Print &amp; Digital : A qualitative study about students perceived differences and how they move between the mediums

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Print & Digital

A qualitative study about students perceived differences

and how they move between the mediums

Jonas Nygren

Media Technology: Strategic Media Development One-year Master Thesis, 15 credits

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Abstract

Due to digitization, the way students work in academia has changed over the years. Students now have to consume and produce more material on the computer than ever before. But despite this, print still has a place in many students' lives as the preferred medium when it comes to reading and writing. This study aims to identify what perceived differences students feel when engaging with the print and the digital, as well as how to best support students in moving between the two. This was achieved by interviewing students about their experiences and opinions regarding the two mediums, where it was found that they make use of both mediums since they mirror each other and by doing so complement each other. The survey was then based on the questions and the answers acquired from the interview and used to quantify the results to have a larger empirical base to work with. Both in the interview and the survey several key problems and behaviors were identified, such as the need for

convenience, the emotional attachments that led to students not wanting to highlight in their books and their desire to share material easily. These matters were chosen to be problems that a prototype developed based on the results could potentially solve. The prototype was found to be effective, as the participants brought up several advantages to it, so much so that they would use it themselves if they had the opportunity.

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Acknowledgments

First, I would like to thank my supervisor Fredrik Rutz for all the feedback, suggestions and support I got throughout this process. The helpful comments I received regarding every chapter of the thesis has been much appreciated. Second, I would like to thank all the teachers I had the pleasure of meeting during my time at Malmö University who prepared me for this enormous task. I would also like to thank my classmates and all of the participants who patiently agreed to be a part of the study, without them there would be no study.

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Introduction 1 Existing technology 3 Aim of study 4 Research question 5 Literature Review 6 Multimodality 6 Comprehension 7

Digital media use 8

Advantages and disadvantages of the two mediums 9

Paper advantages/likings 9 Paper disadvantages/dislikings 10 Digital advantages/likings 10 Digital disadvantages/dislikings 11 Reading behavior 12 Reading speed 12 Economic factors 13 Reflection 13 Methodology 14 Research tradition 14

Double diamond approach & Design thinking 15

Survey Research 16

Interviews 16

Survey 19

Thematic Analysis & Coding 20

Prototype 21

Participants and sampling 22

Ethical considerations 23

Limitations 24

Method discussion 24

Validity & reliability 25

Results 27

Interview 27

Findings 27

Positives & Negatives 29

Origin of material 29

Highlighting text 30

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Introduction

Reading is typically not done without a certain purpose or cause. It is a means to an end, but that end can, of course, be one of many. These purposes can be either internal or external and are influenced by a number of different variables. Most of a student’s life is centered on studying and, as a result of this, they are reading and writing a fair amount (Fortunati & Vincent, 2014). Reading the required material for a class or an assignment is the students’ external purpose for reading. There could be additional purposes for reading, like expanding their knowledge of a related subject or the internal purpose of reading just for their own enjoyment (Snow, 2002). But the wave of digitalization has reshaped how students work with information in academia, and the amount of work being done on a computer has also

increased the amount of reading the student has to do on a screen (Baron, 2017; Fortunati & Vincent, 2014; Snow, 2002). Schools and universities publish more and more material on their learning platforms in digital form online, such as readings and assignments. This is done for a number of reasons, such as ease of access to the required material and it being cheaper for the student (Baron et al., 2017). Cohen (2019) writes about an incident at Yale University, where students became upset when the library decided to relocate a portion of their books in an effort to create more space. The students clearly valued the presence of the books,

arranging a sit in protest to show the administration what the books meant to them (Cohen, 2019). This is a striking example of how important books are to students. However,

university libraries all over the world are seeing declining use of their books. A decade ago the University of Virginia checked out 238,000 books during the school year. Now, that number was down to 60,000 (Cohen, 2019). That is a noticeable change, and indicates that the digital is becoming more and more a part of how students interact with texts and other material for school. But some students still prefer to read on print, and to them the fact that books might be phased out more and more by digital material is not an entirely positive one.

It is common that students make use of both the printed and the digital, and never fully commit to just one medium (Vincent, 2016). Depending on their needs and contexts they combine the two. Writing notes, recording ideas and annotating work are examples of when paper and print could be preferable (Vincent, 2016). However, when working collaboratively,

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making use of hyperlinks and taking advantage of the increased writing speed and legibility could be where the use of a digital device is the better choice. A digital text is also easier to distribute to a greater number of people than a paper version is (Isaias et al., 2018; Vincent, 2016). The computer is more robust when it comes to writing in general, but the pen is preferable in some select situations. Writing with a pen and paper can help you learn and in turn remember what you wrote to a greater extent than you would do if you were to write on a computer (Isaias et al., 2018; Vincent, 2016).

Farinosi et al. (2016) found that digital devices are rising in popularity among students as the medium of choice when reading and writing, replacing the paper and pencil. But the choice of when to use either medium is influenced by a myriad of variables. The context, objectives and expectations all play a part when the choice of medium is made by the student such as where they are, what they intend to do, who they are doing it with and how they will

experience the act (Farinosi et al., 2016). Students seem to use whatever medium is best for the situation and since the two mediums are not mutually exclusive but instead complement each other, they both have a place in students’ lives (Farinosi et al., 2016). Vincent (2016) also talks about student choice when it comes to which medium to use. What the medium could offer in any given situation weighs heavily in their decision. Functions like searching for words or phrases makes writing on a digital device more effective. It is also faster and easier to edit the text afterward. However, problems such as tired eyes and bad posture can arise. Posture especially is an important factor when deciding between reading on print or on a digital device (Isaias et al., 2018; Vincent, 2016). Isaias et al. (2018) found that students believed that books could be read in more varied positions and locations, when a computer requires a more specific, formal posture to be used. Sitting in front of the computer too much or while sitting with bad posture could lead to back pain (Isaias et al., 2018).

But it is not only the context and physical situation that come in to play when choosing a medium to read on. The choice between paper and digital is dependent on the text itself as well. The paper version is preferred if the text is pleasant. If it is scientific papers or technical documents the digital version is preferred (Fortunati & Vincent, 2014). This is due to the strategic capabilities for reading that are present when reading on a digital device. These

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capabilities include but are not limited to changing the font, zooming, copy and paste, and searching online (Fortunati & Vincent, 2014).

