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Crisis Management & Nonprofit Organizations

BACHELOR THESIS THESIS WITHIN: Business Administration

NUMBER OF CREDITS: 15 PROGRAMME OF STUDY: Marketing Management AUTHOR: Aron Goitom JÖNKÖPING May 2020

An exploratory study on crisis management and learning

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Bachelor Thesis in Business Administration

Title: Crisis Management & Nonprofit Organizations, An exploratory study on crisis

management and learning processes within nonprofit organizations.

Author: Aron Goitom

Tutor: Katrine Sonnenschein & Anders Pettersson Melander

Date: 2020-05-18.

Key terms: Crisis, Management, Fundraising Organizations, Humanitarian

Organizations, Nonprofit Organizations, Learning Processes, Organizational learning,

Abstract

Background

Crises are situations that organizations will most likely experience at some point and should therefore be planned for. A crisis can lead to various challenges for an organization, as well as devastating effects if not handled in a proper way. The literature surrounding crisis management emphasizes the importance of organizational learning for organizations. However, the implementation of learning processes has lacked in regard to nonprofit organizations, despite its advantages.

Purpose

The purpose of this thesis is to investigate how nonprofit organizations recognize the importance of learning processes within crisis management. In an attempt to add value to the field of crisis management and nonprofit organizations.

Method

The primary data is collected through interviews with four organizations within the nonprofit humanitarian and fundraising sector in Sweden. The research will allow an analysis of to what extent learning processes are implemented, as well as what type of learning processes that are most common.

Findings

The findings indicate that the importance of learning for nonprofit organizations is high. The organizations have embedded learning processes in crisis management that enable organizational learning. The results also showed the impact learning processes

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can have in avoiding future crises. Furthermore, the study showed that the importance of learning for NPOs is higher than previously indicated.

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Acknowledgment

I would like to express special gratitude and my appreciation for the support and encouragement received during this process. Firstly, this thesis would not have been able to conduct without the participating interviewees. With this being said, sincere gratitude to all the organization included, Bo Wallenberg and Anders Mårtensson (Barnmissionen), Lasse Lähnn (The Swedish Red Cross), Beata Fejer (The Swedish Cancer Society) and Liv Landell Major (Majblomman). As well as the seminar groups for the contribution and suggestions.

Furthermore, I would like to thank Anders Melander, for the valuable support and guidance that has led to this thesis. Also, thank you to Katrine Sonnenschein for her assistance in tutoring and valuable insights in this process.

Lastly, I would like to thank my family and friends for the continued support and understanding throughout the process of writing this thesis.

Jönköping, May 18 2020

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Table of Contents

Table of Contents ... 6

1. Introduction ... 8

1.1 Problem/ Problem Discussion ... 8

1.2 Purpose ... 10 1.3 Delimitations... 10 1.4 Definitions ... 11 2. Frame of Reference ... 12 2.1 Crisis management ... 12 2.1.1 Crisis ... 13

2.1.2 The Manager’s Role ... 15

2.2 Nonprofit organizations ... 17

2.3 Learning Processes ... 19

2.3.1 Double-Loop Learning ... 20

2.3.2 Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) ... 22

3. Method and Data ... 25

3.1 Research Design ... 25 3.2 Research Philosophy ... 26 3.3 Research Approach ... 28 3.4 Method ... 29 3.4.1 Literature Search ... 29 3.4.2 Sampling ... 31 3.4.3 Interviews ... 34

3.4.4 Analysis of qualitative data ... 36

3.5 Trustworthiness ... 37

3.5.1 Limitations ... 39

3.5.2 Ethics ... 39

4. Empirical Data ... 40

4.1 Interviews ... 40

4.1.1 Organizations view on crisis management ... 41

4.1.2 Organizations view on learning processes ... 45

5. Analysis ... 51 5.1 Internal factors ... 52 5.1.1 Transparency ... 52 5.1.2 Preparation ... 53 5.1.3 Evaluation ... 55 5.2 External Factors ... 57 5.2.1 Experience ... 57 5.2.2 Observation ... 59

5.3 The importance of learning processes for NPOs ... 60

6. Conclusion ... 62 7. Discussion ... 65 7.1 Implications ... 65 7.2 Limitations ... 66 7.3 Future research ... 67 8. References ... 68 9. Appendices ... 77

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9.1 Appendix 1a Questions for Organizations English ... 77

9.2 Appendix 1b Questions for Organizations Swedish ... 80

9.3 Appendix 2 Quotes in Swedish ... 82

Figures Figure 1 - Illustration of single and double-loop learning (Argyris & Schön, 1997) ... 21

Figure 2 SCCT crisis response strategies (Coombs, 2007, p. 170) ... 24

Figure 3 - the importance of learning processes for NPO ( Developed by author) ... 63

Tables Table 1 - The main differences between positivism and interpretivism ... 27

Table 2 - Characterization of Abductive, Inductive and Deductive Reasoning ... 29

Table 3 - Visual overview of the data collection process ... 30

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1. Introduction

This chapter of the thesis includes a discussion of the chosen subject and definitions relevant to the study. Additionally, the purpose is stated as well as the delimitations of the research.

1.1

Problem/ Problem Discussion

A crisis is a phenomenon that most organizations will experience during its existence (Spillan, 2003). Ritchie (2004) explained that crises are different from each other and that it exists external crises such as natural disasters or terrorist incidents. Furthermore, it also exists internal crises that for example could be organizational challenges or misdeeds (Ritchie, 2004). A crisis is not a common event to endure by organizations, however despite its probability, it is an aspect organizations should take into consideration due to its high impact when occurring (Carmeli & Schaubroeck, 2008: Farazmand, 2007). Planning and preparing for the future in an organization is seen as a common task. However, it also exists a need to do the same when it comes to crisis management. To prepare for unexpected situations such as a crisis is essential for every organization in order to make the experience less severe. By focusing on managing potential crises an organization has the opportunity to turn adversity to a strength (Spillan & Hough, 2003). For organizations to be able to properly manage crises, an organization needs to define a crisis in order to be able to handle the effects that follow (Spillan & Hough, 2003).

