Fire-LCA Model: Cable case study II – NHXMH and NHMH cable

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Fire-LCA Model: Cable case study II –

NHXMH and NHMH cable

SP Fire Technology SP REPORT 2005:45

SP

Swedish National

T

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Fire-LCA Model: Cable case study II –

NHXMH and NHMH cable

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Abstract

The Fire – LCA model has been applied to an NHMH and NHXMH cable to study the environmental impact based on the fire behaviour and material choice in cables. Large-scale cable experiments were conducted to provide fire emission data as input to the LCA model. Species measured include acute toxicants such as: CO, CO2, HCl, VOC (volatile

organic compounds), and chronic toxicants such as PAH (polycyclic aromatic compounds), and chlorinated dibenzodioxins and furans.

Two different End-of-Life scenarios were selected for detailed study. In addition were three different statistical fire models applied to the cable with the better fire performance i.e. the NHXMH cable. The statistical fire model chosen for the NHMH cable was identical to the model used in a previous study.

Detailed results are presented for the energy use and the emissions associated with a number of key species to the air, for all scenarios. The results are presented to best allow comparison between the various scenarios for the same product but do also allow comparison between the products within each scenario.

Key words: Flame retardant, fire, LCA, material recycling, landfill, energy recovery, cables

SP Sveriges Provnings- och SP Swedish National Testing and Forskningsinstitut Research Institute

SP Rapport 2005:45 SP Report 2005:45 ISBN 91-85303-77-1 ISSN 0284-5172 Borås 2005 Postal address: Box 857,

SE-501 15 BORÅS, Sweden

Telephone: +46 33 16 50 00

Telex: 36252 Testing S

Telefax: +46 33 13 55 02

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Preface

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List of abbreviations

amu Atomic mass units

FID Flame Ionisation Detector

Fire-LCA LCA model modified to include fires FTIR Fourier transform infrared spectrometry

GC Gas Chromatography

HC Hydrocarbons

HpCDD/F heptahalogenated dibenzodioxin/furan (halogen = chlorine) HPLC-UV High Pressure Liquid Chromatography with Ultra Violet detector

HRR heat release rate

HxCDD/F hexahalogenated dibenzodioxin/furan (halogen = chlorine)

IEC International Electrotechnical Commission

I-TEQ International toxicity equivalents

ISO International Standardisation Organisation

LCA Life-Cycle Assessment

LCI Life-Cycle Inventory

MS Mass spectrometer

NBS 75K National Bureau of Standards, database of mass specs NDIR Non-dispersive infra red (analyser)

NHMH Cable according to VDE 0250-215 NHXMH Cable according to VDE 0250-214

OCDD/F octahalogenated dibenzodioxin/furan (halogen = chlorine) PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

PnCDD/F pentahalogenated dibenzodioxin/furan (halogen = chlorine)

PVC Polyvinyl chlorine

SETAC Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry

TOC total organic carbon

TCDD 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, in text refers to TCDD-equivalents unless otherwise stated

TCDD/F tetra halogenated dibenzodioxin/furan (halogen = chlorine) US EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency

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1 Introduction

Fires have always been a part of our society both in term of controlled fires, or combus-tion, for heating purposes and uncontrolled accidental fires. Accidental fires cause a substantial amount of damage both economically and in terms of human lives. Society spends large amounts of money each year on fire prevention and the financial results of fires are well documented. The environmental impact of fires, however, has only recently come under scrutiny1_.

Environmental issues are a vital part of our society and the ability to perform accurate estimates and evaluations of environmental parameters is a vital tool in any work to improve the environment. Initially, environmental studies were mainly focussed on the most obvious emission sources, such as factory chimneys, exhaust gases from vehicles, effluents from factories etc. However, in the 1980’s it became apparent that a simple measurement of a specific emission did not provide a full picture of the environmental impact of a product or process. The emissions from a chimney, for example, only reflect one of several process steps in the production of a specific product. To fully describe the environmental impact of a product or activity, the entire process chain has to be described including raw material extraction, transport, energy and electric power production, pro-duction of the actual product, the waste handling of the product etc. There was, therefore, a clear need for a new methodology and an analytical tool able to encompass this new situation. The tool that was developed during this period (end of 1980’s and 1990’s) was: Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).

However, the Life Cycle Assessment methodology also needs continuous improvements to incorporate new aspects and processes. An LCA typically describes a process during normal operation, and abnormal conditions such as accidents are left out of the analysis, usually due to lack of a consistent methodology or relevant data. For example, LCA data for power production usually assumes normal conditions without any accidents.

Provisions for certain accidents in the analysis of the life-cycle could be included

provided these can be specified in sufficient detail and occurred with sufficient regularity to make their inclusion relevant.

In traditional LCA models a higher fire performance is only included as a change in energy and material consumption and no account is taken of the positive effect of higher fire performance in the form of fewer and smaller fires. This is despite the fact that emissions from fires contribute to the environmental impact from products and should be included in a more complete evaluation of the environmental impact of a product where the fire performance is an important parameter.

In response to this, a novel LCA model, the so called Fire-LCA model2,3_{, was developed.}

This has since been applied to a consumer electronic appliance (TV)4,5,6,7_and

furniture8, 9,10_{where the environmental effect of fires was incorporated into the overall}

treatment of the environmental impact of the product. A Fire-LCA model has also been developed for cables11,12_{. This model was applied to compare the environmental impact}

of a PVC cable (EKK-light) and a Casico cable.

The present study uses the Fire-LCA model to evaluate an NHXMH and NHMH cable. The results are also compared with the results for the EKK cable in the previous study. Aspects, such as end-of-life scenarios, fire statistics, and fire scenarios and large scale fire performance of cables are discussed together with the straw LCA model defined for cables.

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References

1 _{Persson, B., Simonson, M., ”Emissions from Fires to the Atmosphere”, Fire}

Tech. (1998)

2 _{Simonson, M., Boldizar, A., Tullin, C., Stripple, H. and Sundqvist, J.O.,}

"The Incorporation of Fire Considerations in the Life-Cycle Assessment of Polymeric Composite Materials: A Preparatory Study." SP Report 1998:25, 1998.

3 _{Simonson, M., Stripple, H., “The Incorporation of Fire Considerations in the}

Life-Cycle Assessment of Polymeric Composite Materials: A preparatory study” Interflam, 1999, pp 885-895.

