in Swedish history which, potentially, give a rich context for historical reasoning and inquiry (see Section 4.2 ).

The recorded interaction between six students and samples of their writing, consisting of notes and tests taken during the relevant lessons, will be analysed. As I followed the teaching for three months and had several informal talks with the teacher about in- structional choices, I gained valuable insight into her reasoning about text choice. Therefore, both the teaching material used and that which was rejected by the teacher are analyzed. The teaching material, comprising relevant parts of three textbooks and one online teaching resource, will be described below (see Section 4.3 ). During instances of peer interaction, I seated myself among groups of 3–5 students, taking the role of an observer. I selected groups which – according to my prior observations of their language use – included second language learners (see below). Sec-

ondly, I relied mostly on groups which were seated in corners to minimize interference on the recordings. The interaction in two such groups will be highlighted in this study, along with notes and minor tests written by the same students.

I established contact with the participating teacher through my professional network. The choice of the school was strategic (e.g. Thomas, 2011 ), as it had a profile of promoting interaction for interpreting disciplinary texts (“text talks”) according to principles recommended in material provided by the National Agency of Education (e.g. Molloy & Westlund, 2018 ). The school is situ- ated in an area described as socially disadvantaged, and several of the teachers I talked with expressed as a priority that the teaching should give students opportunities to develop their linguistic skills. According to the participant teacher, a third of the students in Grade 6 were registered as studying Swedish as a second language, meaning that they were officially recognized as second language learners. At the time of the study, the teacher held a ca- reer position as a particularly skilled teacher (förstelärare, i.e.“First Teacher”). Having a degree in teaching Swedish and social studies, she had worked at the same school throughout her seven years of teaching experience. This term marked the first time she taught history.

From an ethical standpoint, informed written consent was collected from all participants and the caregivers of the students (cf. Swedish Research Council, 2017 ). I also practiced relational ethics (e.g. Tracy, 2010 ) by not recording students and document- ing their writing when they appeared uncomfortable with sharing their work. In other words, I sought their continued consent to par- ticipate in the study.

4.2. ThecontentareaabouttheVasaEra

In her teaching of History in Grade 6, the teacher chose to focus on Vasatiden, the Vasa era, ranging from 1523 to 1621. Mark- ing a signiﬁcant period in Swedish history, Sweden left the Kalmar Union, comprising the Scandinavian countries (i.e. Sweden, Nor- way and Denmark), defeated the aspiring Union King Christian II of Denmark and broke with the Papacy. As a result, political power was centralized in a way which formed the basis of the modern Swedish state. The instruction focused on the ﬁrst part of this era, particularly on Gustav I of Sweden, popularly known in Sweden as Gustav Vasa, who, widely perceived as a founding father of Sweden ( landsfader), had a crucial role in these changes (e.g. Larsson, 2002 ; Larsson, 2018 ). The day of his coronation, 6 June, is the National Day of Sweden.

Every week, the students were assigned a short text about the Vasa era (see coming section) which formed the basis of notetaking preceded by text talks with questions formulated by the teacher. The activities were typically followed-up by a minor weekly test where the students responded to similar questions in writing. Before both the text talks and the notetaking, students were asked to read the texts individually. The teacher also regularly explained abstract, subject-speciﬁc terms relating to the texts in question and asked the students to express their thoughts about pictures connected to the relevant historical events and ﬁgures. As the words and pictures were not discussed in terms of how they appear in the texts, these activities have not been considered in the present analysis.

4.3. Descriptionofthetextmaterialusedandrejectedbytheteacher

In this section, I brieﬂy highlight the text material used by the teacher throughout the relevant content area. It was compiled by the teacher from different textbooks and online teaching resources in two different booklets given to the students. It should be mentioned that due to the decentralized and goal-oriented nature of

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the Swedish school system (e.g. Wikström, 2007 ), teachers in Swe- den are generally free to choose the material used in instruction. Neither the national course syllabuses – outlining the general pur- pose, content, goals and grading criteria for school subjects – nor supporting material for improving teaching, such as the material inspiring the participant teacher (see below), give any indication as to which text material should be used, or the desirable qualities of this material.