To be able to manage a crisis successfully Haragis & Watt (2010) stated that existing literature points toward the requirement of planning and leadership. However, despite the importance of crisis management, Penrose (2000) explains that 40 percent of the biggest companies choose not to have a crisis communication plan. The reason for this is argued to lay within the belief that the company’s goodwill will protect them, or the confidence of the capital resources that the company size grants. However, when looking at smaller companies, these defense opportunities seize to exist and reputation becomes the main asset (Penrose, 2000). Comparing this to non-profit organizations (NPOs), studies have shown that if a crisis would occur, only approximately 30 percent of NPOs have a crisis plan within the organization (Schwarz, Pforr, 2010: Bridgeland, McNaught, Reed & Dunkelman, 2009). Balser & McClusky

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(2005) states that the risk of a crisis for an NPO can increase due to its dependency of stakeholders such as donors and volunteers. The importance of external factors for NPOs has also been proclaimed by other researchers with a similar conclusion (Bielefeld, 1994: Hafsi & Thomas, 2005: Sisco, 2012). According to Lerbinger (2012) and Sisco (2012), NPOs depend greatly on their reputation, and with the threat that an unmanaged crisis possesses, one would assume that crisis management would be highly prioritized, but existing literature shows otherwise (Sisco, Collins & Zoch, 2010: Schwarz, Pforr, 2010: Bridgeland, McNaught, Reed & Dunkelman, 2009).

Since the impact of a crisis often leads to organizational damage, organizations can gain valuable knowledge by learning from previous crises and becoming more prepared for future crisis situations (Carmeli & Schaubroeck, 2008: Lagadec, 1997: Smith & Elliot, 2007: Wang, 2008). To develop organizational learning and not just induce the existing reflexes, organizations need to prepare and confront situations to gain knowledge (Lagadec, 1997). In order to achieve this, it becomes essential to develop certain learning processes within the organization. The learning processes identified in corporate organizations have to a large extent been connected to strengths in resources such as organizational teams, taskforces, and networks (King, 2002: Lagadec, 1997). Additionally, Lagadec (1997) mentioned other learning processes revolving around the reviewing of previous crises and the critical decision making in the situations, as well as simulating scenarios in an attempt to give stakeholders learning experience (Borodzicz & Van Haparen, 2003: Lagadec, 1997: Walker, Giddings & Armstrong, 2011)

Similar conclusions have been made for other organizational structures such as NPOs. Learning from previous crises can have a positive impact on an NPO’s innovation as well as adaption (Mano, 2010). Additionally, research that exists has shown that NPOs can learn from previous crises and make the needed changes to improve the organization as well as work proactively for future situations (Mano, 2010: Schwarz & Pforr, 2010). However, despite the positive effects that come with learning from crises. The implementation of such learning processes has remained. An example is that studies described by Schwarz and Pforr (2011) and Spillan (2003) where many of the NPOs does not have a crisis management team, 27 percent and 17.6 percent respectively. Furthermore, it was also proven that NPOs do not

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implement crisis training for potential situations. In fact, less than 20 percent put resources towards it (Schwarz & Pforr, 2011: Spillan, 2003). Additionally, according to the study conducted by Schwarz and Pforr (2011), only 25 percent of NPOs use evaluation to assess crisis management decisions made.

When taking into consideration the organizational changing effects a crisis could have on NPOs as well as the dependability that exist towards factors such as stakeholders and reputation, the need for organizational learning is present. However, the implementation of crisis learning has not been established. Therefore, it exists a need to further investigate NPOs and the importance of learning processes. The crisis management research focusing on NPOs has historically has been scarce (Spillan, 2003: Spillan & Crandall, 2002). This also reinforces that there is a gap that needs to be filled.

1.2

Purpose

Due to the lack of implemented learning processes for NPOs, the purpose of this thesis is to investigate the importance of learning processes for nonprofit organizations. Therefore, this study aims to answer the following research question:

How nonprofit organizations recognize the importance of the learning processes within crisis management?

1.3

Delimitations

The main limitation that will be carefully regarded is to only investigate nonprofit organizations, and that these are all within the humanitarian or fundraising sector and located in Sweden due to the nature of the organizations primarily interviewed. Multiple of the organizations have international operations, but the thesis will be focused on their internal crises affecting the NPOs in Sweden. The reason for this is based on practical experiences stating that focusing on the internal crises, the handling of external aspects would improve dramatically as well (Ellis, 2016).

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1.4

Definitions

Crisis Management Plan - ”The Crisis Management Plan (CMP) is designed to

provide effective coordination among the managers of the organization in the event of an emergency or disruptive event” (Conrad, Fieldman & Simon, 2016)

Humanitarian - “Humanitarian organisations help to ensure that there is swift, efficient

humanitarian assistance available when sudden natural disasters strike or wars occur or in connection with long-term conflicts” ("Humanitarian Organisations", 2020).

Fundraising organization - ''activities undertaken to induce potential donors to

contribute money, securities, services, materials, facilities, other assets, or time” (IRS as cited in Hopkins, 2009)

Learning processes - “process that people pass through to acquire new knowledge

and skills and ultimately influence their attitudes, decisions and actions.” (Chalil, 2014)

Organizational learning - “A system of actions, actors, symbols and processes that

enables an organization to transform information into valued knowledge which in turn increases its long- run adaptive capacity” (Schwandt as cited in Gorelick, 2005)

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2. Frame of Reference

This chapter includes an overview of the existing literature connected to the field of studies of this paper. This section will be divided into three sub-headings; crisis management, nonprofit organizations, and learning processes. Furthermore, important developments within the studies but also how the three categories are connected.

2.1

Crisis management

Crisis management could be defined as “a process that is designed to prevent or lessen the damage a crisis can inflict on an organization and its stakeholders” (Coombs, 2007, p 1). The field of crisis management has been connected to certain factors such as reputation and image by previous researchers, in an attempt to analyze the effect of crisis management and its impact (Hearit, 1995: Sellnow, Ulmer & Snider 1998: Coombs, 2007). The importance of crisis management and its effectiveness has been discussed, with particular focus on the central role of monitoring the environment that the organization is a part of, in order to be aware of potential risks as well as assessing a crisis (Hearit, 2006) Existing literature that has touched upon crisis management and its relevance for organizations, where its presence has continued to grow. Scholars have emphasized on that crisis management should be considered as an integrated part of organizational strategies and not analyzed separately ( Pearson, Misra, Clair & Mitroff, 1997: Preble, 1997)

When it comes to the preparation of crisis management the literature shows that 80 percent of companies without a crisis management plan vanishes within years after an unresolved crisis (Penrose, 2000). The importance of contingencies has also been a common denominator by previous researchers when discussing crisis management. Crisis management plans have been highlighted as important for organizations by researchers (Lalonde, 2007: Spillan & Hough, 2002). However, for organizations the importance of crisis management has not been as clear. An argument frequently used in the violation of crisis management is the belief that the risk of a crisis occurring is not equal for all organizations, and therefore it may not be necessary for all

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organizations to put resources towards the development of crisis management (Spillan, 2003).