Students have a wide range of choices at hand when it comes to screen-based devices. From smaller devices like smartphones and medium-sized like the e-book reader and the tablet, to bigger devices such as laptops and desktop computers. With the growing number of devices we can read on today and the increasing ways we can receive and access information the definition of text has grown beyond the traditional print to include digital texts and multimedia documents (Snow, 2002). Every device comes with its own use-cases and functions, and it is up to the user to judge when to use which.

Baron et al. (2017) found that respondents in their study use print approximately 67% of their time reading, both for school and for fun. The remaining time was reading digital texts. The results were more varied when the given text was shorter, but print was still the preferred choice. When asked about longer texts, print was the clear winner again. Print was also the participants’ choice of medium when they wanted to concentrate and read without

distractions (Baron et al., 2017). Therefore, print seems to be more suitable for reading long texts and the students preferred medium to do so, with the reason being that it is better for concentration. In addition, it is easier on the eyes to read on print since it is less fatiguing than a screen (Farinosi et al., 2016; Fortunati & Vincent, 2014; Isaias et al., 2018).

But it is not only during reading when print and digital vary. How students take notes varies greatly between mediums. Rockinson- Szapkiw et al. (2013) report that students reading e-books were almost three times more likely to make notes in the text than those reading on print. When taking notes on paper into consideration, both groups used it the same

(Rockinson- Szapkiw et al., 2013).

Existing technology

There are several existing technologies and services to try and bridge the gap between the analog paper and the digital devices used for reading and writing. One such instance are the

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“smart notebooks” such as Evernote Notebooks by Moleskine and The Rocketbook . 1 2

Additionally, there are tablets that can be used in the same note-taking way such as the Apple iPad Pro and reMarkable . Then there are hybrids, where you can write on paper and tablets 3 4

or with special pencils to digitize the notes instantly and in real-time. These include the Moleskine Smart Writing Set , Bamboo Slate and Livescribe smartpens . As stated, these 5 6 7

products all aim to bridge the gap of the analog and the digital and bring them closer together but their aim is almost exclusively handwritten note-taking.

Then there are Adobe Acrobat for reading pdf files and applications such as Apples iBooks 8 9

to read both ebooks and pdf files on certain devices. Both of these applications struggle in some areas that students find important as found in the results. Some feel that the files are not easy enough to transfer from one system to another, and that makes it not worth the effort to some students. Additionally, the file sorting system of finding files and saving them is not satisfactory enough. Apple iBooks are only available to iPhone users, so anyone with a different device can’t use the software.

Aim of study

The aim of this study was to find out how university students make use of both print and digital media when engaging in active reading for their studies. Active reading can be described as reading material with the explicit intention to understand it and critically reflect over it (McGraw Center for Teaching and Learning, n.d.). Ways to do so can be to look up unfamiliar terms and phrases, take notes and comment on the text, summarise the text and highlight important points and words (McGraw Center for Teaching and Learning, n.d.; The Open University, n.d.). 1_{https://gb.moleskine.com/evernote-smart-notebook-black/p0162} 2_{https://getrocketbook.co.uk/} 3_{https://www.apple.com/ipad-pro/} 4_{https://remarkable.com/} 5_{https://us.moleskine.com/smart-writing-system} 6_{https://www.wacom.com/en-us/products/smartpads/bamboo-slate-and-bamboo-folio} 7_{https://www.livescribe.com/en-us/smartpen/}

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Bezemer & Kress (2008) say that the use of textbooks as a medium could be in decline due to the freely available web based learning resources. Many students still use textbooks and printed articles for schoolwork and want to continue to have that option. The results of the study was a prototype that could in some instances bring print and the digital closer together for those who still use the printed medium.

Research question

Semi-structured interviews have been conducted and data has been collected through a survey to be able to answer the first research question. A prototype has been developed through the data previously collected and said prototype has been tested with two former students for the purpose of answering the second research question.

RQ1: What are the perceived differences in user experience when students are actively reading on different mediums?

RQ2: How can university students be supported to actively read by combining the two mediums and bring them closer together?

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Literature Review

In this chapter several key definitions are introduced and previous research related to reading and writing on print and digital are laid out as a foundation to gain an understanding about the results of the current study.

Multimodality

Media can be described as “the means for the distribution of messages” _{(Bezemer & Kress,} 2008, p. 169)_{. Bezemer & Kress (2008) also say that a medium is the substance where} meaning is first made and the means to communicate meaning to other people. In this case, both print and screens are mediums. So, the media is communicating messages, and the medium communicates the media. Elleström (2010) says that the definition found in dictionaries states that a medium is “a channel for the mediation of information and

entertainment” (Elleström, 2010, p. 13). Elleström (2010) agrees with that definition, saying that a medium is a channel for media. Elleström (2010) also defines media, saying that it is “modes of mediating information and entertainment” (p. 14). Elleström (2010) defines a technical medium as an object that can display or make possible the mediation of media. Paper is an example of a technical medium since it mediates what is written on it. A pen can not display the words written by it, so it is not a technical medium. The computer is also an example of a technical medium, with a degree of interactivity to it. A computer can view a book on its screen, but it is just a representation of the book (Elleström, 2010). The media that a book can mediate can also be mediated very well by a computer, but the experience of interacting with a book is very different to interacting with a computer since the book as a technical medium can’t be mediated by a computer (Elleström, 2010).

“Language is the most resourceful, important and widely used of all modes” (Bezemer et al., 2016, p. 14). In this respect, language consists of speech and writing. According to Elleström (2010), a mode is “a way to be or to do things” (p. 14). Multimodality can, in turn, be

described as a combination of modes. Texts, sounds and images are all examples of modes that can be combined to comprise multimodality (Elleström, 2010). Bezemer (2012) says that

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representation to be more than about language” (para. 1). That means that something multimodal combines several different modes to create meaning. Communication is more than just language. It’s all the aspects that communicate a message (Bezemer, 2012).