The teacher compiled texts from the following sources:

• Clio: Text from an online-based teaching resource called Clio

( Moberg, 2019 ) was used during Weeks 1–3. The texts copied by the teacher appear in a module entitled ‘Time Travel to the Middle Ages’ ( Tidsresantillmedeltiden) marked for teaching history in Grade 4. The relevant text comprises three pages in the ﬁrst booklet given to the students and will be referred to as the

Clio material. Notably, the text was lightly edited by the teacher, something which will be addressed in the analysis.

• Puls: A copied spread from a printed textbook called Puls His-toria ( Körner, 1999 ), intended for teaching in Grades 4–6, was used during Weeks 4 and 5. In the analysis, I will refer to four additional pages from the book, which were included in the ﬁrst booklet but later dismissed when the teacher found them too confusing for the students. I also refer to relevant parts of the book pertaining to the Stockholm Bloodbath and the Ref- ormation not included in the booklet, since these could potentially have been used in instruction. The material will be referred to as the Puls material.

• Så var det förr – vasatiden: After abandoning the Puls mate- rial and the ﬁrst booklet, the remaining four weeks (Weeks 6– 9) were dedicated to excerpts from a book entitled Så vardet förr – vasatiden (‘Times past – the Vasa era’) ( Grauers, 20 0 0 ). Designed as a storybook rather than a textbook, the original is described by the publisher as intended for primary school students’ independent reading and enjoyment. Among other things, the excerpt focuses on the signiﬁcance of the Reforma- tion. This will be referred to as the Vasatiden material. Commenting sparingly on the text material in plenary classroom talk, the teacher informed me that she wanted the students to engage with it more independently through notetaking and text talks (see previous section). The students actively worked with the texts for nine weeks, interrupted by two weeks of Christmas vaca- tion. It can generally be stated that the amount of text to be read was moderate: 12 pages over 9 weeks. Linguistic properties of the texts used in instruction will be discussed as they become relevant in the analysis.

4.3.1. Thetextnotchosen

The teacher initially intended to use a textbook called Upp-täck Historia (‘Discover History’, from now on referred to as Upp-täck) ( Ljunggren & Frey-Skött, 2015 ). However, this idea was aban- doned as she found the language too diﬃcult. When explaining her choice, she pointed to abstract wordings in the book which are linguistically complex and integrate a lot of information. One such example referred to by the teacher was “The Council unseated Trolle as archbishop, imprisoned him and ﬁnally tore down his stronghold, Stäket” (p. 114), relating to one of the historical events, the Stockholm Bloodbath, highlighted in this study.

As most of the classroom work studied draws upon Clio and

Vasatiden,Upptäck and rejected parts of Puls will ﬁgure in the analysis as points of comparison, thereby enabling a richer discussion of the signiﬁcance of teachers’ text choice in the teaching of history.

4.4. Analysis

Relevant parts of the text material were read carefully, compared, and then analysed with respect to the knowledge content conveyed and the resources of language used in the descriptions of the two historical events: the Stockholm Bloodbath and the Reformation. The ﬁndings were considered in relation to the students’ writing and transcripts of peer interaction. In the analysis of the texts chosen by the teacher, and the writing and interaction based on these same texts, I have employed SFL-based classroom discourse analysis focusing on linguistic features relating to everyday and disciplinary discourse (cf. Macken-Horarik, 1996 ; Martin, 1990/1993 , Martin, 2013 ; Walldén, 2019 ).

While previous research has often highlighted how the teacher shapes the interaction, for example in introducing disciplinary concepts, asking certain kinds of questions, or rewording student responses (e.g. Macnaught, Maton, Martin & Matruglio, 2013 ; Nygård Larsson, 2018 ), the analysis in the present study will take as its point of departure the texts chosen by the teacher. These texts will be compared to texts rejected by the teacher and put in relation to how the students speak and write about the content. Excerpts from the teaching material and transcripts have been translated from Swedish to English by the author in a way that preserves relevant linguistic categories and aims to reﬂect how the language was used by the students (see Appendix ). In the transcripts, “/…/” denotes omitted discourse, while “—” indicates interrupted turns.