In the field of crisis management, it does exist some divergent regarding the process of crisis management in organizations. Pauchant and Mitroff created a model of five stages in a crisis management process, which included Signal Detection, Preparation/Prepare, Containment, Recovery and Learning (Jordan, Upright & Tice-Owens, 2016). This model was then further developed by Mitroff where the “Preparation” stage in the previous model was changed to “Prevention” (Mitroff, 1994). Coombs however, identified three stages in crisis management that did not align with previous models, the stages were Pre-crisis, Crisis and Post-crisis (Coombs, 2007).

2.1.1 Crisis

A crisis could be defined as “the sudden, unexpected creation of victims, accompanied by unplanned visibility for an organization” (Lukaszewski, 2013, p.3). What several of the authors mention is that crisis can both be anticipated but at other times it can reveal itself with little or no warning at all (Spillan, 2003; Coombs & Holladay, 2002; Penrose, 2000). However, the existing literature surrounding the commonality of crises do have conflicting opinions. Some state that crises are a very unusual phenomenon that organizations rarely encounter, or may not experience in the industry that the organization is residing in (Carmeli & Schaubroeck, 2008: Mitroff, 1998: Warner, Giddings & Armstrong, 2011). While others have emphasized that the crises can no longer be seen as unusual events due to the increase in diversity and geographical spread (Lalonde, 2007: Spillan & Crandall, 2002). An example of such is the indication brought forward on a national scale that every state in the United States of America would experience a statewide crisis within the span of two years (Spillan & Hough, 2002).

Not every adversity in an organization is a crisis, a situation could be sensitive and perceived to be important to handle. A misconception that exists within organizations is that emergencies are categorized and seen as crises that organizations have experienced (Lukaszewski, 2013: Jaques, 2007). To be able to categorize a situation as a crisis, it becomes important to define the weaknesses in the organization that

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could lead to a crisis, before implementing it in the organizational crisis response strategy (Lukaszewski, 2013). However emergencies can lead to a crisis if the situation is badly handled (Jaques, 2007). What has been expressed as a factor in the prevention of crises and emergencies is the level of preparedness from organizations ( Coombs, 2002: Jaques, 2008: Lukaszewski, 2013). Mano (2010) mentions that the handling of a crisis greatly depends on the level of preparedness within the organization, which then can determine the level of damage in the organization. Within the crisis management field, it does also exist some controversy regarding the classification of crises. Several researchers have discussed the different crises that exist in the business environment which has led to the creation of different models. However, what is disparate in the existing crisis classification literature is the number of crises that have been established (Jaques, 2007). An example of an early model in crisis management describing nine different crises was presented by Charles Meyers (Meyers & Holusha, 2018). Otto Lerbinger developed a model that categorized different crises in order to better strategies for the consequences of the respective crisis (Jaques, 2007). Additionally, Coombs also developed a crisis classification model, that involved four different crises designed to identify and separate crises (Coombs, 2002).

The requirements of a crisis have been discussed by researchers previously. However, when comparing existing literature, opinions do not align ( Billings, Milburn & Schaalman, 1980: Hermann, 2008 Keowon-McMullan, 1997). Furthermore, the integration of a learning stage in a crisis also differs in the models. According to Keowon-McMullan (1997) a crisis has four stages; “the prodromal crisis stage; the acute crisis stage; the chronic crisis stage; and the crisis resolution stage”. The first stage, the prodromal crisis stage, is when the crisis is approaching but it is not possible to know when it will occur, hence, one needs to prepare for its occurrence. Secondly, the acute crisis stage is when the crisis has occurred and the efforts are put into resolving the crisis as rapidly as possible while minimizing the damage of the organization. Following is the chronic crisis stage, this is after the crisis has been resolved where the emphasis is put on learning from the event, evaluating the weak parts of the organization and developing the crisis management plan. Lastly, the crisis resolution stage is after the crisis has occurred, been resolved, and the organization

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has recovered. This stage is aimed at since it implies full recovery or even improvement from the crisis. (Keowon- McMullan, 1997).

However, this contradicts the model presented by Charles Hermann, which is the model that has shaped recent thinking the most when it comes to crisis management perception (Billings, Milburn & Schaalman, 1980). Hermann’s model instead defined a crisis with three traits which included: Threat, Decision Time and Surprise (Billings, Milburn & Schaalman, 1980: Hermann, 2008). Where “Threat” is seen as an obstacle to hinder the potential goal of an organization, but it can only be seen if individuals behind the decision making can recognize the potential threat. “Decision time” described the time frame in which the correct decisions has the possibility to change the outcome (Billings, Milburn & Schaalman, 1980). If there is a lack of awareness in management the chance of a crisis is bigger, even with a crisis management plan in place (Billings, Milburn & Schaalman, 1980).

2.1.2 The Manager’s Role

Managers have a crucial role to play in crisis management which includes the task to analyze situations that could become organizational crises (Khodarami, 2009). There are multiple aspects that influence the outcome of a crisis, and it is crucial that the manager understands the situation in order to manage the crisis. Furthermore, the manager’s perception is what determines the means used for the resolution (Spillan & Crandall, 2002: Frandsen & Johansen, 2019). Additionally, another factor is the crisis manager’s experience and capability to foresee a crisis, enabling efficient crisis resolution and learning. This is particularly important due to the history of previous crises within the company also affects the result of the occurring crisis. Hence, the second crisis will affect the organization more than the first one (Sisco, Collins & Zoch, 2010).