4 _{Simonson, M., Blomqvist, P., Boldizar, A., Möller, K., Rosell, L., Tullin, C.,}

Stripple, H. and Sundqvist, J.O., "Fire-LCA Model: TV Case Study" SP Report 2000:13, 2000.

5 _{Simonson, M., Stripple, H., “LCA Study of TV Sets with V0 and HB}

Enclosure Material”, Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Electronics and the Environment, 2000.

6 _{Simonson, M., and Stripple, H., “LCA Study of Flame Retardants in TV}

Enclosures”, Flame Retardants 2000, 2000, pp 159-170.

7 _{Simonson, M., Tullin, C., and Stripple, H., “Fire-LCA study of TV sets with}

V0 and HB enclosure material”, Chemosphere, 46: 737-744 (2002).

8 _{Andersson, P., Simonson, M., Rosell, L., Blomqvist, P., and Stripple, H.,}

“Fire-LCA Model: Furniture Case Study”, SP report 2003:22, 2003.

9 _{Andersson, P., Simonson, M., Blomqvist, P., Stripple, H., “Fire-LCA Model:}

Furniture Case Study”, Flame Retardants 2004, 2004, pp 15-26.

10 _{Andersson, P., Blomqvist, P., Rosell, L., Simonson, M. And Stripple, H.,}

"The environmental effect of furniture" Interflam 2004, 2004, pp 1467-1478.

11 _{Simonson, M., Andersson, P., Rosell, L., Emanuelsson, V. and Stripple, H.,}

“Fire-LCA Model: Cables Case Study”, SP Report 2001:2 available at http://www.sp.se/fire/br_reports.HTM.

12 _{Simonson, M., Andersson, P., Emanuelsson, V., and Stripple, H., “A}

life-cycle assessment (LCA) model for cables based on the fire-LCA model”, Fire and Materials, 27:71-89 (2003).

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2 LCA Model

Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a versatile tool to investigate the environmental aspects of a product, a process or an activity by identifying and quantifying energy and material flows for the system. The use of a product or a process involves much more than just the production of the product or use of the process. Every single industrial activity is actually a complex network of activities that involves many different parts of the society.

Therefore, the need for a system perspective rather than a single object perspective has become vital in modern research. It is no longer enough to consider just a single step in the production. The entire system has to be considered. The Life-Cycle Assessment methodology has been developed in order to handle this system approach. A Life-Cycle Assessment covers the entire life-cycle from the “cradle to grave” including crude material extraction, manufacturing, transport and distribution, product use, service and maintenance, product recycling, material recycling and final waste handling such as incineration or landfill. With LCA methodology, it is possible to study complex systems where interactions between different parts of the system exit.

The prime objectives of an LCA are:

• to provide as complete a picture as possible of the interactions of an activity with the environment;

• to contribute to the understanding of the overall and interdependent nature of the environmental consequences of human activities; and,

• to provide decision-makers with information that defines the environmental effects of these activities and identifies opportunities for environmental improvements.

Applications for an LCA can be many and some are listed below, divided into internal and external use for an organisation:

Internal

Knowledge generation Strategic planning

Development of prognoses

Development of environmental strategies Environmental improvement of the system

Design, development and optimisation of products or processes Identifying critical processes for the system

Development of specifications, regulations or purchase routines Environmental audit

Waste management External

Environmental information Environmental labelling

Environmental audit of companies

An LCA usually evaluates the environmental situation based on ecological effects and resource use. In a few cases, the work environment has also been included. An ordinary LCA does not cover the economic or social effects. In an LCA, a model of the real system is designed. This model is of course a representation of the real system with various approximations and assumptions.

The life-cycle approach is in fact not new. It existed in the 1960’s although early models only considered energy flows. In the late 1980’s a more general environmental approach

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was formed. The methodology was further developed in the early 1990’s based on ideas from Europe and the USA. Basic ideas concerning the methodology were originally defined in the SETAC (Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry) document “Guidelines for Life-Cycle Assessment: A Code of Practice” from 19931_{. Since then,}

different documents have been published in different countries but the basic theories are relatively similar. In the Nordic countries for example the "Nordic Guidelines on Life-Cycle Assessment" (1995) has been published as a guideline, not a standard2_.

The International Organization has prepared international standards for LCA

methodology for Standardization (ISO). The following standards are available today.

• Principles and framework (ISO 14040)3

• Goal and scope definition and inventory analysis (ISO 14041)4

• Life cycle impact assessment (ISO 14042)5

• Life cycle impact interpretation (ISO 14043)6

Generally the method can be divided into three basic steps with the methodology for the first two steps relatively well established while the third step (Impact assessment) is more difficult and controversial. The first two steps are usually referred to as the life cycle inventory (LCI) and can be applied separately without the following impact assessment. In addition to the different steps in the procedure there can also be an interpretation phase. The three basic steps are shown in Figure 1 below.

Goal and scope definition Inventory analysis Impact assessment Interpretation Life cycle assessment framework

= not included in this study

Figure 1. Basic steps in an LCA..

The Goal and scope definition consists of defining the study purpose, its scope, project frame with system boundaries, establishing the functional unit, and establishing a strategy for data collection and quality assurance of the study. Any product or service needs to be represented as a system in the inventory analysis methodology. A system is defined as a collection of materially and energetically connected operations (e.g., manufacturing process, transport process, or fuel extraction process) that perform some defined function. The system is separated from its surroundings by a system boundary. The whole region outside the boundary is known as the system environment.

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The Functional Unit is the measure of performance that the system delivers. The functional unit describes the main function(s) of the system(s) and is thus a relevant and well-defined measure of the system. The functional unit has to be clearly defined, measurable, and relevant to input and output data. Examples of functional units are "unit surface area covered by paint for a defined period of time", "the packaging used to deliver a given volume of beverage", or "the amount of detergents necessary for a standard household wash." It is important that the functional unit contains measures for the

efficiency of the product, durability or lifetime of the product and the performance quality standard of the product. In comparative studies, it is essential that the systems be

compared on the basis of equivalent function.

Other important aspects to consider in the goal definition and scoping include:

• Whether the LCA is complete or if some component is excluded from the study.

• Which type of environmental impact is considered in the study?

• A description of important assumptions.

In the Inventory Analysis the material and energy flows are quantified. The system within the system boundaries consists of several processes or activities e.g. crude material extraction, transports, production, and waste handling. The different processes in the system are then quantified in terms of energy use, resource use, emissions etc. The processes are then linked together to form the system to analyse. Each sub-process has its own functional unit and several in- and outflows. The final result of the model is the sum of all in- and outflows calculated per functional unit for the entire system.