5. Results

The coming sections will explore text material, classroom interaction and student writing related to the teaching of two significant events in the Vasa era – the Stockholm Bloodbath and the Reformation.

5.1. TheStockholmBloodbath

Drawing on the Clio material, the second week of instruction spotlighted an infamous historical event following the coronation of Christian II in Sweden – the Stockholm Bloodbath.

5.1.1. ThetextmaterialabouttheStockholmBloodbath

Under the heading ‘A feast lasting three days’, the Clio material describes how the feast celebrating the coronation of Christian II “met a gloomy end” when the doors were closed and a “man called Gustav Trolle stepped forward”. Under the next heading, ‘Punish- ing the enemies’, the teacher had made noteworthy changes to the original text. The relevant excerpt from the Clio material is shown below (Excerpt 1). The abstract concept of heresy, mentioned in the ﬁnal part of the excerpt, was explained both in the text and by the teacher before being read by the students. Wordings deleted by the teacher are indicated in italics.

Excerpt1:ModiﬁedtextfromClioabouttheStockholmBloodbath.

Gustav Trolle was the Archbishop and had for a long time been an enemy of Sten Sture’s. He had never forgotten that Sten Sture had unseated himand thrown him in prison. Gustav Trolle was good friends with the Danish king, Christian II, and supported theuniontoo. Now he had the chance to get his revenge. Gustav Trolle accused Sten Sture’s followers of heresy. ( Clio.se) The words deleted by the teacher (“unseated him”, “supported the union too”) provide important context for the dramatic events. As shown in Section 4.3.1 , the Upptäck material gives even more context by describing concrete reasons for his animosity: “The Council unseated Trolle as archbishop, imprisoned him and ﬁnally tore down his stronghold, Stäket” (p. 114). This is also made clear

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in Pulse: “The unseated archbishop Gustav Trolle was furiously angry with the lords of the Sture Party and demanded recompense for his ruined stronghold” (p. 99). These comparatively complex descriptions of historical events employ subject-related words (“stronghold”) and resources of abstraction such as grammatical metaphors (“recompense”) and words related to the political context of the events (“lords of Sten Sture’s party”), along with the abstract word “unseated” which also ﬁgured in the Clio material but was deleted by the teacher. For further comparison, an excerpt from Upptäck about the Stockholm Bloodbath is shown below (Ex- cerpt 2).

Excerpt2:TextfromUpptäckabouttheStockholmBloodbath.

Christian II explained that his promises of forgiveness only con- cerned what the accused had done against him as king, not what they had done against the archbishop when they unseated him. Now Christian II, with the aid of Gustav Trolle, could con- demn their joint enemies to death. ( Upptäck, p. 116)

It is evident that the excerpt from Upptäck relies much more on linguistic resources of abstraction: people are abstractedly referred to as “the archbishop” and “the accused” instead of by their names (cf. Martin & Rose, 2007 , pp. 179–181), and there are several grammatical metaphors which occur in expanded noun groups (marked by italics): “promises of forgiveness”, “the accused”, “Chris- tian II, with the aid of Gustav Trolle”, “joint enemies”. Meanings are integrated more tightly than in the corresponding excerpt from

Clio, which is closer to the concrete wordings of everyday speech: “an enemy of Sten Sture’s”, “thrown him in prison”, “good friends”. In addition, the Clio text gives no reason for the friendship between the archbishop and Christian II (the king being construed as peripheral), nor does it connect to the larger political issues at stake. The abstract wordings from the original texts omitted by the teacher are exactly those which would open up for a more abstract understanding: “unseated …”, “supported the union”.