A mode then is a resource that is used to make meaning. Speech, images (both still and moving) as well as layout and writing are all examples of different modes (Bezemer & Kress, 2008). Bezemer & Kress (2008) continue to talk about modes and explain that there are many different modes, and they all have different characteristics called modal resources. Bezemer & Kress (2008) give the example of writing and highlights its modal resources. They are syntactic, grammatical, lexical and graphical. Resources can be the size and type of the font and how the text is framed on the page. Writing shares many of the resources with speech such as lexical, syntactic and grammatical modal resources. Bezemer & Kress (2008) continue with the modal resources of images. How the elements are positioned in a framed space and its size, color and shape are all modal resources of images. Different modes have different potentials for meaning-making. They have different constraints as well (Bezemer & Kress, 2008). Bezemer et al. (2016) also explain the terms ‘multimodality’ and ‘modes’. Bezemer et al. (2016) defines ‘mode’ as a “term that is used within systemic functional linguistics and social semiotics to refer to a socially organized set of semiotic resources for making meaning” (p. 157). Bezemer et al. (2016) see modes as a “means for making meaning” (p. 2). The term multimodality can then be used “to highlight that people use multiple means of meaning-making” (Bezemer et al., 2016, p. 2). Bezemer et al. (2016) further explain that these means are rarely isolated, but instead appear with one another. Two examples of this are images with writing and speech with gestures. Bezemer et al. (2016) continues to say that people use a wide variety of resources for meaning-making. These resources together form ‘multimodal wholes’.

Comprehension

Snow (2002) defines comprehension as “the process of simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language” (Snow, 2002, p. 37). It is important to define this term since comprehension is one of the most

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important aspects of reading. If you can’t comprehend the text you’ve just read you won’t be able to extract or recall any of the knowledge previously consumed.

There are certain capabilities and skills a reader is required to possess to be able to

successfully comprehend a text. Some of these are cognitive, related to memory, attention, critical thinking and visualization. Others are related to the purpose of the reading, such as motivation and interest in the content as well as the readers’ own vocabulary and prior knowledge of the topic (Snow, 2002). According to Snow (2002), comprehension is a complex process that occurs when reading as it involves a wide range of abilities that ask a lot from readers. Snow (2002) also remarks that new challenges to comprehension can manifest when dealing with digital texts. One example of this is the way hypertext allows for non-linear reading (Snow, 2002). On the other hand, digital texts can strengthen

comprehension by making use of hyperlinks for translations or to look up words in a thesaurus (Snow, 2002).

Digital media use

Paper was the most frequent answer in the three categories of length, comfort and time when asking about students reading habits. The posture, as mentioned in the introduction, was an important factor when choosing print since it is more flexible to read on paper. Eyestrain caused by the screen of the computer was also a factor in choosing print (Isaias et al., 2018). However, regarding writing, Isaias et al. (2018) found six features where writing on a computer and writing on paper diverged. These were “speed, dissemination, edition, access, aesthetics and comfort” (Isaias et al., 2018, p. 15). The computer was superior in every category except for access.

Even though the experience and uses of the two mediums (digital and print) differ in several ways, there are studies that come to the conclusion that the digital with e-books do not jeopardize the students' learning in any way. Sackstein et al. (2015) is one such study where they found that e-books can be a beneficial tool for students when reading for education. Another such study is by Daniel & Woody (2013) where they claim that when it comes to student learning, print books and e-books are very much alike. The groups of students who

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read on print and the groups who read digitally scored similarly on quizzes (Daniel & Woody, 2013). Others found that students, in general, study better, read more and feel like they absorb more of the material when they study using print (Ji et al., 2014). Nevertheless, Sackstein et al. (2015) found that reading digital texts do not have a negative impact on the readers’ comprehension of the text as well as the speed of which they read. In fact, there were no notable differences between the two mediums in either category. This resulted in the conclusion that tablets can be of use in the classrooms (Sackstein et al., 2015). Similar to what Sackstein et al., (2015) concluded, Rockinson- Szapkiw et al. (2013) found that there was no major difference in grades and cognitive learning when the students were reading either a digital text on a tablet or reading it on print. This would mean that tablets and digital texts could be used in education without sacrificing performance (Rockinson- Szapkiw et al., 2013; Sackstein et al., 2015).

Advantages and disadvantages of the two mediums

Paper advantages/likings

How a medium feels in the hands and what emotions stir up is an important factor when it comes to choosing which one to use (Vincent, 2016). If it’s a sensorial and emotional experience the reader wants, print seems to be the better choice between the two mediums since it can offer more in that regard (Fortunati & Vincent, 2014; Isaias et al., 2018). Baron et al. (2017) found many mentions to emotions or aesthetics when asking about print, that they like the feeling of the medium. But the aesthetic and emotional are not the only positives for the medium.

Print and paper affords higher levels of concentration than computers and digital devices, as well as flexibility for taking short notes, underline and comment the text, especially when you can easily make use of the margins. It is easy to use, it does not use an external source of power and can be used quickly. All of that makes print and paper an attractive choice for students, even if computers and similar digital devices are more effective in general (Farinosi et al., 2016; Isaias et al., 2018; Rockinson- Szapkiw et al., 2013). Paper is also more flexible and portable than its digital counterpart. This allows for better posture while reading as well

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as easy transport of the text, which in turn translates to flexibility regarding where and how you physically read and consume the text (Farinosi et al., 2016; Fortunati & Vincent, 2014; Isaias et al., 2018; Rockinson- Szapkiw et al., 2013). Additionally, the medium has cognitive advantages such as improved concentration, focus, memory retention and understanding of the text (Baron et al., 2017).

However, the most common answer to what people like about print was relating to something physical like holding it in their hands and turning the pages (Baron et al., 2017). Books also make it easier to get an overview of how far the reader has come (Farinosi et al., 2016). That it does not tire the eyes as much as a digital screen was also a popular response (Baron et al., 2017; Farinosi et al., 2016; Fortunati & Vincent, 2014). But many students chose print to read on simply because they are familiar with the medium (Rockinson- Szapkiw et al., 2013)

Paper disadvantages/dislikings

When asked what they don’t like about reading on print, lack of convenience was one of the most frequent answers among students. The fact that books require physical space to store them and are heavy to carry around can be inconvenient and have a negative impact on how students organize their workspace (Baron et al., 2017; Isaias et al., 2018). The discomfort of writing by hand for extended periods of time was another negative for the medium (Isaias et al., 2018). The text could become illegible and changing the text and edit notes is almost impossible without leaving traces (Isaias et al., 2018). Another aspect of print that was worrying people is that they believed it was a waste of resources (Baron et al., 2017; Isaias et al., 2018). Finally, in clear contrast to one of the strengths of digital devices, one negative feature of reading on print was that there is no way to search in the text. It is up to the readers’ own memory to remember where something was located (Fortunati & Vincent, 2014).