Another point the literature mentions is if the manager and the organization perceive the crisis as an opportunity or threat. The authors mean that it has implications for organizational learning (Penrose, 2000). What Penrose (2000) is stating, is that there

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is a correlation between perceiving a crisis as an opportunity and the manager being more open to more diverse solutions, but also being more proactive in the actual planning before anything happens. This is since individuals think that opportunistic situations are more manageable and easier to handle. Hence, if the manager perceives a crisis as a threat, this can restrict the viewpoints and intake of different information. In other words, perception can affect the manager’s willingness to participate in crisis management activities, as well as learn from them (Penrose, 2000). Besides the perception of an actual crisis, the manager’s perception of learning is important. Managers need to possess the ability to measure the learning that takes place in an organization (Prugsamatz, 2010). Mano (2010) states that depending on how a manager prioritizes a good learning climate this will also be noticed in how they perceive changes. Furthermore, stating that there is a linkage between openness to information for problem-solving and the level of crisis preparedness (Mano, 2010). In previous literature, research shows that managers’ way of analyzing and responding to a crisis have an essential role in managing crises (Spillan, 2003: Spillan & Crandall, 2002). In an environment where a crisis may occur, a leader has the obligation to make sure that all subordinates are understanding the situation as well as making the response actions clear (Spillan, 2003). By doing so, managers’ view of a crisis help enables involved parties to take specific actions, which may aid the organization (Sisco, 2012). Previous literature also states that a manager taking action in a crisis enables personnel to work together despite having different responsibilities, or even operating at different locations (Kapucu, 2007).

Additionally, the impact a manager has is dependent, to a high extent, on the information a manager possess in regard to the situation. Research shows that management can recognize signs of a crisis as well as appropriate measures to prepare or prevent the crisis from happening (Spillan, 2003). In addition, management’s readiness could also aid other stakeholders in coping with the uncomfortable environment following the possibility of a crisis within an organization (ibid.). Coombs (1999) also shows that, by managers sharing information, and keeping them constantly updated about the situation, stakeholders will show more compassion, which is a great advantage when resolving a crisis.However, by reviewing the existing literature there is a lack of information about what crisis signals can be foreseen from the manager’s perspective, having an overall view of the organization and the

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environment around it. Additionally, due to the managers’ crucial role, it would be needed to explain the means that management could use in order to develop the abilities used in crisis management.

2.2

Nonprofit organizations

Nonprofit organizations exist for the public or common interest, and does not entail generating earning for any stakeholder. There are various types of NPOs and these can be anything from museums to hospitals or universities (Kearns, 1994). NPOs are held to a high standard which may make them less expected to enter a stage of crisis ( Sisco, Collins & Zoch, 2010). However, the risks are present for any organization, including an NPO since they are extensively dependent on their stakeholders such as donors and volunteers (Bielefeld, 1994: Hafsi & Thomas, 2005: Sisco, Collins & Zoch, 2010: Sisco, 2012). The meaning that stakeholders hold on NPOs is also one reason to possess crisis management skills within the organizations, since it helps organizations to protect the stakeholders, restore the trust and image after a crisis has occurred (Jordan et al., 2016). NPOs potentially face one of two crisis outcomes according to Jordan et al., (2016), where the first crisis points to a severe outcome which may lead to injuries, damage to facilities or financial loss. Furthermore, the second potential crisis for NPOs revolves around the damage of the organizational reputation (ibid.). This is also something that aligns with existing literature regarding the damage crises can have on the reputations of organizations (Lerbinger, 2012: Sellnow, Ulmer & Snider 1998: Coombs, 2007). However, the consequences of a crisis for an NPO is far greater than the loss of reputation, by enduring a crisis an NPO risk the existence of the organization ( Sisco, Collins & Zoch, 2010: Sisco, 2012).

Furthermore, an NPO is not profit-driven, however, that does not mean that the economic state does not affect the NPOs. Like most organizations, NPOs are dependent on income, examples of such could be donations or revenue (Sisco, 2012: Sisco, Collins & Zoch, 2010). NPOs generally have fewer resources than for-profit organizations, despite the difference between the goals of the organizations in question being slim (Sisco, Collins & Zoch, 2010). Therefore, in order for NPOs to

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deliver the intended message, a need to be more creative with the communication strategies exists (ibid.). The financial consequences of a crisis have been discussed by researchers, and it may lead to significant challenges as well as long term changes (Coombs, 2007: Zhao, 2013 ). This was also touched upon by McVeigh (2019) who stated that a crisis could potentially lead to employees losing their jobs and resources being reallocating. In published literature, it is also mentioned that NPOs has a hard time handling a crisis due to fewer resources (Mano, 2010: Schwarz & Pforr, 2011: Sisco, 2012) According to Sisco (2012), NPOs need to prioritize where to allocate resources, and in multiple organizations, crisis management is perceived to be a luxury that can not be afford (Sisco, 2012). Moreover, mentioned by Coombs & Holladay (2002) is that NPOs often tend to learn from other organizations’ mistakes, since that is a way of saving resources while still evolving operations (Coombs & Holladay, 2002).

Another point that was stated in the literature is how nonprofits can be more exposed to a crisis compared to a for-profit enterprise, since the organizations many times do not have the same resources (Sisco, Collins & Zoch, 2010). In addition, it was shown that some organizations believe that there is not enough time to focus on future crises due to the resources being allocated to focus on present problems (Spillan, 2003). With this being said, one of the major threats to an NPO is a betrayal of the public trust, due to it being one of the ground pillars within the NPOs operations (Sisco, 2012). Losing trust can be done over one single act but rebuilding it takes time (Hinn, 2012). What is not as developed in the literature is what NPOs focus on when a crisis occurs but also what type of routines that are used in general.

What research shows is that organizations in general lack in the preparation of crises. It also exists a belief that NPOs will be able to handle a crisis without contingencies such as a crisis management plan, and a crisis management team (Augustine, 1995: Spillan & Crandall, 2002: Spillan, 2003). Although NPOs tend to experience crises, the implementation of crisis management strategies and processes is questionable ( Bridgeland, McNaught, Reed & Dunkelman, 2009: Schwarz, Pforr, 2010: Spillan, 2003). An example of such is that according to studies, only 30 percent of NPOs have a crisis management plan in place in times of crisis (Schwarz & Pforr, 2010: Bridgeland, McNaught, Reed & Dunkelman, 2009). The reason for the fact differs,

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McNaught, Reed & Dunkelman, (2009) mentioned that a reason for this may reside in resource issues for NPOs. While other literature stated that it may be due to the absence of knowledge or understanding of the situations that are occurring within the NPO (Spillan, 2003: Spillan & Crandall, 2002). The importance of crisis management was explained by the previous American Red Cross president Elizabeth Dole as essential: “The midst of a disaster is the poorest possible time to establish new relationships and to introduce ourselves to new organizations… When you have taken the time to build rapport, then you can make a call at 2 a.m. when the river’s rising and expect to launch a well-planned, smoothly conducted response.” (Dole as cited in Augustine, 1995).