5.1.2. Students’makingmeaningoftheStockholmBloodbath

As stated in Section 4.2 , the students were engaged in weekly instances of peer interaction in which they discussed questions formulated by the teacher based on the text material. In the exchange excerpted below (Excerpt 3), four boys discussed a question given by the teacher pointing to wordings in the Clio material: “What do you think is meant by the party met a gloomy end?”

Excerpt3:PeerinteractionabouttheStockholmBloodbath

Anders, first attributing the wording “gloomy end” to the guests being sad because the party ended (line 2), may have been con- fused by the leap between sections in the booklet (see Section 5.1.1 ). Wordings used in this initial contribution build exclusively on resources of everyday language, reflecting a common-sense understanding: “everyone gets sad”, “they had fun”. As the exchange progressed, the students successfully reconstructed what the text mentioned about the archbishop’s move to take vengeance (3–8). As can be expected, the students did not make connections to the political reasons for the conflict. Anders casually refers to the archbishop as “the Trolle thing” (3) and the reason for his animosity against the men of Sten Sture’s party is reconstructed in similar everyday wordings as those used in the text: “he just wanted revenge” (11), “he gets angry” (13).

The notes and minor tests written by the students echoed this same perspective. On the written test, Fadi wrote “because Gus- tav Trolle would kill Sten Sture’s men” when answering the same question as the one posed above in the text talk. Anders wrote a longer answer and included more information from the text, such as “Because Gustav Trolle was good friends with the new king, the king (Christian II) believed Gustav Trolle and Sten Sture’s men were condemned for heresy”. Anders’s suggestion that Christian II “believed” the archbishop because “they were good friends” conveys an incorrect idea about the historical event. However, this infer- ence is not surprising in relation to the shortened version of the

Clio material the students were presented with. Overall, the interaction and written samples reflect a common-sense understanding of the content taught and little engagement with a disciplinary, let alone reflexive, knowledge domain. If Anders and Fadi had been presented with a more complex text, like the one in Upptäck, their contributions would likely have reflected an increased cognitive and linguistic challenge. The text material chosen and reworded by the teacher seemed to restrict the students’ possibilities to approach the larger significance of events.

5.2. TheReformation

Next, I will show texts, interaction and student writing pertaining to Gustav Vasa’s role in the Reformation of Sweden. The text material selected by the teacher from the Vasatiden material will be compared with relevant parts of Upptäck and Puls, and lastly, put in relation to the students’ writing and group discussions.

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5.2.1. ThetextmaterialabouttheReformation

As described in the Vasatiden material, Gustav Vasa’s rationale for advancing the Reformation is to gain access to the riches of the Church to pay his debt acquired to fund his war effort s. An excerpt is shown below (Excerpt 4).

Excerpt4:TextabouttheReformationfromVasatiden

[Gustav Vasa] had to pay money to Lübeck because they had helped in defeating the Danish. /…/ In the churches, there was lots of valuable silver. Moreover, the Church did not need to pay tax. Gustav Vasa wanted to take money from the Church and pay to Lübeck. /…/ Gustav Vasa had heard about a new teaching called Protestantism. The Protestants did not want the Pope as a leader. Instead, the king of the country would rule over the Church and the bishops. Gustav Vasa thought that sounded good, and because of that he wanted Sweden to become Protes- tant. (Vasatiden, pp. 10–11)

The text gives concrete reasons for Gustav Vasa advancing the Reformation relating to gaining access to the riches of the Church. For the most part, the language is simple, drawing upon resources of everyday language: “had heard about”, “wanted to take money”, “did not want the Pope as a leader”, “thought that sounded good”. These monetary reasons are also foregrounded in the rejected

Upptäck and Puls material, but partially in more abstract terms, such as “Everyone paid a special tax to the Church called tithe” ( Upptäck, p. 126) and “Now, the king forced the bishops and the monasteries to give up all excess riches” ( Puls, p. 111). Deﬁnitions and subject-related terms such as tithe are indicative of a more abstract, disciplinary register, while “excess riches”, transforming the quality rich to a thing, relies on grammatical metaphor to provide a relatively abstract condensation of events. Most importantly, these later textbooks also highlight how Gustav Vasa’s rule over the Church played an important part in his general aim of cen- tralizing power. Upptäck explicitly states that “The Church became a part of the King’s centralized organization” (p. 129), while Puls

puts it in slightly less abstract terms: “The King had ﬁgured out that it would be easier to rule the people if he gained power over the Church. Therefore, he decided that the Church would be Swedish, a state church” (p. 111). The use of subject-related wordings highlighting the political aspects of the Reformation, such as “centralized organization” and “state church”, introduce more abstract and content-relevant perspectives on how the rule of Gustav Vasa transformed Sweden.