In an inventory analysis, products can move across system boundaries. In these situations it is necessary to distribute (allocate) the environmental impact to the different products. In principle, 3 types of allocations can be distinguished.

• Multi-output: Several products are produced in the same factory e.g. crude oil refinery.

• Multi-input: Different products into a single unit e.g. waste incineration

• Open-loop recycling: In recycling processes where the material is used outside the system boundaries.

Several allocation principles exist such as:

• Physical or chemical allocation based on natural causality.

• Economical or social allocation.

• Allocation based on an arbitrary choice of a physical parameter such as mass, volume, energy content, area or molar content.

The most difficult part and also the most controversial part of an LCA is the Impact Assessment. No single, standard procedure exists for the implementation of an impact assessment although generally different methods are applied and the results compared. Due to the complexity of the model used here, a qualitative assessment has been done for a number of significant species. This is presented in Chapter 5.

In the valuation phase, the different impact classes are weighed against each other. This can be done qualitatively or quantitatively. Several valuation methods have been devel-oped. The methods that have gained most widespread acceptance are based on either expert/verbal systems or more quantitatively methods based on valuation factors calcu-lated for different types of emissions and resources such as Ecoscarcity, Effect category

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method (long and short term), EPS- system, Tellus, Critical volume or Mole fraction. Due to the fact that many important emission species from fires (in this particular study: dibenzodioxins and furans, and PAH, PCB etc.) are either not dealt with in detail or not available at all, these methods are not suitable for an objective interpretation of environ-mental impact. Thus, a qualitative comparison method has been found to be most beneficial.

In some cases, the LCA analysis is followed by an interpretation phase where the results are analysed. This phase provides an opportunity for the discussion of the results in terms of safety aspects. The fact that people may die in fires and that flame retarded products cause a reduction in the number of fire deaths cannot be included explicitly in the LCA. This should be, and is, discussed together with the results of the LCA analysis to provide a context for their interpretation and a connection to the reality of fire safety.

An LCA study has theoretical and technical limitations. Therefore, the following parts of a system are usually excluded:

• Infrastructure: Production of production plants, buildings, roads etc.

• Accidental spills: Effects from abnormal severe accidents. In the new “Fire-LCA” model, fires are included but not industrial accidents during production.

• Environmental impacts caused by personnel: Waste from lunch rooms, travels from residence to workplace, personal transportation media, health care etc. • Human resources: Work provided by humans is not included.

An LCA analysis usually covers energy use, use of natural resources and the environmental effects. In an entire decision making process the LCA results and the environmental aspects are only a part of all the decision factors such as economic factors, technical performance and quality, and market aspects such as design.

2.1 The risk assessment approach

In a conventional Life-Cycle Assessment, the risk factors for accidental spills are excluded. For example, in the LCA data for the production of a chemical, only factors during normal operation are considered. However, there can also be, for example, emissions during a catastrophic event such as an accident in the factory. Those emissions are very difficult to estimate due to a lack of statistical data and lack of emission data during accidents. The same type of discussion exists for electric power production in nuclear power plants.

In the case of the evaluation of normal household fires, the fire process can be treated as a commonly occurring activity in the society. The frequency of fire occurrences is

relatively high (i.e. high enough for statistical treatment) and statistics can be found in most developed countries. This is expanded in Chapter 3. This implies that it is possible to calculate the different environmental effects of a fire if emission factors are available. Previously, the Fire-LCA model has been used to evaluate the effect of choosing different levels of fire safety in a given product7_{. The higher level of fire safety in the previous}

work was attained using flame retardants. The introduction of flame retardants into the products changed the occurrence of fires and the fire behaviour. By evaluating the fire statistics available, with and without the use of flame retardants, the environmental effects could be calculated. The benefits of the flame retardant were thereby weighed against the “price” society has to pay for their production and handling.

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This present application will be a modification of the original Fire-LCA model in that we will concentrate on two products with different fire behaviour and investigate what effect the choice of material in the products has on the environmental impact if we take into account the risk for involvement in a fire.

2.2 Project methodology

The Life-Cycle Assessment methodology that will be used in this project is based on normal LCA methodology in combination with different fire experiments. This methodology is described in the ISO standard 14040-series and other documents from different countries in Europe and the USA. The standards used in this study are ISO 140403_{and ISO 14041}4_.

2.3 Computer modelling methods

Different computer software solutions for LCA calculations exist. Generally, the software can be divided into two different groups:

• Specific Life-Cycle Assessment programs, (KCL-ECO, LCA Inventory Tool, SimaPro etc.).

• General calculation programs such as different spread sheet programs (Excel etc.). In addition to the different LCA calculation programs, several database structures for storage of LCA data and meta-data exist.

For this project a specific LCA tool, KCL-ECO has been selected. KCL-ECO is a versatile tool for performing LCA studies. With KCL-ECO one can easily build LCA system models and calculate results for the system. It is also easy to aggregate modules into new modules and create new systems based on existing modules. The program can handle processes as well as transports and material flows between modules. KCL-ECO is basically a program for solving linear equations. It is therefore easy to handle material recycling processes. However, non-linear processes cannot be calculated in the program. These can be calculated separately in other programs and inserted into KCL-ECO as constants. It is also possible to include sensitivity analysis, classification and different valuation methods based on valuation factors such as Ecoscarcity, the Effect Category Method and the EPS-system.

2.4 The Fire-LCA system description

Schematically the LCA model used for the analyses of fire behaviour can be illustrated as in Figure 2. The model is essentially equivalent to a traditional LCA approach with the inclusion of emissions from fires being the only real modification. In this model, a func-tional unit is characterised from the cradle to the grave with an effort made to incorporate the emissions associated with all phases in the units life-cycle.

It is difficult to allocate emissions associated with accidents due to the lack of statistical data. Fires are slightly different to industrial accidents (e.g., accidental emissions during production of a given chemical) as a wealth of statistics is available from a variety of sources (such as, Fire Brigades and Insurance Companies). Differences between countries and between different sources in the same country provide information concerning the

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frequency of fires and their size and cause. The use of these fire statistics is discussed in more detail in the next chapter.