Digital advantages/likings

There are several advantages to using digital devices, and using the search function is one of them (Baron et al., 2017; Farinosi et al., 2016). Looking up keywords, information and related topics is something that can be particularly advantageous when studying (Baron et al.,

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2017; Farinosi et al., 2016; Jeong, 2012; Rockinson-Szapkiw et al., 2011). Several other comments about the advantages were centered on the physical properties of the device. For example, the background light helped students read where the light was poor and settings such as changing the font, the size and the color of the text made the text easier to read. The possibilities for editing and changing the text is immense, which provides great control over how the text is presented. Help with spelling when writing and taking notes is also present (Baron et al., 2017; Farinosi et al., 2016; Isaias et al., 2018).

Also among the advantages was the ability to conveniently access the required material. The overall convenience and portability was a big positive for the students when it came to digital devices. With all of the readings and books on the same device issues like weight while carrying and the physical space the books would occupy were effectively gone. These properties of digital devices can help students be more organized in their studying, which is beneficial to their studies (Baron et al., 2017; Farinosi et al., 2016; Isaias et al., 2018; Rockinson- Szapkiw et al., 2013).

Digital disadvantages/dislikings

One major disadvantage to digital devices that students highlighted was the discomfort the screens caused on their eyes. They reported feeling pain and fatigue after an extended period of reading on-screen. Headaches could also be experienced. However, these were not the only discomforts when reading on a screen. Discomfort related to the posture the reader is required to assume when reading on-screen was also present in the answers (Baron et al., 2017;

Farinosi et al., 2016; Fortunati & Vincent, 2014; Isaias et al., 2018; Jeong, 2012). Another disadvantage to digital devices is the increased likelihood of distractions due to the increased ability to multitask. Students reading print as well as digital texts engage in multitasking while they read. However, students reading digital texts were more likely to do so (Baron et al., 2017; Daniel & Woody, 2013). These distractions can hurt the students’ concentration. Students also said that they were more likely to skim the text reading on a digital device. This is unlike when they read on print, were they felt that they read more thoroughly (Baron et al., 2017). There is also a risk that students get disconnected from the content when they read on digital devices (Farinosi et al., 2016).

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For a user to write fast and effectively with a computer they need to have the keys

memorized, which was perceived as inconvenient. As was the fact that digital devices require power to function, in contrast to print (Isaias et al., 2018).

Reading behavior

A loss of interest in the text could cause the reader to skim the text rather than read it through properly. The worst-case scenario would be if the reader not only starts to skim the text but stop reading altogether (Baron, 2017). We tend to use digital devices for quick, short actions in our lives, so one of the biggest obstacles we face when we read digitally is that we are so accustomed to just get the matter at hand done that this behavior carries over when we try to read a more robust text (Baron, 2017). This can cause the reader to skim the text or to just read selectively. Using the text rather than reading it (Baron, 2017). These digital devices make the texts available in a different way than printed texts are, and this availability can lead to other reading behaviors than we are used to (Baron, 2017). However, in the study by Rockinson- Szapkiw et al. (2013) about two-thirds of the students who read on print said that they read every word of the assigned text and the remaining students reported that they skim-read the texts. The same numbers can be found in the students reading on e-books. This indicates that students approach reading in the same way on either platform (Rockinson- Szapkiw et al., 2013).

Reading speed

There are a number of studies on how digital mediums affect reading speed as well. One such study found that the reading speed of students was not particularly affected by reading on a tablet. It was also found that their comprehension was not affected by the reading speed. The students that read at a faster pace could comprehend the text as efficiently as slower readers. This is promising since this indicates that students can effectively make use of digital devices in school without negatively impacting their reading speed and comprehension (Sackstein et al., 2015).

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Economic factors

Ebooks and digital texts are more often than not less expensive than print (Baron et al., 2017). This factor is one that drives adoption rates of e-books and digital texts in higher education (Baron et al., 2017). Baron et al. (2017) found that an overwhelming amount of participants would choose print over digital texts if costs were the same. When asked about academic reading the choice was leaning even more strongly towards print. However, Rockinson- Szapkiw et al. (2013) had students saying that they chose the paper version of a textbook because they were cheaper than the e-book equivalent, but they received answers that were the other way around as well.

Reflection

What has been explored in the literature review is relevant to the thesis in the sense that different authors have found different things that students value on either medium. This thesis asks what perceived differences in user experience students can have while actively reading on the mediums, and literature on the same subject can act as something to compare to. Additionally, the current study not only explores students' opinions and behaviors but also in-depth of why that is through interviews and a survey. Throughout the literature the two mediums are put against each other, with how different they are and what students value the most. While the current study asks the same questions it’s more about bringing the two together, since they are not mutually exclusive and both are already a part of students' lives. Understanding what students like, what they don’t like and what they think about either medium and how they choose between them gave the researcher more insight to how they use them differently when actively reading. This led to exploring these topics to gain a

foundation on which the questions for the interview and survey were based. It was important to also understand multimodality to further explain the differences of what each medium can mediate, and what that would mean for the development of the prototype and what

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Methodology

This chapter describes the different methods employed for collecting data in the current study. It also describes how the data was handled and processed, as well as participant sampling, limitations and ethical considerations.

Research tradition

This research was done in the social sciences with both qualitative and quantitative data and was conducted in an exploratory way where the goal was to gain as much knowledge as possible about the topic and the concerned parties, in this case the students who read at a university level. This was done in an inductive manner where the “researcher begins with as few preconceptions as possible, allowing theory to emerge from the data” (O’Reilly, 2009, p. 104). When working inductively the researcher observes and gathers evidence to then form more broad and general theories (O’Reilly, 2009). The questions for the interviews and survey in the current study were informed by the literature review, but the goal was to be more in-depth and understand the participants even more. The literature review made it possible to understand what questions to ask the participants.

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Double diamond approach & Design thinking

Figure 1. The _{double diamond process (Carreras Montoto, 2015).}

The process depicted in the double diamond (Design Council, n.d.) was used in the current research. Design Council (n.d) describes the figure as “ … two diamonds [that] represent a process of exploring an issue more widely or deeply (divergent thinking) and then taking focused action (convergent thinking)” (para. 4).