Under a separate heading in the Vasatiden material, the Refor- mation is described more generally. A relevant excerpt is shown below (Excerpt 5).

[Martin Luther] thought many things in the Catholic church were wrong. He did not think that mass should be in Latin, which the people did not understand. But the most important thing was that people should show regret if they did anything stupid. In the Catholic church, it had been possible to pay money to the Church for God to forgive one’s sins. ( Vasatiden, p. 11)

Largely relying on resources of everyday language (“thought many things … were wrong”, “he did not think”, “people did not understand”, “did anything stupid”), the excerpt is similar to the previous one shown from the same text material. The concept of

indulgence is explained in simple words, but without mentioning the term indulgence itself. By contrast, the rejected Upptäck textbook describes indulgence as “like a receipt of a person showing regret and wanting to live a better life” (p. 126), thus packing up the abstract term in resources of everyday language, while also noting that indulgence is one of the ways in which the Church got rich. In addition, Upptäck states that, according to Protestantism,

“the Church should only preach the word of God according to the letter of the Bible. Indulgences, Saints and monasteries were contrived by men and should not exist” (p. 127). As indicated previously, this textbook relies more on subject-related and abstract wordings (“indulgences”, “Saints”, “letter of the ´Bible”). The

Puls textbook comments less extensively on the Reformation but describes Luther’s stance in more abstract terms than Vasatiden: “Luther wanted Christianity to be puriﬁed and renewed. This renewal of the teachings of the Church is called the Reformation” (p. 129). Both “puriﬁed”, “renewed” and “renewal” are grammatical metaphors –transforming processes ( purify, renew) into qualities and things – which relate to the content taught and which are rarely encountered in everyday speech. The short quotation from

Puls also shows how relational processes are used to put abstract concepts in relation to each other in disciplinary discourse (e.g. Halliday, 1989/1993 ). The increased use of abstract and subject- related language in these books serves to make the transformation of Christianity itself the subject of the discourse rather than more the concrete aspects of Catholicism alluded to in Vasatiden. In describing the consequences of the Reformation, the Vasatiden material instead mentions how people missed the “nice wall paintings”, that “the silver treasures sent to the King to be melted down” and other observable changes, such as the appearance of church benches (p. 12).

5.2.2. Students’makingmeaningoftheReformation

As a substitute teacher was responsible for the lessons in which the texts were read, and had progressed further into the material than planned, the regular teacher organized the interaction and writing a bit differently. Wanting to check if the students really understood the texts, she organized them in groups, gave them a large sheet of paper, and ﬁrst asked them to individually write down what they remembered about the Reformation on a quadrant of the paper. This writing preceded peer interaction, in which students were expected to discuss and agree upon what happened. I observed a group consisting of Anders, Ala and Vilda. Anders wrote the following on his quadrant (Excerpt 6):

Excerpt6:FromAnders’writtennoteabouttheReformation

Gustav Vasa gets to hear about a new teaching called Protes- tantism. He thinks it sounds good because he needs money because of his debt to the Germans. And in Protestantism, the King is the one in charge of the Church, not the Pope in Italy. In the Protestant Church, the service is much longer, so they put benches in the church so one could stand to be there all the time.

The note seemed to build closely on the relevant sections in the Vasatiden material. In the note, Gustav Vasa’s role in the Ref- ormation was attributed to his debt to “the Germans”. Also, An- ders chose to mention the increased length of services and added benches, reﬂecting the concrete consequences foregrounded by the same material. Resources of everyday language similar to those in the text are used: “gets to hear about”, “thinks it sounds good”. Another student from the same group, Ala, chose to focus on Mar- tin Luther (Excerpt 7).