Confusion in the literature exists in relation to how NPOs are aware of the need for crisis management. Where the theoretical importance does not reflect the practical implementation of crisis management or the development of it. As touched upon there are also indications in the literature that NPOs lack in the understanding and awareness of elements connected to crises, which could be argued to be an important advantage to possess. Furthermore, it exists a need to investigate the advantages of developing the learning aspects within NPOs, to see if a correlation exists with diminishing crises, especially when taking the statement made regarding a second crisis having more devastating effects than the first one (Sisco, Collins & Zoch, 2010).

2.3

Learning Processes

An important part of crisis communication is the multiple learning processes implemented as a part of companies’ crisis management plan (Wang, 2008). An organization and its systems should be developed in a way that enables the learning from crises ( Zehir & Yavuz, 2014). Learning processes are based on the assumption that managers learn from past experiences and implement these experiences in order to foresee and prevent future crises (Carmeli & Schaubroeck, 2008: Lagadec, 1997: Mano, 2010: Smith & Elliot, 2007). Wang (2008) mentioned that organizations often evaluate and learn from a crisis after its occurrence, however, he argues by learning before a crisis, one could prevent it from happening. Also, by implementing learning

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processes, an organization will establish the means needed in which desired outcomes can be fulfilled (Pforr & Hosie, 2008). Previous literature has touched upon different ways that learning can be achieved in the midst of crises. However, this has been examined for organizations in general (Carmeli & Schaubroeck, 2008: Lagadec, 1997: Smith & Elliot, 2007). Furthermore, literature focusing on learning stated that one way to achieve organizational learning would be to learn from networking and forming cooperative partnerships (Prugsamatz, 2010: Stern, 1997). Stern (1997) also discussed own experiences as a way to interpret situations and learn from them. In addition, virtual experience was also discussed as a learning process which was described as a resource focused alternative (Stern, 1997). Previous crisis management literature has discussed the Double-Loop Theory and its importance in organizational learning (Bakacsi, 2010: Pforr & Hosie, 2008). Moreover, the Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) has had an important part in the strategic way of viewing crisis situations for organizations, and being able to respond in a suitable way (Sisco, 2012).

2.3.1 Double-Loop Learning

The Double-Loop Learning Theory is based on the concept of learning from a past crisis that evolved from an abrupt change in their environment and implementing the changes necessary for successful crisis management (Mano, 2010). When discussing the double-loop learning, one may link it to the single-loop learning as well, therefore the difference will be distinguished between the two theories. Argyris & Schön (1997) illustrated the difference between single and double-loop learning, this is shown in Figure 1.

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Figure 1 - Illustration of single and double-loop learning (Argyris & Schön, 1997)

“One might say that participants in organizations are encouraged to learn to perform as long as the learning does not question the fundamental design, goals, and activities of their organizations” (Argyris, 1976), this is part of what the single-loop learning entails. Usually when working with a task, feedback automatically comes from the surroundings, and this can both be positive or negative, but it informs whether the goal was achieved or not. Generally, in accordance with this feedback, the operation is often adapted to be more efficient, which is why it is called single-loop learning (Tagg, 2010). The literature states that single-loop learning is most suitable in static and passive environments, however, most business environments are neither static nor passive (Tagg, 2010). This is the reason why authors often argue that double-loop learning is a more suitable way of learning since it focuses on more than just changing the objectives, it also includes questioning the assumptions (Cartwright, 2002). Furthermore, double-loop learning takes a deeper look into the norms and the structure that the organization has. With this learning process theory, the organization raises questions and looks at other alternatives and perceptions, but also other types of ways that the firm can address existing problems as well as future ones (Cartwright, 2002; Mano, 2010: Pforr & Hosie, 2008). According to Argyris who states that “the unilateral control that usually accompanies advocacy is rejected because the typical purpose of advocacy is to win; and so, articulateness and advocacy are coupled with an invitation to confront one another's views and to alter them, in order to produce the

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position that is based on the most complete valid information possible and to which participants can become internally committed”. (Argyris, 1976) What Argyris is implying is that only a skilled leader could accomplish what the double-loop learning entails. What is also highlighted about the double-loop model is how people and groups need to be open about changes in order to succeed, but this can lead to questioning the basic way of how things are handled in the organization which is not something everyone knows how to take (Argyris, 1976).

Hence, this concept can be connected to how organizations evaluate and develop their communication and marketing activities. Double-loop shows how important the manager’s openness and planning skills before a crisis occurs is. Furthermore, this model points out that there is a difference between routine problems and if an organization is considering where the problem occurred from, and also understanding how to use the knowledge for the future. With this in mind, if the managers do not reflect and just do, new knowledge that may be needed in order to develop effective strategies may not be seen (Blackman & Ritchie, 2008). However, the literature does not give clear examples of how managers experience can be connected to how they are open to changes or perceive an upcoming crisis.

2.3.2 Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT)

Extensive research has been done in regard to the learning process named Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT). This theory is also a common denominator between multiple articles, and the theory builds on attribution theory, hence, that individuals are driven to understand and control their environment (Munyon, Jenkins, Crook, Edwards & Harvey, 2019). In the SCCT, one evaluates the crisis, the responsibility attributed to it and then matches an appropriate crisis response (Coombs, 2007: Munyon et al., 2019). The SCCT therefore enables organizations to learn which type of response strategy should be used, and which type that should be avoided (Coombs & Schmidt, 2000). Additionally, SCCT connects the aspects that should be considered when deciding a crisis response, such as assumptions and relationships, to protect the organizational reputation (Coombs & Holladay, 2002): Munyon et al., 2019). Specifically, three crisis clusters and response strategies exist as a way for managers to de-escalate a crisis (Coombs, 2002, 2007. According to

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SCCT, many crises can be handled in a similar way due to the responsibilities being similar (Coombs, 2002). The first crisis cluster in the theory is “victim clusters”. Crises that are categorized in the victim cluster are situations where an organization has very little or no responsibility. Instead, it is other factors or events that have a more central role, examples of such could be natural disasters, rumors or personal issues within the workplace. The second cluster is named “accident crisis cluster”, which includes damages or technical problems, as accidents or product recalls. This cluster relates to the responsibilities of the organization in question. Moreover, the final crisis cluster is labeled “preventable crisis cluster”, which mostly focuses on human and organizational errors. A crisis within this cluster could be in regard to victims, accidental and preventable. The SCCT states that stakeholders view a crisis from the preventable crisis cluster when analyzing a situation. (Coombs, 2007: Sisco, Collins & Zoch, 2010)