Crude material preparation Crude material preparation Fire retardant production Fire retardant production Material production Material production Recycling processes Recycling

processes primary product_{primary product}Production ofProduction of

Use of primary product Use of primary product Incineration Incineration Fire of primary products Fire of primary products Landfill Landfill D % B % C % 0 or X % FR in material Fire of secondary products Fire of secondary products A+B+C+D=100 % Fire extinguishing Fire extinguishing Decontamination processes Decontamination processes Replacement of primary products Replacement of

primary products Replacement of

secondary products Replacement of secondary products A % Landfill Fire Landfill Fire Fire of primary products Fire of primary products Fire of secondary products Fire of secondary products Replacement of primary products Replacement of primary products Ash Ash

Figure 2. Schematic representation of the Fire-LCA model.

In order to facilitate the detailed definition of the Fire-LCA model shown in Figure 2 let us first define the Goal and Scope of the Fire-LCA and its’ System Boundaries and discuss the possible choices of Emissions to include in the Fire-LCA output. Goal and Scope: The aim of this model is to obtain a measure of the environmental impact of the choice of a given material while taking into account the fire behaviour of the product based in part on the material choice. The model does not necessarily aim to obtain a comprehensive LCA for the chosen functional unit. In other words, only those parts of the model that differ between the two chosen versions of the product will be con-sidered in detail. All other parts will be studied in sufficient detail to obtain an estimate of the size of their relative contribution. Further, present technology will be the assumed throughout. In those cases where alternatives exist these will be considered as ‘best’ and ‘worst’ cases or as ‘present’, ‘possible future’ and ‘state-of-the-art’ technologies. These alternatives can be presented as possible scenarios and the effect of the choices made can be illuminated by comparisons between the various scenarios.

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System Boundaries: According to standard practice, no account will be taken of the pro-duction of infrastructure as defined earlier in this chapter or impact due to personnel. Concerning the features of the model that are specifically related to fires the system boundaries should be set such that they do not appear contrived. In general, it is realistic that we assume that material that is consumed in a fire would be replaced. Where possible we will rely on literature data to ascertain the size of such contributions. In lieu of such data, an estimate of the contribution will be made based on experience of similar systems. In the case of small home fires, which are extinguished by the occupant without

professional help, the mode of extinguishment will not be included due to the difficulty in determining the extinguishing agent. In cases where the fire brigade is called to a fire, transport and deployment will be included as realistically as possible. In the present application of this model this has, however, not been included.

Emissions from fires: A wide variety of species are produced when organic material is combusted. The range of species and their distribution is affected by the degree of control in the combustion process. Due to its low combustion efficiency a fire causes the produc-tion of much more unburned hydrocarbons than does a controlled combusproduc-tion. In the case of controlled combustion, one would expect that carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions would

dominate. In a fire, however, a wide variety of temperature and fuel conditions and oxygen availability are present. Thus, a broader range of chemical species, such as CO, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), volatile organic compounds (VOC, HC(air)), particles, and dibenzodioxins and furans must be considered.

The above choices provide the framework for the Fire-LCA. They should not be seen as insurmountable boundaries but as guidelines. As intimated above, in most applications of an LCA it is common to propose a variety of scenarios and to investigate the effect of the choices involved. Typically the system boundaries may be defined in different ways and the effect of this definition can be important for our understanding of the model.

2.5 Cable Case Study

In the present research study two different types of electrical cables have been evaluated in terms of resource use, energy requirements and environmental behaviour. The two cables represent two different halogen free materials that can be used in the production of electrically comparable cables. Cables with these two materials have then been compared with a traditional PVC cable (EKK). PVC cable data from a previous LCA study have been used for the comparison8.

Generally, cables differ in terms of the conductor and insulating materials. The classic conductor material for cables has been copper but aluminium is also used frequently today. Since polymeric materials have been available, they have been used frequently for the insulation and cover of cables. PVC has been the single polymer most commonly applied to cables. However, due to the environmental issues connected with PVC, alternative materials have been developed for cables and are used frequently. The new cables are halogen free and usually based on polyethylene.

In this study, two different halogen free cables with different fire performance have been evaluated. One traditional chalk filled polyolefin (EBA) cable (denoted NHMH) and one cable based primarily on olefins with ATH (aluminium trihydroxide) as the flame retardant (denoted NHXMH). Both two cables evaluated in this study and the EKK cable evaluated previously, have copper conductors. The cables represent ordinary power cables used in households. The cables have been selected to be relatively equal in terms

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of their technical application. A more detailed cable specification can be found in Appendix B.

The question is how the environmental behaviour is for the two different cables and especially in relation to the fire behaviour. To be able to cover a broad aspect of the environmental behaviour a system perspective has been used in the analysis. The Fire-LCA concept has been applied and Fire-LCA models for the two different cable alternatives have been designed. The structures of the three models are shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4. Each module in the model is described in the inventory presentation of this report. An overview of the system is given in this chapter.

Generally, the model can be divided in three parts.

• Cable production (including material production).

• Waste handling (including landfill, incineration and recycling).

• Fires related activities (including fires and material replacement).

The life-cycle of a cable starts with the production of the different raw materials used in the cable production. In this case, the production of copper and the different plastic materials is used. Plastic materials are a mixture of different materials designed for a specific quality. In cable production, plastic materials can be bought with a specific quality or plastics can be mixed at the cable production site. The materials used in the model are described in each module from “cradle to factory gate”.

The function of the cables used in this study is to transport electric power. It is however difficult to use electric power as the functional unit for model. Usually, the power capacity of the cable is much higher then the actual average power load during the life-time. The actual power load is unknown and can vary significantly. It can, therefore, be misleading to relate the data to a certain power level. The two cables used in the study and the EKK reference have been selected to have an equal power capacity. In this case, it is possible to use a specific quantity of cable as the functional unit for the model. Thus, as the functional unit of the model 1 million km of cables produced have been chosen. This unit represents a very large quantity of cables. The unit is aimed to be used on a country based scale.

From the cable production, the cables are delivered to the users of the cable. No electrical power loss has been assumed for the cable during its lifetime. Thus, no environmental burden has been put on the use of the cable apart from transport to the user. The cables are then used during their entire lifetime. The average lifetime of a household cable has been estimated to 30 years. After the regular lifetime, the cables are handled in the waste handling modules. Three different waste handling possibilities are used in the model. 1. Waste (cables) to landfill.

2. Waste (cables) to incineration. 3. Waste (cables) to material recycling.

In the waste handling procedure the proportion of the different waste handling

alternatives are specified. The waste handling procedure can vary significantly over time and between different countries. Energy can be gained from the waste handling in two ways. The incinerated plastics generate energy and methane formed from land filled plastics can be used to produce energy. The energy thus formed has been calculated in the model and assumed to replace fuel oil heating. In the modules “External Steam/heat user”, “Oil boiler steam gain” and “Precombustion Oil, Oil boiler gain” the gained energy and emissions are calculated.