The double diamond model displays four phases. The first one, the _{discover phase, helps the} researcher understand what the problem is. It is about immersion into the culture and the people who are affected (Design Council, n.d.). In the case of the current study, this meant exploring the previous literature of reading on different mediums as well as interviews and a survey with the very people the study focuses on. It is in the second phase, _{define, where “the} insight gathered from the discovery phase can help you to define the challenge in a different way” (Design Council, n.d., para. 5). In the current study that translated into coding and analyzing the data gathered from the interviews and the survey to find recurring themes and patterns of how the two mediums were used and perceived. From there the specific problems and areas of potential improvement were more clear. The third phase, _{develop, is about} developing a solution based on the specific problem found in the previous phase. The fourth

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and final phase is _{deliver, which involves “testing out different solutions at small-scale,} rejecting those that will not work and improving the ones that will” (Design Council, n.d., para. 5). That means the prototype developed for the current study was tested and evaluated on its strengths and weaknesses.

The double diamond shares some characteristics with _{design thinking. Design thinking is} defined as an “iterative process in which we seek to understand the user, challenge assumptions, and redefine problems in an attempt to identify alternative strategies and solutions” (Dam & Siang, 2020, para. 3). There are five stages to design thinking and it is here where the similarities with the double diamond start to show. The five stages are (1)

empathise, _{where you empathise with the users, (2) define, where you define the users}

problems and needs, (3) _{ideate, where you craft ideas for potential solutions, (4) prototype,} where you start to develop the ideas from the previous stage and (5) _{test, where you test the} solution with the end user (Dam & Siang, 2020, para. 5).

Survey Research

One of the most common methodologies to use in research is survey research (Given, 2008). It is a collection of methods researchers use to collect data from stakeholders, individual participants and businesses (Given, 2008). Common methods used in survey research are interviews and surveys. These are the two main methods used in the current study to collect data.

Given (2008) continue to say that some researchers think that survey research is strictly quantitative. This is not necessarily the case since other researchers oppose that idea. Given (2008) argues that data gathered from open-ended questions, whether from an interview or a survey, can be analyzed qualitatively.

Interviews

Using semi-structured interviews to collect the qualitative data needed to answer the research questions in this study was a fitting method. This is due to the type of answer needed for the study. This was the behavior and opinions of the students as they talked about how they do

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things and what they think. These types of interviews are set up like regular conversations, but with a set of topics and open-ended questions that the interviewer will bring up during the course of the interview. This means that if the respondent says something particularly

interesting or an interesting train of thought is started by a respondent, they have more room to answer the questions or discuss the topics in their own way. It is not as rigid or strict in how the respondents can answer a question. Unlike a structured interview that has a set of questions fully determined in advance, a semi-structured interview is more open and free-flowing, but still with a direction in mind (Byrne, 2017; Given, 2008). This means that the questions and topics are known to the researcher beforehand, but they can be brought up either in the order they are written down in or as the researcher best sees fit according to the respondents answers (Given, 2008). Insights about students’ preferences, habits, opinions and active reading behavior on different mediums were the main focuses of what was to be collected in the current study, and semi-structured interviews are a good way to find these out since the interviewer has direct contact with the participants (Martin & Hanington, 2012).

There are two aspects to take into account when collecting information in an interview. These are standardization and structurization. Standardization means how well defined the questions are coming into the interview and in which order the questions will be asked. The higher the standardization, the more standard the questions are and the order of questioning is the same between different interviews (Patel & Davidson, 2011). Structurization means how open the questions are and how much room the respondent has to formulate an answer (Patel & Davidson, 2011).

The interviews conducted for the current study falls somewhere in the middle of these two aspects. Prior to the interviews, a set of questions and topics were constructed to lead the conversation. These were still open enough not to restrict the respondents in their answer, allowing them to answer the questions in their own manner. It also opened up for discussions that were not prepared beforehand that could prove useful to the current study as well as changing the order of the questions.

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The first five interviews were to pinpoint and find patterns and commonalities in the

participants’ answers regarding needs, problems and behaviors during active reading. These findings could later be used to inform the survey.

The interviews were recorded and transcribed. This was because note-taking would not be enough in the current situation. Additionally, taking notes would pull the focus away from the participant, making establishing a connection troublesome. The participants fully understood that the interview was being recorded and gave their consent to be recorded beforehand. Regarding anonymization, keeping the real names of the participants in the study was not necessary. To keep them apart in the discussion, pseudonymization was used. The five subjects will be addressed as Student 1, Student 2, Student 3, Student 4 and Student 5 respectively.

The interviews were all conducted at coffee shops except for one which was conducted online through a video conference tool called Zoom. Coffee shops were selected when the

university's own facilities were no longer available due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Coffeeshops are a neutral setting that was in close proximity to the author and each participant. The goal was to make the participants feel at ease prior to and during the interviews. This was achieved by being in a public space. The weakness of this choice of location was the potentially loud environment the interview could take place in. The location was agreed upon when scheduling the interview, but if the respondent felt that the content of the interview was too sensitive such a public place where third parties could overhear would not be an option. This was, however, not the case in the current study. The reason for using Zoom was because both the researcher in the current study as well as the respondent had access to Zoom as well as experience using it, and it was the software of choice for the respondent. The researcher also had access to a premium licence of the software granted by the university which enabled all of the features of the application.

They were also conducted in Swedish since it was the first language of everyone involved. When direct quotes from the interviews are used from this point forward, they are translated by the author of the study.

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Survey

Following the interviews, a survey was sent out to university students via Google Forms. Google Forms were chosen as the tool to use because of the researchers familiarity with the tool and because of the easy-to use distribution and layout. Online surveys were chosen since, because they are internet-based, response rates are fairly reasonable. They are also cheap to conduct and the data is automatically collected (Byrne, 2017). It makes the whole process of distributing, filling out and collecting the data more convenient for both the researcher and the respondents. Geographical boundaries are no longer an issue as well (Given, 2008). The survey was used to collect data from students to quantify the results from the interviews and to get a larger dataset with insight in more aspects of the topic.

Lavrakas (2008) says that the survey is “ … the main instrument for collecting data in survey research. Basically, it is a set of standardized questions, often called items, which follow a fixed scheme in order to collect individual data about one or more specific topics” (p. 652). The survey is usually distributed to all of the respondents the same way in a standardized manner (Lavrakas, 2008). This is because if all of the respondents receive the survey in the same way the answers should be comparable to one another (Lavrakas, 2008). According to Lavrakas (2008), four fundamental conditions must be true when creating a survey. The first one is that theoretical knowledge of the topic must be present. An extensive literature review is one way to achieve this. The second one is “valid and reliable operationalization of

concepts and hypotheses of research” (Lavrakas, 2008, p. 652). The third is experience with the task at hand, i.e. designing a survey. The fourth and final one is an understanding of the target audience. This is of importance so that the intended respondents can accurately answer the question asked by the researcher (Lavrakas, 2008).