Additionally, the SCCT states that the organization has the most responsibility in the final cluster (Sisco, Collins & Zoch, 2010). Therefore, accidental crisis cluster and preventable crisis cluster will be focused on in the research, due to the relevancy in internal crisis situations connected to the clusters. The response strategies are designed to shape attribution of a crisis, change perception for the organization in a crisis as well as reduce the negative aspects that have arisen from a crisis (Coombs, 2007). Moreover, crisis response strategies will also assist in the protection of an organization’s reputation in an ongoing crisis. The SCCT requires it to exist a relationship between the crisis and the response of the crisis (Coombs, 2007). The primary crisis response strategies that exist according to Coombs (2007), are denying the crisis response strategy and bolstering crisis response strategies. Denying crisis response strategies includes decisions that vary in the outcome, while bolstering response strategies are used to reinforce the reputation of the organization (ibid.). According to Coombs (2007) the factors surrounding crisis response strategies are seen in Figure 2:

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Figure 2 SCCT crisis response strategies (Coombs, 2007, p. 170)

By using crisis response strategies, the actions taken by the organizational leaders will affect the stakeholders and their perception of the crisis. This will also lead to that the perceptions will form the evaluation of the reputation that the organization holds as well as their thoughts about future interactions with the organization (Coombs, 2007). The SCCT empowers organizations and managers in particular with the tools to protect the organizational reputation impacted during a crisis. After categorized the existing crisis in a fitting cluster, the manager can decide upon a calculated response action by choosing a crisis response strategy (Coombs & Holladay, 2002). Research conducted shows that the most frequent use of response strategies is bolstering crisis response strategies, followed by denying crisis response strategies. In the utilization of the crisis response strategies, previous research indicates that in more than 90 percent of the cases, various combinations are used (Kim, Avery & Lariscy, 2009). A frequently used response strategy due to its efficiency is apologizing and being transparent (Hearit,1995: Kim, Avery & Lariscy, 2009). However, when a single crisis response strategy was used, it was often described as ineffective (Kim, Avery & Lariscy, 2009). Also, according to Andrée & Ronge (2015) it is often the most sudden crisis that leads to a bad crisis response.

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Previous research surrounding SCCT and crisis communication theories, in general, has put a lot of emphasis on the for-profit business environment, and disregarded the reputational impact that SCCT has on NPOs. The neglect in the research area indicates a gap in the existing literature. Research has shown that there is a great importance of reputation as an asset for all organizations, and that is no different for NPOs (Jordan et al., 2016: Lerbinger, 2012). However, published literature regarding public relations practitioners states that organizations in the past, that have experienced a scandal or reputational damage have been impacted negatively, where some never recovered (Sisco, 2012). Moreover, the existing literature is to a large part also written from a theoretical standpoint, currently, there are not many organizational examples used to further strengthen the arguments surrounding the theory.

3. Method and Data

This chapter includes the research design, research philosophy, and research approach that were used in this study. Furthermore, this chapter includes an overview of the data collection, sampling method and the interviews along with an analysis of the qualitative data. The chapter finishes with a discussion of trustworthiness, limitations, and ethics of the research conducted.

3.1

Research Design

In order to conduct research to answer the research questions stated, there are four possible approaches that need to be taken into consideration. These four approaches are descriptive, exploratory, explanatory and evaluative design of the research. A descriptive research question starts with “What”, “When”, “Where”, “Who” or “Why”(Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2016). Descriptive research is also flexible and can be used with multiple theoretical approaches, sampling alternative and data gathering strategies (Colorafi & Evans, 2016). Furthermore, an exploratory approach is an effective way of asking open-ended questions which will lead to a deeper understanding of the research focus. There are multiple ways of conducting an exploratory study, where interviews are one of the most commonly used tools to collect data (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2016). In addition, explanatory studies present a

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relationship between variables in the field which provides the researcher with the opportunity to familiarize with the issues that will be studied (ibid.). Lastly, the evaluative study focuses on the effectiveness of an organizational strategy, policy, program, initiative or process by analyzing the functionality of it (ibid.). Since the aim of the thesis is to receive knowledge and gain a deeper overall understanding of the importance of learning processes for NPOs in crisis management, the research will be conducted from an exploratory standpoint. The methodology of research is either qualitative or quantitative or a mixture of both. Quantitative data is connected to numerical data, examples of this could be questionnaires, statistics or graphs, while qualitative data is described as data in a non-numeric form ( Collis & Hussey, 2014: Saunders et al., 2016;). In this study, a qualitative approach will be used to collect data, and the primary data will be collected using interviews, which is a non-numeric form of data collection (Saunders et al., 2016). The reason for this is due to a qualitative research approach being connected to the purpose of an exploratory study, to investigate the underlying issues within the field (ibid.). Additionally, the choice of conducting interviews will add value to the exploratory approach since it will provide thoughts and knowledge from the participants (Easterby-Smith, Thorpe & Jackson, 2015).

3.2

Research Philosophy

Research philosophy is a way of guiding the process of understanding the area of study, and this will be done through a research paradigm. A research paradigm is based on the assumptions of people, regarding the way the knowledge and personal views about the world (Collis & Hussey, 2014). Furthermore, it becomes a tool to analyze and interpret concepts and results surrounding the research (Collis & Hussey, 2014). A research paradigm consists of ontological, epistemological and methodological assumptions (ibid.). The ontological dimension covers the nature of the reality, while epistemological revolves around the knowledge that is deemed acceptable, and lastly the methodological dimensions surrounding how the research will be conducted (Collis & Hussey, 2014: Easterby-Smith, Thorpe & Jackson, 2015). When conducting the research there are different paradigms that need to be taken into consideration, which are positivism, interpretivism and in some cases pragmatism. Positivism was founded on the idea that social reality is objective (Collis & Hussey, 2014). It identifies the data collected in a qualitative way with propositions that then

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will be tested, based on theories. Interpretivism, however, was established based on the criticism of positivism. Interpretivism was created on the assumption that social reality is in our minds, and therefore subjective and investigable (Collis & Hussey, 2014). Pragmatism is described by Collis & Hussey (2014) as a way of using multiple paradigms in the same study, which could possibly lead to a more evolved answer to the research question.