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Table 1. Examples of the types of input and output parameters that are important in the various modules.

Input parameter Output parameter

Energy Energy

(Electric power) Recovered heat

Coal Materials/products

Crude oil Produced products

Natural gas Emission to air

Hydro power CO2-fossil

Nuclear power CO2-biogenic

Natural resources CO

Crude oil NOX

Metals (Fe, Al, Zn, Au, Pt etc.) SOX

Other minerals HC, VOC etc.

Natural products (wood, cotton etc.) HCl

Etc. H2S

Chlorinated organic compounds

Particles Metals (Hg, Cd, Pb, etc.) Emissions to water COD BOD HCl

Chlorinated organic compounds

Organic compounds

N-total P-total

Particles, suspension

Metals (Hg, Cd, Pb, etc.)

Solid material and waste

Volume, area occupation etc.

Organic contents

Metals (Hg, Cd, Pb, etc.) Chlorinated organic compounds

Organic compounds

In the case of mechanical material recycling, the cables are first disassembled. The different materials are then transported to a specific material recycling process for each material. In this case, a copper recycling process and a process for recycling of

thermoplastics, are used. From the disassembly process the material that are not recycled, can be transported to incineration or landfill. Copper from incineration ash can also be used for copper recycling. The processes in this particular study do not include feed stock recycling.

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A minor part of the cables is involved in different fires during their lifetime. The end of life for these cables is, therefore, different from ordinary cables both with respect to time and end of life processes. The Fire-LCA concept has been used to handle the fire part of the model. With the use of fire statistics, a number of different cable fires have been identified. The fires can involve not only the cables but also an entire room or house. From the fire statistics, the number of fires per year and per million km of cables in use has been identified and this information has been used in the model to calculate the amount of cables that are involved in the different types of fires and the extent of the fires. A fire will shorten the life time of the different products involved in the fire and those products must thus be replaced. An average of 50 % life time reduction has been assumed in the model. Thus, only 50 % of the material is replaced. Modules for the production of the replaced materials or products are also included in the model.

Transport is included in the model and shown as a “dash” on the flow arrows between the different modules. Truck transport has been assumed for all transport activities. Electric power is supplied to the different modules from the electric power production modules. An OECD electric power production mix has been assumed in the model. The model has three different power units that are used to distinguish between power production for different parts of the model.

The types of parameters that are important in the various models are summarised in Table 1. Other parameters may be included as required.

2.6 References

1_{Consoli, F., Allen, D., Boustead, I., Fava, J., Franklin, W., Jensen, A.A., de Oude, N.,}

Parrish, Rod., Postlethwaite, D., Quay, B., Séguin, J., Vigon, B., ”Guidelines for Life-Cycle Assessment: A ‘Code of Practice’, SETAC (1993).

2_{Lindfors, L-G.Christiansen, K., Hoffman, Leif., Virtanen, Yrjö., Juntilla, V., Hanssen,}

O.-J., Rönning, A., Ekvall, T., Finnveden, G., ”Nordic Guidelines on Life-Cycle Assessment.” Nord 1995:20, Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen (1995).

3_{Environmental management – Life cycle assessment – Principles and framework., ISO}

14040:1997.

4_{Environmental management – Life cycle assessment – Goal and scope definition and}

inventory analysis., ISO 14041:1998.

5_{Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Life cycle impact assessment.,}

ISO 14042:2000.

6_{Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Life cycle impact}

inter-pretation., ISO 14043:2000.

7_{M. Simonson, P. Blomqvist, A. Boldizar, K. Möller, L. Rosell, C. Tullin, H. Stripple}

and J.O. Sundqvist, “FiRe-LCA TV Case Study”, SP Report 2000:13, ISBN 91-7848-811-7 (2000).

8_{Simonson M., Andersson P., Rosell L., Emanuelsson V., Stripple H., Fire-LCA}

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In c in e ra ti o n Ca b le u s e C a bl e P rodu c ti o n C o ppe r pr od uc ti on H ous e pr o duc ti on ( re p la c e m e nt ) C a b le D isas sem b le P ro c e s s La ndf ill T h e rm o p la s tic r e c yc lin g C o p p e r recy cl in g In te ri or m a te ri a l pr oduc ti on ( re p la c e m e nt ) AT H Ca b le F ir e ( ve n ti la te d ) _Hou se m a te ri al s -C a b le /R o o m In te ri o r m a te ri a l-C a b le /R o o m P a p e r pr o duc ti on ( re p la c e m e nt ) R a w t im b e r pr odu c ti o n ( re p la c e m e nt ) Ca b le /Ro o m F ir e Ca b le /Ho u s e F ir e In te ri o r m a te ri a l-C a b le /H o u s e H o u s e m a te ri al s-C a b le/ H o u s e C a b le rep la cem e n t P U R pr o duc ti on ( re p la c e m e n t) AT H Ca b le F ir e ( vi ti a te d ) Oil b o ile r-s te a m g a in P re c om bus ti on Oi l, O il boi le r g a in E x te rn al st eam /h e a t u ser C a lc iu m c a rb ona te ( C a C O3 ) pr odu c ti o n A T H C a b le av era g e p la s ti c m ix In s u la ti o n B e ddi ng Sh e a th in g S e co n d ary F ire s ( A T H v it ia ted ) P a ra ff in ic w a x pr oduc ti on P rod uc ti on of pe tr ol e u m f u e ls A l( O H )3 P ro duc ti on P O E e la s tom e r pr odu c ti o n E thy le ne V iny l A c e ta te ( E V A ) P rod uc ti on C a lc iu m s te a ra te S ta b ilis e r H D P E pr od uc ti on LD P E p rodu c ti o n V in yl t rim e th o x y s ila n S ili c one e la s tom e r pr o duc ti on [I ns er t m at er ia l c om pos iti on fo r th e c ab le] [I ns er t c ab le m at eri al di st rib ut io n, us e cons ta nt s] [I ns er t m ate ria l di st rib ut ion] [B al an ce b ur ned m at er ia l an d CO 2. In se rt r oom a nd hou se ar eas . In se rt on ly 50 % of t he ar ea f or r oom /hou se re pl ac em ent an d ca b le r ep la ce me nt ] Cab le pr odu ct ion Cab le us e Fi re Hea t gain In ci ne ra tion Lan df ill R e cy cl in g Rep l pr o d ( n ot c a ble) Figure 3.