Excerpt7:FromAla’swrittennoteabouttheReformation

When GV, king. Sweden ₌poor needed money /…/ Priest Mar- tin Luther thought Catholic Church was wrong. Service in Latin (wrong), pay to the church if you had done wrong [arrow pointing to “(wrong)”] better believe in God.

Ala warned me that she only wrote to support her own mem- ory and that I would not be able to understand her notes. How- ever, it seems clear that she made the connection to the need for more money and reconstructed what was said about Luther’s thoughts about Catholicism in similar simple wordings to those in

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the Vasatiden material. The third student of the group, Vilda, integrated the information about Luther with the opportunity perceived by Gustav Vasa. A part of her text is shown below (Excerpt 8).

Excerpt8:FromVilda’snoteabouttheReformation

Gustav Vasa thought it sounded good because he could get power over the Church instead of the Pope and could take all the valuable treasures. Then, he could, among other things, pay /…/ Lübeck

As in the Vasatiden material, the debt to Lübeck is foregrounded rather than the Reformation as part of a larger ambition to central- ize power. Similar to the other students, Vilda’s use of everyday resources of language reﬂects the text material read: “thought it sounded good”, “could take all the valuable treasures”.

While the students noted down what they remembered on the sheet of paper, the teacher wrote the following questions on the whiteboard: “Why?”, “What did Gustav Vasa do?”, “What is Protes- tantism?”, and “How did it go?” Supported by their separate accounts of the Reformation, the students were asked to answer these questions in peer interaction. An excerpt of the transcribed interaction is shown below (Excerpt 9).

Excerpt9:PeerinteractionabouttheReformation

It is apparent that the wordings of the texts – and of the students’ notes – were reconstructed in the group interaction. The students jointly pointed out Gustav Vasa’s need for money to pay Lübeck and the observable changes in the churches after the Reformation, using resources of everyday language: “Gustav Vasa needed money” (line 1), “he thought we should have it in Swe- den” (5), “he thought it was good” (9), “they would have benches”

(16), “took all the treasures” (20). Based on the questions posed by the teacher, the students employed historical reasoning by view- ing events in terms of cause and effect. However, once again, their opportunities to do so in a way reﬂecting a deeper disciplinary understanding, rather than common-sense perspectives, appeared restricted by the text material forming the basis of the disciplinary literacy practices.

6. Discussionandconclusions

The results show that the teaching mainly targeted students’ advancement of reproductive literacy regarding historical events centred on key historical ﬁgures (cf. Macken-Horarik, 1996 ; Macken-Horarik, 1998 ; Christie & Derewianka, 2010 ; Stolare, 2014 ). While it is laudable that the teacher, unlike in the ﬁndings of previous Scandinavian studies of social studies teaching ( Lindh, 2019 ; Olvegård, 2014 ; Ohrem Bakke, 2019 ), regularly created opportunities for the students to negotiate what they had read through text talks and notetaking, the students were still positioned to reproduce facts found in the texts rather than to critically interrogate how historical knowledge was construed in the material. However, accepting that reproductive literacy must be targeted before critical literacy (cf. Macken-Horarik, 1996 ; Macken-Horarik, 1998 ), it

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is of central importance to more closely consider students’ opportunities to engage with subject-related discourse. While previous research has stressed the teachers’ role in shaping the interaction in ways which promote students’ use of abstract, disciplinary language (e.g. Maton, 2013 ; Nygård Larsson & Jakobsson, 2019 ), the central ﬁnding of the present study is that teachers’ text choices can be a limiting factor. The texts chosen by the teacher, relying much more on resources of everyday language than the rejected texts, did not appear to challenge the students to use language in ways appropriate to the register of school history and seemed to restrict their opportunities to approach more abstract perspectives in the content area.