Table 1 - The main differences between positivism and interpretivism

Source: Carras, M. (2019) based on Pizam and Mansfeld (2009, p. 337)

Given the paradigms existing in research philosophy, interpretivism will be used to conduct the research. The research will also include individual experiences and perspectives, this also reinforces the choice of interpretivism (Collis & Hussey, 2014). Moreover, when analyzing the learning processes in crises, elements connected to social constructions will not be avoidable since the way an organization acts from a crisis differs depending on the organization. In which yet again points toward interpretivism (Collis & Hussey, 2014: Polkinghorn, 2005). Interviews will be conducted and used as primary data as mentioned, while the secondary data will be collected by using a variety of sample keywords and articles.

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3.3

Research Approach

Three main approaches that could be used when conducting the research are induction, deduction, and abduction (Saunders et al., 2016). Firstly, the inductive approach is based on understanding the data collected and the knowledge related to the observation made (Thomas, 2003). Furthermore, the approach is used to collect data which will lead to untested conclusions being presented (Given, 2008). The inductive approach also aims to build theory based on emerging themes (Easterby-Smith et al., 2015). Moreover, a deductive approach is developed from a theory or a conceptual framework and is commonly used as a research strategy when developing a hypothesis to test the theory. By forming a hypothesis and examining the premises as well as testing them, the findings can be analyzed. If the result does not match the hypothesis, then it is false, and the hypothesis should be rejected (Saunders et al., 2016). Abduction however, is the operation of stating a hypothesis connecting it to known patterns. It is based on anomaly or surprising information that occurs in the research and makes it possible to develop a new hypothesis (Liedtka, Martin & Dew, 2007). The approach uses a combination of deduction and induction since the strategy moves both from theory to data, and from data to theory (Saunders et al., 2016). Abduction also enables theory modification or the creation of new theory (ibid.).

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Table 2 - Characterization of Abductive, Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Source: Saunders et al., (2016, p. 145)

This thesis does not focus on building untested theory, nor does it focus on theory falsification or verification which is a known characteristic in deduction (Saunders et al., 2016), hence neither induction or deduction will be the main approach. The aim is to understand to what extent learning processes are important, and this will be done by using an abductive approach. This is due to the research focuses on existing theories and its parameters. The data will be collected and used to further analyze the research area, and by connecting it to existing theory the hope is that it will allow for valuable findings to emerge.

3.4

Method

3.4.1 Literature Search

With the frame of reference in mind, all the data has been collected from electronic and physical sources. The electronic data consists of a mix with scientific articles and electronic books, where the majority has been obtained from Google Scholar. The main reason the database was used is because of the wide range of academic journals and data it obtains. Despite that, one problem that appeared was the restriction on

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some articles on s number of databases. However, this was solved by using other databases that the university had access to, it often was a database where the scientific article originated from. This was, for example, SAGE journals online, Scopus, and Taylor & Francis Online. Aside from these databases, the majority of the articles were still collected from Google Scholar, due to its convenience in displaying the most relevant articles within the research field. And this, for instance, can be controlled by looking at how many have quoted the article. In regards to the physical sources, the books were all accessed through the library at Jönköping University. The data collection process is found and summarized in Table 3. An additional way to analyze the credibility and validity of the secondary sources is by impact factor. The impact factor is a way to describe the influential impact a journal has had on academic research. A high impact factor is considered positive, while a low impact factor is considered negative. Impact factor uses the average citations per year on the articles in the journal, as a measurement of comparison ( Rondahl, 2017). In this thesis, the journal impact factor has to an extent been based on the Social Sciences Citation Index, which is part of Journal Citation Reports (Clarivate Analytics, 2010 ). When choosing secondary data to implement, the impact factor has been analyzed in order to enhance the quality of the thesis. By using the impact factor and taking the number of citations into consideration, it provided a foundation where the most relevant articles could be cited and used as supportive information. The impact factor of each journal selected could be found in the SCCI index, however, there existed some journals that were not apart of the index but the impact factor could be located on the journal’s website.

Table 3 - Visual overview of the data collection process

Frame of References

Databases Google Scholar, SAGE journals online, Scopus, Taylor & Francis Online, Academia

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Learning Processes

Search Words Crisis Management; Execution Plan; Crisis Management Execution Plan; The View of Crisis Management Execution Plan; Perception of Crisis Management; Crisis

Nonprofit; NPO; Not-for-profit; NPO Health Organizations; Nonprofit Sector Crisis; Handling Crisis NPO; Healthcare; Humanitarian

Organization: Crisis Learning: Learning processes: Fundraising:

Type of Literature Scientific articles, Books, E-Books

Criteria to Include an Article The search word had to match either the title of

the article, be in the abstract, be one of the keywords or be included in the content when searching in the text.

Source: Developed by the Authors

3.4.2 Sampling

Taking into account that this study uses the research philosophy interpretivism, the most relevant method of collecting data was qualitative. The most suitable alternative then was using interviews to get the primary data. Given that it would be impossible to reach all nonprofit organizations in Sweden, we simply had to use a sample representing the field. Considering that the main objectives of this thesis, a non-probability approach was most relevant when selecting the sample. In other words, the sample was not randomly chosen (Collis & Hussey, 2014).

This thesis has one main type of respondent which is the participants from the organizations. The rationale behind interviewing different organizations is to gain a

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deep insight into their opinions and viewpoint of crisis management. In addition, to investigate if there are any type of similarities in previous research, but also to see if there are any links to the researchers’ point of view. However, it should be taken into consideration that due to a limited amount of time and resources, the choice of only focusing on a certain type of participant limits the data collection from other parties, which could prove to be valuable for the purpose of the study. In regards to which organizations were included in the research, there were some requirements they had to fulfill. The first requirement was that they all had to be work within the humanitarian and fundraising sector. In addition to that, the organization needed to be in the

“90-konto”, which is a direct translation to the 90 accounts. The be qualified to be a “90

konto”, an organization is only permitted a maximum of 25 percent of total revenue invested in administration and the remaining 75 percent of total revenue should go to the end cause (Svensk insamlingskontroll, 2020). In addition, to be classified as a transparent NPO in Sweden, an organization should to be a part of “90 onto” which is controlled by Svensk insamlingskontroll (Dagens industri, 2017a). Some of the organizations were selected because they have had a crisis that had been acknowledged in media in the past years. Another criteria for why an organization was picked for this research was on the basis of their vulnerability towards a crisis. Hence, if a crisis occurred it would extensively affect the organization, and lead to an absence of funds which is previously mentioned to be a great risk for NPOs.