LCA model structure for the NHXMH ca

ble. Electric

pow

er production modules

removed fo

r

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In c in e ra ti o n Ca b le u s e C a b le P ro d u ct io n C opp e r pr o duc ti on H o us e p rod uc ti on (r e p la c e C a b le D isa sse m b le P ro c e s s L a n d fill T h e rm o p las ti c re cy cl in g C o p p e r r e cy cl in g In te ri or m a te ri a l pr o duc ti on ( re p la c e m e nt C a si co C a b le F ire ( ven ti la te d ) H o u s e m a te ri al s-C a b le/ R o o m In te ri or m a te ri a l-C a b le /R oom P a pe r pr od uc ti on ( re p la c e m e n t) R a w t im b e r pr o duc ti Ca b le /Ro o m F ir e C a b le/ H o u se F ire In te ri o r m a te ri a l-C a b le /H o u s e H o u se m a te ri a ls -C a b le/ H o u s e C a b le rep lac em en t P U R pr od uc ti on ( re p la c e m e C a s ic o C a b le F ir e ( vit ia te d ) Oil b o ile r-s te a m g a in P re c o m b u s ti o n O il, O il b o ile r g a in E x te rn al st ea m /h eat u s e r C a lc iu m carb o n a te ( C aC O 3 ) p ro d u ct io n C a si co a ve rag e p las ti c m ix S ili c o n e el ast o m er p ro d u ct io n In s u la ti o n B e ddi n g Sh e a th in g E B A pr od uc ti on S eco n d a ry F ires ( C as ic o v it iat ed ) H D P E pr od uc ti on E P D M r u b b e r pr odu c ti o n P o ly pr op yl e n e p rodu c ti o n S tab ili se r S ta b ilis e r S tab ili s er [I ns er t m at er ial c om po si tio n f or t he ca b le] [I ns er t c ab le m at er ial di st rib ut ion, u se co ns tant s] [I ns er t m at er ial di st rib ut ion] [B al anc e b ur ned m at er ial and C O 2. In se rt r oo m and h ous e a re as . In se rt o nl y 50 % of t he ar ea fo r ro om /h ou se re pl ac em ent an d ca b le r ep la ce m en t] C able p rod uc tion C able u s e Fi re H eat ga in In ci ner at ion La ndf ill Rec yc ling R epl pr od ( not c able ) Figure 4.

LCA model structure for the NHMH

cab

le. Electric p

ower production modules

removed for simplification

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3 Statistical Fire Model

A large body of fire statistics is available world-wide concerning fires in cables. The available statistics vary depending on the source, and information from different sources has been combined to create the full model. To incorporate the environmental impact of fires in the LCA models, statistics describing the occurrence of fires caused by electrical cables, so called primary fires, have been used. Also, fires that are not caused by electri-cal cables, but where the cable material burns as a part of the fire, so electri-called secondary fires, are included. The statistics regarding the amount of cable material destroyed in both primary and secondary fires also has to be included in the LCA models.

3.1 Statistics available

The fire statistics kept in different countries are generally not detailed enough to include different types of cables. In many cases cables are considered to be part of electrical appliances. In Sweden cables are probably included in “other appliances” in the statistics from the Swedish Rescue Services Agency1_{. The “other appliances” category means}

appliances not covered by Sauna aggregate, Tumble dryer, Dishwasher, Coffee machine, Fridge/freezer, Laundry machine, TV, Stereo, Video, Iron, Light bulb, Stove or Trans-former. Cables connected to these appliances can however in some cases have been con-sidered as part of the appliance itself. According to the statistics from the Swedish Rescue Services Agency 1_{about 2-3 % of the fires each year in dwellings start in other electrical}

appliances and 5-7 % of the fires in public buildings. According to the Vällingby study2_a

maximum of 7 of 180 fires (=4 %) are due to faults in electrical cables.

In Ireland 1-2 % of the fires are caused by “Electrical wiring installations”3_{and 2-3% of}

the fires are caused by “Electrical and other Equipment”. No detailed description is available on what is included in the different classes. According to statistics from the UK4

an average of 5 % of the fires is due to Electrical distribution in dwellings as can be seen in Table 2 while an average of 9 % is due to electrical distribution in buildings other than dwellings as presented in Table 3. No specific description is given on what is included in the different classes.

Table 2. Accidental fires in dwellings by source of ignition, 90-95.

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995

Electrical distribution 3100 3100 3100 3100 1800 2200

Total 53400 54100 54000 54500 50300 51500

% 5,8 5,7 5,7 5,7 3,6 4,3

Table 3. Accidental fires in buildings other than dwellings by source of ignition, 90-95.

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995

Electrical distribution 2600 2600 2400 2200 2000 2000

Total 31100 28400 27200 26400 23000 24600

% 8,4 9,2 8,8 8,3 8,7 8,1

Fire spread is not divided into different items of origin in the statistics available to us, instead this is given as a single number in terms of number of fires confined to item first ignited, room of origin, etc. in some cases it is reported as amount of extinguisher jets

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needed to extinguish the fire etc. Therefore one has to assume that the fire spread due to fires starting in cables is the same as for other items. In the UK the statistics are only divided into confined to room and beyond room of origin while the Swedish statistics are divided into confined to item, confined to room and beyond room of origin. In Sweden 60 % is confined to starting item, 31 % to room of origin and 9 % beyond room of origin (i.e. entire dwelling).

3.2 Primary fire model

Primary fires are defined as those where the cable is the first item ignited. The size of this type of fire may vary, from a fire where the cable is the only item ignited, to a serious fire destroying large amounts of property. In the LCA model described in Chapter 2 the pri-mary fire categories are defined by the modules labelled: “Cables Fire”, “Cable/Room Fire”, and “Cable/House Fire”. Secondary fires are defined as all fires where cables are involved but where cables are not the first item ignited, i.e. the cable is not the object causing the fire. Using available European statistics, with a focus on UK and Swedish statistics due to their availability and detail, an approximate fire model has been defined for use in the Cables Fire-LCA model.