The results suggest that text choice should be a critical com- ponent of teachers’ awareness of disciplinary language and ambitions to promote students’ engagement with disciplinary content through active language use. I also believe that it may be neces- sary to research the discourses around selecting and actively me- diating teaching material in teacher training and professional development, particularly in countries like Sweden where the teacher has a large freedom to choose curriculum material. In particular, it may be counterproductive to emphasize ways of organizing speaking and writing based on disciplinary content if there is not also a similar emphasis on selecting texts conducive to exploration of specialized and reflexive knowledge domains. Such an emphasis is lacking in the material from the Swedish National Agency of Education (e.g. Molloy & Westlund, 2018 ). As also shown in my previous study ( Walldén, 2019 ), texts that are not appropriate for the grade level and the targeted disciplinary register may cause misalignments between scaffolding strategies and content learning goals. In this case, the participant teacher’s emphasis on the individual notetaking of a peer interaction likely had an impact on the choice of these texts: Vasatiden, intended for independent reading, and Clio, targeting Grade 4 and further simplified by the teacher. A more challenging disciplinary discourse would likely have re- quired further preparation in a whole class setting, with the handing over to more independent work saved for a later stage (cf. Smit, van Eerde & Bakker, 2013 ). Since students’ peer interaction is less technical and abstract than disciplinary texts and teacher talk, it is important that the students receive sufficient disciplinary textual input on which to base group discussions on.

An overall concern is that teachers with high ambitions to support their students may still align with deﬁcit discourses which, through a lowering of expectations, may reproduce unequal opportunities for school achievement. As previous research shows, there is a great potential for unpacking, repacking and critically exam- ining disciplinary meanings in the dynamics of spoken and written classroom discourse. However, if the texts chosen by teachers are inadequate for the grade and content taught, this is unlikely to occur. In teaching, comparing texts from different teaching material and discussing the knowledge they convey through resources of language can be a way to promote the crucial dialogue between everyday, specialized and reﬂexive knowledge domains. Exploring such possibilities in teaching could be a fruitful direction for further research.

DeclarationofCompetingInterest None.

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my gratitude to Matthew White for aid in copy-editing the manuscript and translating certain terms and concepts from Swedish to English. I would also like to thank the anonymous reviewers of this article for comments which con- tributed to its improvement.

Appendix. Excerptsinoriginallanguage(Swedish)

Excerpt1:ModiﬁedtextfromClioabouttheStockholmBloodbath.

Gustav Trolle var ärkebiskop och hade sedan länge varit ﬁende med Sten Sture. Han hade inte glömt att Sten Sture hadeavsatt honomoch kastat honom i fängelse. Gustav Trolle var god vän med den danska kungen Kristian II och stödde också unionen. Nu ﬁck han sin chans att hämnas. Gustav Trolle anklagar Sten Stures män för kätteri. Det betydde att han tyckte att de hade fel uppfattning om kristendomen. ( Moberg, 2019 )

Excerpt2:TextfromUpptäckabouttheStockholmBloodbath.

Ärkebiskopen anklagade de samlade för kätteri. Det betyder att de hade brutit mot kyrkans lagar. Kristian II förklarade att hans löften om förlåtelse bara gällde vad de anklagade hade gjort mot honom som kung, inte vad de hade gjort mot ärkebiskopen när de avsatte honom. Nu kunde Kristian II, med hjälp av Sten Sture, döma deras gemensamma ﬁender till döden. ( Ljunggren & Frey-Skött, 2015 , p. 116)

Excerpt3:PeerinteractionabouttheStockholmBloodbath

Zoran: Vad menas att med att festen får ett tråkigt slut tror du? /.../

Anders: Jag tror dom menar att alla blir ledsna för att den var slut för att dom hade roligt. Eller det var för att han där Trolle- grejen kom fram och ﬁck dom att bli dödade när det var slut. Fadi: Jag tror att dom menar typ samma sak som Anders att, jo, när Gustav Trolle kom så blev alla rädda för han skulle döda alla. /…/

Zoran: Jag tror att Gustav Trolle kom och så förstod dom vad skulle hända. /.../ Jag tror att Trolle ville döda dom bara för att hämnas på Sten Sture.