Lavrakas (2008) then points out three advantages of using internet-based surveys. The first advantage is that at a very low cost a study could reach a very large number of people.

Second, an internet-based survey could “minimize the intrusiveness of the interviewer and his or her instruments” (Lavrakas, 2008, p. 655). Third, the use of multimedia such as pictures and images is easier when distributing the survey online. However, Lavrakas (2008) also writes about some disadvantages of the internet-distributed surveys. The quality of the

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answers collected, the qualification of the respondents and the circumstances in which the surveys are done are some of the variables that could be negatively impacted by distribution over the internet (Lavrakas, 2008).

Thematic Analysis & Coding

“Thematic analysis is a data reduction and analysis strategy by which qualitative data are segmented, categorized, summarized, and reconstructed in a way that captures the important concepts within the data set” (Given, 2008, p. 867). What that means is that the researcher looks for patterns in the collected data and later describes them, categorizes them, codes them and shows how they are connected. Coding the data is a way to reduce it (Given, 2008). Mills et al. (2010) describes thematic analysis as well. They say that “thematic analysis is a

systematic approach to the analysis of qualitative data that involves identifying themes or patterns of cultural meaning” (Mills et al., 2010, p. 925). The researcher then codes the data and interprets the results and can then find commonalities, patterns and relationships in the data (Mills et al., 2010).

There are several different sources that data can originate from that can be used in a thematic analysis. Two examples are interview transcripts and information that the participants

themselves have written (Mills et al., 2010). Given (2008) says this as well and gives the same examples, that the data can come from several different sources like transcripts from interviews and the respondents’ own written words. Mills et al. (2010) say that coding is the basic strategy used in thematic analysis. Coding is a process where the researcher looks for “recurrent themes, topics, or relationships, and marking similar passages with a code or label to categorize them for later retrieval and theory-building” (Mills et al., 2010, p. 926).

Interesting events, behaviors and features are also among the elements that the researcher are identifying and labeling (Given, 2008). When coding the data, some selected parts of the data are labeled and removed from their original context so that data with the same labels can be processed together. Given (2008) says that “coding facilitates the development of themes, and the development of themes facilitates coding” (p. 867).

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The themes, categories and labels used in the coding are often known somewhat in advance. These can come from the literature review, experience or because they were present in the data collection process (Given, 2008). In qualitative research, it is common to use an

inductive process when searching for concepts, categories and themes. These are then used to organize and understand the data (Given, 2008). Mills et al. (2010) writes this too, that it is more common to use an inductive approach to coding when engaging in thematic analysis. The themes then “emerge from and are grounded in the data” (Mills et al., 2010, p. 926). Some themes and categories often emerge as more promising and interesting than others. These can be key concepts relating to or of interest to the study (Given, 2008). For the data to be useful these potentially broad labels and categories must be amalgamated. Given (2008) says that the “product of a thematic analysis … includes both the important concepts and processes identified in the study and the overarching patterns of experience by which those concepts and processes are manifested” (p. 868).

Prototype

A prototype is a kind of representation, since they are made to represent the final version of a design, service or product before it is finished (Buchenau & Suri, 2000). The prototype can then be used to communicate ideas or to explore what can and can’t be done (Buchenau & Suri, 2000). Buchenau & Suri (2000) defines what an “experience prototype” is, which they say is a prototype that is developed specifically to simulate the experience of how a service or system works and how it feels to use before it is fully completed. For a prototype to

accurately represent something, it needs to have the right level of fidelity. Low-fidelity prototypes are usually used in the beginning of a project to test ideas, and these can range from sketches and storyboards to crude models (Martin & Hanington, 2012). On the opposite side of the scale, there are high-fidelity prototypes. This is a much more finished

representation of the final design, with users now being able to get a much more accurate feel of the product, how it functions and how it looks (Martin & Hanington, 2012).

To evaluate the prototype created in the current study, a usability test was conducted with two users. A usability test is an evaluative method, used to “observe an individual’s experience with a digital application as he or she walks through the steps of a given task” (Martin &

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Hanington, 2012, p. 194). The test in the current study was designed to make the user reach a specific user goal, in this case to find and open a book, highlight some text and send it

forward. After that was completed the discussion opened up and the user was encouraged to explore the prototype and talk about their experience. Martin & Hanington (2012) says that tasks should be specific and represent what the user actually wants to achieve, which in this study was to share and highlight texts. Martin & Hanington (2012) continue that scenarios should contextualize tasks, and in the current study the scenario was that the user wanted to share a specific section of a book with a classmate. Martin & Hanington (2012) also lay out some of the things that the observer should try to detect, including when the participant expresses joy or frustration, or when the user understands the task but is unable to complete it. That the participants understood what they wanted to do and were able to achieve their goals was important to the current study. To listen after suggestions of how the prototype could be improved was also something that the observer was keen on. The end goal of the test for the researcher was to find out if the prototype was a solution to some of the problems found in the data gathering process. The goal of prototypes is to evaluate the different strengths and weaknesses of the service and learn more about it (Brown, 2008).

The prototype was developed in the online vector design tool “Figma ” due to the 10

accessibility and the researchers prior knowledge of the software. The default ebook reader for iPhones, the application “iBooks”, was used as a source of inspiration for some of the UI (user interface) elements found in the prototype.

Participants and sampling

The participants in this study were initially chosen as a convenience sample, which is a type of non-probability sample (Bryman, 2012). This type of sampling was chosen for the reason of availability. Since the target group were students, and the sample used varied in age, gender and major it is still representative of the targeted audience.

The participants in the current study are students at Lund University and were between the ages of 20-23 years at the time of the interviews. They all studied different subjects except

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for two of them and the level of education ranged from a bachelor’s degree to a master’s degree. The subjects studied by the participants were biology, behavioral science, political science and history. Of the interviewed two were women and three were men.