Since the NHMH cable has a similar fire performance as the EKK-light cable studied in the previous study5_{the same statistical fire model is used for the NHMH cable. The}

NHXMH cable has an improved fire performance. However the available fire statistics is not detailed enough to distinguish between different cables. Therefore the statistical fire model for the NHXMH cable is set up in comparison with the NHMH cable. Three different statistical fire models have been evaluated. One model assumes that the fire performance is similar to the NHMH cable, this is included as an extreme. The other models assume that the same amount of cables are ignited as for the NHMH case but fewer of the fires develop to include the entire room or building.

Based on the available fire statistics presented above one can state that, in general, primary fires due to electrical distribution account for (on average) 4% (± 2%) of all dwelling fires. According to Babrauskas6, electrical distribution fires are caused by fixed wiring, cords and plugs, light fixtures, switched, receptables and outlets, lamps and light bulbs, fuses and circuit breakers, meters and meter boxes, transformers and unclassified or unknown sources. In his analysis of electrically caused fires, Babrauskas attributes only approximately 50% of all electrical distribution fires to wiring, cords and plugs. Thus, the present study, in accordance with the previous Fire-LCA study performed on cables5, attributes only 2% of all household fires to electrical wiring, cords and plugs. Based on data from Denmark5_{, each dwelling is estimated to contain (on average) 250 m}

of cable, and it is assumed that approximately 50 m of cables are present on average in a single room. This corresponds to 140 fires per million km of cables that can be assumed to start in electrical wiring and cables, i.e. so called primary fires.

For those fires that are confined to the starting item it is assumed that on average 50 % of the cables within a room are consumed in the fire. According to companies working with electrical installations one replaces at least the entire cable that has burnt up to the next connection point. In the study it is assumed that all of the cables consumed in the fire are replaced but to reflect that the fire occurs on average after half the lifetime then only 50 % of the full cables life-cycle costs are included in the LCA. The number of fires spreading to the entire room is 31 % of the 140 fires and then 9 % of the 140 fires spread to the entire dwelling for the NHMH cable. For the NHXMH cable the fire spread is assumed to be

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a) similar to the NHMH cable b) 50 % of the NHMH cable c) 10 % of the NHMH cable

For the fires spreading to the entire room it is assumed that a room of 16 m² is consumed in the fire together with all of its cable contents i.e. 50 m cable. For the fires spreading to the entire dwelling it is assumed that a house of 121m² is consumed with all of its cables, i.e. 250 m cable. The areas consumed in the fires are similar to the approach used in the TV-case study7_{, the Furniture study}8_{and as described in the Fire-LCA guidelines}9_{. In the}

previous cable study5_{it was assumed that 121/5 m² dwelling area was consumed in a}

room fire, therefore the emissions reported in chapter 5 have been scaled down accord-ingly in order to provide a correct comparison.

The statistical fire model is summarized in Table 4. In order to reflect that a fire on average occurs after half of any products lifetime then 50 % of all material consumed in a fire are replaced when the Fire-LCA model is run over the lifecycle. That is 50 % of the cables consumed in the fires according to the statistics and 50 % of other material and products consumed in a fire started by a cable.

Table 4. Statistical fire model.

Cable and model

Fire size Fire spread % Nr of fires /year Cable length burned in 30 year (km) Dwelling area consumed in 30 years Cable only 60 84 31.5 0 Cable + room 31 43.4 61.5 20832 NHMH Cable + house 9 12.6 94.5 45738 Cable only 60 84 31.5 0 Cable + room 31 43.4 61.5 20832 NHXMH case a Cable + house 9 12.6 94.5 45738 Cable only 80 112 42 0 Cable + room 15.5 21.7 32.55 10416 NHXMH case b Cable + house 4.5 6.3 47.25 22869 Cable only 96 134.4 50.4 0 Cable + room 3.1 4.34 6.15 2083.2 NHXMH case c Cable + house 0.9 1.26 9.45 4573.8

3.3 Secondary fire model

The amount of cables consumed in secondary fires, i.e. fires that start in some item other than the cables is the same for all the cables. In the previous study5_{it was estimated that}

approximately 1400 serious fires occur annually per million dwellings10_{. Serious fires are}

fires where the dwelling is severely damaged, or totally destroyed, by the fire. It is assumed that there is approximately 250 m cable per dwelling. By using this number and the estimated amount of serious fires occurring annually per million dwellings, the corre-sponding amount of serious fires per million km of cables is 5600.

The total length of cables that is destroyed each year in serious fires is 1400 km, if it is assumed that 100 % of the cables present in the dwellings are destroyed. If 10 % of all the cables in each dwelling are destroyed, this corresponds to 140 km of cables that are de-stroyed in fires each year. This has been used as a “realistic estimate” of the contribution of secondary fires.

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3.4 References

1 _www.srv.se

2 _{Enqvist, I. (Ed.), “Electrical Fires - Statistics and Reality. Final report from}

the ‘Vällingby project’”, Electrical Safety Commission (‘Elsäkerhetsverket’), 1997. Available in Swedish only.

3 _{www.environ.ie}

4 _{Tabulated data from UK Home Office ordered specifically for the previous}

Fire-LCA cable study (1996).

5 _{Simonson, M., Andersson, P., Rosell, L., Emanuelsson, V. and Stripple, H.,}

“Fire-LCA Model: Cables Case Study”, SP Report 2001:22 available at http://www.sp.se/fire/br_reports.HTM.

6 _{Babrauskas, V., “How do electrical wiring faults lead to structure ignitions”,}

Proceedings Fire and Materials 2001 Conf., Interscience Communications Ltd, pp 39-51, 2001.

7 _{Simonson, M., Blomqvist, P., Boldizar, A., Möller, K., Rosell, L., Tullin, C.,}

Stripple, H. and Sundqvist, J.O., "Fire-LCA Model: TV Case Study" SP Report 2000:13, 2000.

8 _{Andersson, P., Simonson, M., Rosell, L., Blomqvist, P., and Stripple, H.,}

“Fire-LCA Model: Furniture Case Study”, SP report 2003:22, 2003.

9 _{Andersson, P., Simonson, M., Tullin, C., Stripple, H., Sundqvist J-O and}

Paloposki, T. “Fire-LCA Guidelines”, SP report 2004:43, 2004.

10 _{Stevens, G. (Ed.), Effectiveness of the Furniture and Furnishings Fire Safety}

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4 Fire experiments

Fire experiments are run in order to provide input to the Fire-LCA model. The fire ex-periments are used to provide input to the primary fires. The emissions for the secondary fires are taken from the TV study where full scale room experiments have been made1_.