Anders: Ja jag tror också—

Fadi: Det är för att han gick in i fängelset. Anders: Ja jag tror också.

Leo: Jag tror också.

Anders: Jag tror också att han bara ville hämnas. Att han bara hitta på det för att han visste att dom skulle bli dödade om han sa det.

Fadi: Jag tror han gör det för att han Sten Sture satte in honom i fängelset. Då blir han arg.

Gustav Vasa /…/ skulle betala pengar till Lübeck för att de hjälpt honom att segra över danskarna. /…/ I kyrkorna fanns mycket värdefullt silver. Dessutom behövde inte kyrkan betala någon skatt. Gustav Vasa ville ta pengar från kyrkan för att betala till Lübeck. /…/ Gustav Vasa hade hört talas om en ny lära som kallades protestantism. Protestanterna ville inte ha påven som ledare. I stället skulle kungen i landet bestämma över kyrkan och biskoparna. Det tyckte Gustav Vasa lät bra, och där- för ville han att Sverige skulle bli protestantiskt. ( Grauers, 20 0 0 , pp. 10–11)

Han tyckte att mycket i den katolska kyrkan var fel. Han tyckte inte att gudstjänsten skulle vara på latin som människorna inte förstod. Men viktigast var att människorna skulle ångra sig om de gjort något dumt. I den katolska kyrkan hade man kunnat betala pengar till kyrkan för att Gud skulle förlåta ens synder. ( Grauers, 20 0 0 , p. 11)

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Excerpt6:FromAnders’writtennoteabouttheReformation

Gustav Vasa får höra talas om en ny lära som är protestantism. Han tycker det låter bra eftersom han behöver pengar pga sin skuld till tyskarna och i protestantismen är det kungen som styr kyrkan och inte påven i Italien. I protestantiska kyrkan är det mycket längre gudstjänster så därför skaffade man bänkar i kyrkan så man skulle orka vara där hela tiden.

Excerpt7:FromAla’swrittennoteabouttheReformation

När GV, kung. Sverige =fattigt land behövde pengar /…/ Präst Martin Luther tyckte Katolska kyrkan var fel. Gudstjänsten på latin (fel). Betala till kyrkan om man har gjort fel [pil pekar mot ”(fel)”]. Hellre tro på Gud.

Excerpt8:FromVilda’snoteabouttheReformation

Gustav Vasa tyckte det lät bra eftersom han då ﬁck makten över kyrkan istället för påven och kunde ta alla värdefulla skatter. Så att han bland annat kunde betala tillbaka till Lübeck i Tyskland.

Excerpt9:PeerinteractionabouttheReformation

Vilda: För att Gustav Vasa behövde pengar. För han hade typ hyrt soldater och krigsskepp från Tyskland och sen efter kriget så /…/ många var fattiga i landet. /…/

Ala: Vad gjorde Gustav Vasa?

Vilda: Han tycket att vi skulle ha det i Sverige. Och så hade han en riksdag eller nånting.

Anders: Han hade hört om den läran, om protestantism, och då var det kungen som vad heter det? Hade hand om kyrkan. Och då kunde han få pengar av det. Och han behövde pengar för att betala till Tyskland. Så då tyckte han det var bra för att han behövde pengar.

Ala: Ja.

Vilda: Vad hade han gjort?

Ala: Att påven inte bestämmer över kyrkan. Anders: Utan kungen bestämmer.

Ala: Ja.

Anders: Det är längre gudstjänster. Så man skulle ha bänkar. Vilda: Och inte på latin.

Anders: Och man inte har målningar på väggen i kyrkan. /…/ Ala: Ja och Gustav Vasa bestämde över kyrkan.

Vilda: Och tog alla skatter. Anders: Har alla förstått? References

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&quot;It was that Trolle thing&quot; Negotiating history in Grade 6 : A matter of teachers&apos; text choice