However, the prototype was tested with two former university students who finished their education two years ago. The reason for testing the prototype with former students in contrast to the rest of the study where the focus was strictly current students was because of the convenience of availability in having a face-to-face test and the disadvantage of not being able to reach the previous participants in a satisfactory manner. The participants were 25 years old and the first studied for a Master of Science in Business and Economics and the second studied for a Bachelor of Science in Sociology.

The participants were told about the study before the appointed meeting, and before the interview started the participants were informed about the study in greater detail as well as how the material would be used. All participants agreed to be recorded and gave consent to the use of their data.

Ethical considerations

All the participants in the interviews were informed of what the study was about and why it was being conducted, they all agreed to participate and had the opportunity, at any moment before, during or after the interview, to withdraw their participation. All of the raw,

confidential data collected was kept safe and only the researcher had access to it. The data was used for this research purpose only. The names of the participants were not reported in the results section of the thesis but instead were pseudonyms of “Student 1”, “Student 2” and so forth used.

No personal details were used in the survey. There only opinions and thoughts about the two mediums and how they are used collected. The first question regarding whether they are students is the only question where personal information was collected. Confidentiality was considered even here and all of the data was handled carefully. The survey was completely voluntary and no question, other than the first one, was optional to complete.

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The data was kept and processed through Google's services Google Drive, Google Docs and Google Forms. This raises the question whether or not Google can take part of the results or not since it is a cloud-based platform.

Limitations

During the planning phase of the thesis, the interviews were intended to be conducted at the library or the facilities at the university. This was because the study was about students and their reading and working habits, and therefore the site of the interviews would be a familiar setting. This, however, fell through due to the pandemic outbreak of COVID-19. The setting was changed to coffeeshops. It is a neutral setting that was in close proximity to the author and each participant. One interview was conducted online, with the reason being last-minute scheduling conflicts.

All of the participants were swedish, with swedish as their first language. They were all located in the same general area and attend the same university. If the study included students of different backgrounds from other geolocations the results could reflect that.

Method discussion

When coding data for analysis it is common to use software such as NVIVO to aid with organizing and interpreting the material (Byrne, 2017). However, the software was not used for the current study. The reason for this was due to the fact that the interviews were

conducted in swedish, a language not supported by the application. It could not recognize words and phrases in swedish and was, because of this, not useful for this purpose.

Five students were interviewed for the current study. Part of this is due to time constraints but also because when the five interviews were concluded the same answers were beginning to repeat themselves and no new insights were gained. At this point theoretical saturation had been met for answering the research questions in the current study. Still, given the time more could be interviewed but for the purpose of this study, these interviews were enough. Due to the COVID-19 outbreak the interviews could not be conducted in the schools facilities and

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had to be conducted elsewhere, in this case coffee shops. The schools facilities would have been preferred since the coffee shops were louder and less private than the schools own common areas.

The survey was answered by 50 students, but not all questions were answered by everyone (since no answers were mandatory). This was done in the hopes that, if a student got stuck on a question, they would not close the survey and fail to submit an answer. But this also meant that even if 50 answered in total, not all questions have the same amount of answers. If it was possible, more answers would have been preferred. To have an even larger amount of data collected would mean that the results would be more generalizable. Another problem that could potentially arise with surveys is that participants are not fully aware of why they answer the way that they do, due to little to no prior experience with what the question is about. They could simply click an answer without honest intent behind it. In an attempt to mitigate this in the current study, no question beyond the first one was mandatory. But, as mentioned above, this meant that not every question was answered by every respondent.

The prototype was tested with two former students through a hands-on prototype test in person. The reason for testing the prototype with former students was because it was easier to reach the students and conduct the test in person due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Conducting the user test in person was important to do the application justice and to get the feeling of holding the phone and use the prototype as one would in a real situation if the service was fully developed. However, since the number of participants were so low more people would need to be tested to ensure that the interviewed users weren't outliers.

Validity & reliability

Middleton (2019a) says that reliability and validity indicate how well a method measures something, with reliability indicating how consistent a measure is and validity how accurate the measure is. There are several different types of reliability and validity. The test-retest reliability measures how consistent the results are when the test is repeated further in time (Middleton, 2019b). Respondents in the current study could change how they work, how they read and their attitudes and preferences could also change over time. Conducting the same study with the same students in the future could lead to different results with a varying degree

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of how much they would divert from the results presented here. Another form of reliability is interrater reliability, which measures if the results are the same if different people conduct the same research and measurement (Middleton, 2019a). This is something that didn’t have an impact on the current study, since only one researcher was present for the duration of the study. However, if there was interest to do the research again with a different researcher it could mean the results would be different. Topics that were brought up during the interview could be a point of divergence if someone else conducted the interviews and how the discussion was carried forward could be different with another researcher at the helm of the study. To further ensure reliability, all of the respondents were informed about why they were being interviewed and how it was going to be conducted. Just as there are different types of reliability, there are different types of validity as well. Construct validity assess if the tool we use to measure actually measures what it’s intended to (Middleton, 2019c). The questions in the interviews and the survey, being about the opinions and beliefs of the respondents, were developed to be relevant to what the desired data collected was. They were based on the findings in the literature to ensure validity. To further ensure validity the students were carefully selected and and clearly defined. Face validity is another, subjective, form of validity. However, it is frequently thought of as being the weakest form of validity (Middleton, 2019c). Face validity examines how valid the measure or test is on a surface level (Middleton, 2019c). This study is about students reading habits, how they use different mediums and their opinions of them. To that end, questions about important factors in regards to how they choose mediums, what they believe are the different strengths and weaknesses of the mediums and how their overall experience is with a given medium are asked. The

filtering question in the survey whether the respondent was a student or not was to also ensure validity, as was the effort not to ask leading questions during the interviews.

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Results

Interview

During the interview five students were asked about their experiences with working and reading on different mediums, which one they use the most and are more comfortable within different scenarios, their process of working with material both digital and in print, how their experience are with moving between print and the digital, positive and negative aspects of the different mediums and what their perceived differences working with these mediums are.

During the coding process several themes and topics were identified which are reported here in the results, with similar results presented together as they are related. A table can be found in the appendix that presents attributes of the two mediums that the students mentioned during the interview, and the numbers in parentheses are how many times the attributes were mentioned between the participants.