4.1 Cables evaluated

The cables evaluated are summarized in Table 5. The NHMH2_{cable pass the IEC}

60332-13_{test and represent traditional indoor installation applications. The NHXMH}4_{cable has}

a slightly higher fire performance and passes the 2.5 m criteria in the IEC 60332-3-24 (category C)5_.

Table 5.. Cables evaluated

Designation Specification Insulation Bedding Sheath

NHMH VDE0250 Pt215 PP Chalk filled

polyolefin

Chalk filled EBA

NHXMH VED0250 Pt 214 XLPE Hydrate filled

polyolefin

Hydrate filled EVA

4.2 Experimental set-up

The experiments were performed according to a modified version of the IEC 60332-3-106 standard. The combustion chamber was as specified in IEC 60332-3-10. A schematic of the experimental set-up is shown in Figure 5. Gas analyses were performed in the exhaust duct placed above the chamber.

The chamber is 1000 × 2000 × 4000 mm³. It has a door opening large enough to facilitate easy mounting of the cable tray. There is an air inlet in the bottom of the chamber, which is connected to a fan, which supplies an airflow of 6500 l/min. There is a glass window in the door to facilitate video recording and estimating flame spread during IEC 60332-3-10 test.

Measurements were performed of the smoke gases in the exhaust duct above the chamber. The Heat Release Rate (HRR) was measured together with CO and CO2 as in

most fire tests. In addition FTIR measurements together with chemical analysis of PAHs, polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, polychlorinated furans, aldehydes and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) were performed. The FTIR measurements included CO2, CO, HCN,

NH3, NO, NO2, HCl, HBr, HF and SO2. In addition, CO and CO2 were analysed using a

non-dispersive infra-red analyser. The sampling and chemical analysis methodology is described in Appendix A.

The exhaust duct is 40 cm in diameter. The chemical analysis, FTIR, NDIR and HRR measurements were made about 3 m after any guide vanes or bends of the duct. In all tests 15 cables of 2.7 m length were mounted on the cable tray with one cable diameter between each cable. The ignition burner used was a 20 kW propane burner for the NHMH cable and a 30 kW burner for the NHXMH cable. In addition the NHXMH was mounted with a backing board in order to increase the re-radiation to the cable ladder and thus enhance the burning of the cable.

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Figure 5. Schematic picture of IEC 60332-3-10 set-up.

Two tests were performed for each cable, one well ventilated and one vitiated. In addition one blank test with a propane burner was conducted for each cable. In all cable tests, the weight of the cable tray before and after the test was registered. In addition material that had fallen onto the floor was collected and weighed.

The blank test was designed to mimic the actual cable test as closely as possible. There-fore each type of test was run once with only HRR measurement. The blank test for the NHMH cable was determined to be run using a 100kW burner for 2.5 minutes and then increased to 300 kW for 2.5 minutes. The blank test for the NHXMH cable was run with the backing board. The 30 kW ignition burner was on for 5 minutes hitting the backing board before the 100 kW burner was turned on and left on for another 5 minutes. In the well ventilated experiments, an airflow of 6500 l/min was supplied to the appa-ratus. The air available in the enclosure is substantial. Therefore, in order to create a somewhat vitiated atmosphere in the vitiated experiments, the airflow was switched off and a 100 kW burner was used for 2 and a half minute before igniting the cables. The extra burner consumed about 100 / 12.8 × 2.5 × 60 g oxygen which means that the oxygen concentration in the chamber when the cables were ignited was in excess of 10 % since the chamber is not completely sealed.

The quantification of the detected products was conducted from the time when the burner, that ignited the cables, was started, until the end of the test. The burners used in the experiments are very efficient and produce mainly CO2 from the combustion of carbon.

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4.3 Chemical Species monitored

A number of detailed chemical analyses were conducted in conjunction with the experi-ments. These are summarised in Table 6 below. A more detailed description can be found in Appendix A.

Table 6. Summary of analysis methods used for determination of fire gases in the experiments.

Compound/

Group of compounds

Collecting media Eluent Principle of detection

VOCs (C6-C18) Tenax thermal desorption GCFID/GCMS

Aldehydes (formaldehyde,

acetaldehyde) DNPH cartridges (Waters) acetonitrile HPLC-UV

PAHs, PCDDs/Fs

Glass fibre filter

+condenser+XAD-2 toluene (filter and condenser),

dichloro-methane (XAD-2)

GCMS

Inorganic gases: CO2 ,

CO, HCl, HBr, HF, SO2,

HCN, NO, NO2 and NH3

- - direct reading FTIR

(4 cm-1_{resolution, 3}

scan/spectrum)

Yields calculated from the analytical results are summarised in Table 7 to Table 10. (Please note the different yield units that used; g, mg, µg as well as ng per meter cable, depending on type of species)

Table 7. Yields of some selected VOCs and aldehydes as mg per meter burnt cable. Substance blank test

(propane only)* NHMH, well ventilated NHMH, vitiated Blank test, (backing-board + propane only) * NHXMH well ventilated NHXMH vitiated formaldehyde n m 10 24 2.8 41 69 acetaldehyde n m 4.2 11 2.8 19 35 benzene 1.2 5.9 14 1.5 56 65 toluene 0.86 2.4 3.8 1.2 14 17 styrene n d 0.80 1.7 n d 7.6 9.4 naphthalene n d 0.90 1.8 n d 7.8 9.7 Total VOCs (as toluene) (excluding aldehydes) 36 47.7 104 27.1 230 367

* 40 m cable assumed in yield calculation. n m = not measured, n d = not detected

Other VOCs identified during analysis were:

From NHMH test: butadiene, acetone, bensaldehyde, C16-C18-hydrocarbons

From NHXMH test: butadiene, acetone, indene, cyclopentadiene, C6 -aliphatic

Fire-LCA Model: Cable case study II – NHXMH and NHMH cable

Fire-LCA Model: Cable case study II –

NHXMH and NHMH cable

SP

Swedish National

T

Fire-LCA Model: Cable case study II –

NHXMH and NHMH cable

Abstract

Contents

Preface

List of abbreviations

1

Introduction

References

2

LCA Model

2.1

The risk assessment approach

2.2

Project methodology

2.3

Computer modelling methods

2.4

The Fire-LCA system description

2.5

Cable Case Study

2.6

References

3

Statistical Fire Model

3.1

Statistics available

3.2

Primary fire model

3.3

Secondary fire model

3.4

References

4

Fire experiments

4.1

Cables evaluated

4.2

Experimental set-up

4.3

Chemical Species monitored