Findings

Student 1 stated that they used print the most, both for reading and writing. This was their preferred medium, while Student 2, Student 3 and Student 4 were more inclined to use the digital for the same things. However, Student 1 still used the computer a fair share. For Student 3 print was more of a pleasure to use, and they did not associate the medium with work. They felt that once a text was digital (such as on a computer) it was considered work. This made it hard for Student 3 to use print in their work. Student 3 still read print books in their spare time since it felt more enjoyable. Student 2 said that while they still enjoyed reading books, and actually liked it better, the convenience and features of the digital medium made it more effective to use for schoolwork. Student 4 used digital material as much as they could for schoolwork, and the main reason for this was that they wanted to acquire and process the material as fast as possible to see what is of use and what is interesting or not. Even if Student 4 mentioned that they historically like to use physical material, the

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acquiring a physical print book. They think it is more pleasant to read on print than read and take notes in a digital document, but Student 4 uses the digital due to the simplicity. But in some cases, like when they think a book is extra important they like to read on print. They also think that what they read and write on print is easier to remember. Browsing through the pages and getting an overview were features that Student 4 thought print excelled at. Student 4 said that they believe that a lot comes down to habit, that when you transition to use another system you also start using the same system for other work-related activities. This came from experience, when Student 4 went from mainly using print to mainly using digital material during their time at the university. They also believed that there are different ways of using literature. Student 4 liked using digital material when there was a large amount of material to process. They felt that it was easier to create a structure for their sources and organize their files. But if there was a specific book they were going to use for an extended period of time they would choose to read it in print. This due to the fact that Student 4 still found it easier and more pleasant to read a physical book. It was easier for Student 4 to read the text in full if it was a print book, and the amount of skim reading declined according to Student 4. Student 5 also uses digital material the most and finds it the most comfortable to work with. They said that five years ago they would have answered print, but that has since changed. Then Student 5 mostly used print because they felt the medium fitted better with the level of education. But now when they study at a university they feel that the digital medium suits their needs better. There are still instances where they prefer to use print, especially for reading. When reading the news they prefer print due to the distractions that are present when reading the news on the computer. Links can pull your attention elsewhere and Student 5 wants to absorb the article better. At the university Student 5 needs to be effective in what and how they read, and that is best done digitally.

Since Student 1 preferred to read on print, they proceeded to print out their texts if the text originated digitally. In only two instances would they choose not to print out the texts. That was when the amount of material and sources was too large due to the time it would take to process the material or if the material was easy enough to read. Student 2 brought up this as well. They did not have a printer available at home and they did not feel like going all the way to the university to print. That contributed to reading more digitally for Student 2.

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Positives & Negatives

While talking about the positives and negatives of print and digital Student 1, Student 2, Student 3 and Student 5 said that the two mediums seem to mirror each other as in the positives and negatives about one are reversed for the other. Student 2 gave some examples of this to explain. For example, paper and books are hard to search through, but the digital medium has robust search functions. Same with writing. They felt that they remember more writing on print, but it’s slower and hurts the hand. On the computer, it’s the opposite. They write fast, but can’t remember the content as well. Student 2 continued and said that the digital brought with it a lot of features missing on the printed medium, but in the process lost a lot of things that made paper good.

Origin of material

Student 1 said that the majority of the material they get from the university is digital. The same was true for Student 2, Student 3 and Student 4. However, this was not always true for Student 3. When they started their university education most of their material was on print. Over time this changed, and more and more material that came from the university became digital. This contributed to their change in reading, and as more and more material was distributed online Student 3 subsequently read more on the computer. Student 2 stated that the university sometimes would distribute paper articles at seminars, but since the university takes great care to save paper this was not very frequent. All material but one book was digital for Student 4. This made the computer necessary. A lot of material Student 4 needed to access were government documents, and using a computer for that made it faster and easier. Student 5 also got most of their material from school in digital form. They said that even if the material is digital, the digital files were scanned in as pictures and thus the computer could not recognize the text. The search function could not be used and Student 5 could no longer mark and copy text. They said that these files, even if they are digital, force the reader to use them as analog texts. This makes them harder to use since they are so difficult to work with.

When finding material on their own, Student 2 did so by going through the library’s online search engine and found it digitally. Student 3 also chose to find material digitally whenever

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possible. Student 3 mentioned that some materials, such as certain books, are still only available in print. That can and has created issues when there is only one copy of a certain book in the library. A digital version solves the issue of scarcity. Student 4 also chose to find digital material if it was something they needed to find on their own. They mentioned the library when finding print books, but also mentioned the potential problems that could be encountered there. One such problem is that there are a finite amount of copies of books, so someone else could be using the same book that Student 4 was looking for. So it is not a guarantee to get a hold of the book you want when going through the library. Student 5 thought it is easier to find material digitally on their own rather than going to the library, particularly if their topic or phenomenon is quite specific.

Highlighting text

Student 1, Student 2 and Student 3 mentioned the act of highlighting and marking the text, and they all used the technique while working. Highlighting was especially important to Student 1. They felt that it was very important to understand the context as well as every word's meaning when reading. Highlighting was important to Student 2 and Student 3 as well, but only when they are reading digitally. There it was an important aspect in their workflow, but highlighting had no place for them when reading on print. They both expressed dissatisfaction with highlighting in books since they felt as if that would destroy the book. This was a term they both used when describing their feelings about highlighting in books. Student 5 shared this dissatisfaction. They too like to highlight when they read and they said that it is easier to highlight and leave comments when reading digitally. But this is not ideal when reading print, especially if the book is borrowed from the library.

Physicalities

Student 1 and Student 2 brought up the physicalities when it comes to print. A large number of books and papers can be heavy to carry around, but Student 1 did not mind it. In fact, it did not influence their decision at all. Student 2 mentioned this as well. They said that it is easier to have the texts digitally so they don’t have to carry large books with them wherever they go. The convenience of it was the main driving point. Student 4 brought this up as well. They thought that print could get very heavy and hard to carry around. Particularly if they needed

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to bring a few books with them to the university to study. Student 4 said that they already carry their computer and a lunchbox with them, and the weight of a couple of books added to that was an inconvenience. Student 5 talked about the physicalities too. They said that print books can be heavy and take up a lot of space. On that note, digital material is more

convenient since you only have to bring your computer with you instead of carrying a stack of books where you go. But Student 5 said that the inconvenience of getting a hold of print books was greater than the inconvenience of carrying them once they had the books. So the physical aspect did play a role for Student 5, but it was not the biggest factor for going with either print or digital media.

Print &amp;amp; Digital : A qualitative study about students perceived differences and how they move between the mediums