The sampling method used for this thesis is called judgmental or purposive sampling, this means that the participants were selected for a number of reasons (Collis & Hussey, 2014). The judgmental method works in the sense that the participants are contacted because of either their expertise or earlier experience within the specific topic. In other words, the participants have knowledge in the field and therefore are in a position to share relevant insights and opinions (ibid.). However, if the person contacted were not suitable as a participant, they forwarded the email to the correct person within the organization. This is an example of how snowballing or network sampling works (Collis & Hussey, 2014). For this thesis, the most suitable person to answer in the interviews would be managers in the crisis management department. Preferably the Head of Crisis Management/Communication, due to the fact that they are responsible for crises happening both internally and externally, and therefore having most insights into how the organization is dealing with this matter. Due to the

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fact that not all organizations have a crisis management department, other employees responsible for this type of task were selected. Examples of participants in the interviews were the Secretary-General (Bo Wallenberg), Head of Crisis Management and Emergency Preparation (Lasse Lähnn), and Press, Public Affairs (Liv Landell Major). With this, a variety is seen of people having different positions at the organizations.

Due to the interviews being conducted in a time of crisis, regarding the spreading of the Covid-19 virus, all interviews were done by telephone to eliminate any unnecessary risk. This made it harder to analyze the interviews due to the potential loss of verbal and nonverbal cues from the participants. Moreover, an interesting point regarding the interviews is that 37 organizations were contacted, however, the four organizations that participated were the only ones willing to get interviewed. Some of the other organizations did not answer, others did not have the resources nor the time, which is something one has to have in mind. There are over 430 active organizations in the “90 konto” (Dagens industri, 2017b), hence the four organizations that were interviewed were chosen and not randomly picked. A full list that contains more details of the interviews can be found in Table 4 interviews. The amount of active NPO in Sweden arguably reinforces the belief that there may be organizations that will deem the research conducted valuable for the continued business operation.

Table 4 - Interviews

Name Organization Position Date of the Interview Interview Length Techniqu e Bo Wallenberg Anders Mårtensson Barnmissione n Secretary-General Chief of the International Department 2020-03-02 00:41:32 Telephone

Lasse Lähnn The Swedish Red Cross Head of Crisis Management and Emergency Preparation 2020-03-03 00:43:23 Telephone

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Beata Fejer The Swedish Cancer Society Responsible for Internal Communication & Employer Branding 2020-03-06 00:32:52 Telephone Liv Landell Major

Majblomman Press, Public Affairs

2020-03-17

00:40:01 Telephone

Source: Developed by the Authors

3.4.3 Interviews

There are several approaches on how to collect qualitative data, and focus groups, protocol, observation, interviews, and diaries are just a few examples of them (Collis & Hussey, 2014). In regard to this type of thesis and research, interviews or focus groups are considered to be the most suitable option. However, it is decided only to conduct interviews since gathering respondents for the focus group would be problematic due to some of the organizations do not have the time, money or enough employees to participate in this type of occasion. Furthermore, conducting focus groups would be problematic due to the difficulty of finding a suitable time and place where all are able to attend since the organizations are located in different parts of the country. In terms of using interviews when collecting data, the participants that take part will be asked questions related to the topic with the intention to collect information on what they feel, think or do in specific situations (Collis & Hussey, 2014). Since the purpose of the thesis is to gather insights into how nonprofit organizations value crisis management and learning processes, open-ended questions will be used rather than closed questions. Meaning the question asked will not be able to be answered with a ‘yes’ or ‘no’, instead, each question will be discussed and result in deeper insights (Collis & Hussey, 2014).

Interviews can either be semi-structured or unstructured. When using unstructured interviews, the interviewer does not prepare questions in advance instead they are developed while conducting the interview. In contrast, in semi-structured interviews, the questions are prepared by the interviewer beforehand, however, some new questions may arise during the interview, such as follow-up questions for example

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(Collis & Hussey, 2014). For this research study, open-ended questions were developed in advance and asked during semi-structured interviews. Furthermore, if requested, the questions were shared with the interviewee beforehand. The interview-questions can be found in Appendices 9.1 to 9.2. The interview interview-questions were evolved during the process of analyzing the existing information about crisis management and organizational learning, as well as attempting to ask questions that would satisfy the research question.

To have successful interviews, there are a few issues one has to take into account. The first point is the researcher’s knowledge about the topic and the organization’s interviewing. Hence, to be able to conduct a high standard interview, the researcher needs to have general knowledge about the subject (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2016). Secondly is credibility. As stated previously, when using the semi-structured method, the questions were prepared before the interview took place. This is so that the interviewees that wanted to prepare beforehand could, for example, discuss any question with a colleague. Thirdly is the chosen location, this is in regards to both the interviewer and the interviewee. Most important is that the interviewee felt comfortable with the location since the whole research is dependent on their participation. Therefore, all the interviewees that participated in the research chose the location themselves, which resulted to be telephone interviews. This is why the fourth and last issue was not as relevant for this research, however still worth mentioning. The fourth is connected to the appearance of the researcher, which is connected to the dress code, behavioral standard and time management (Saunders et al., 2016).

In regards to techniques that can be used when conducting interviews are face-to-face, telephone, or online (Saunders et al., 2016). Face-to-face and telephone were considered to be the most suitable methods for this type of research. However, as mentioned previously about the Covid-19 virus, all the interviews were conducted through telephone. Although there are several advantages, the primary is that there is no travel cost in regards to geographical distance, and at the same time have personal contact (Novick, 2008). On the other hand, there can be some limitations when using this technique as well. Many times when conducting a telephone interview, it is during working hours which then can restrict the participant to put of time for the interview. Another problem can be that the respondents might not be as open to answering

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questions when talking on the phone which then will affect the quality of the answer. Lastly, in terms of recording the interviews were done as validation for trustworthiness (Collis & Hussey, 2014), but also to use for transcription later on. The interviewees approved to record before the research was started. The actual recording was made through a mobile telephone since the quality of the sound was as desired. Notes were taken during the interview to complement the recording. After each interview was held, a transcription was made directly afterward so that the data could be used in the analysis section. This was done to get a clear picture of the opinions from the participants, without having the interviewers own interpretation.

3.4.4 Analysis of qualitative data

When conducting semi-structured interviews, as stated by Saunders et. al. (2016), a variation of questions will be asked, and all might not be relevant for the end discussion. However, they are still included and important for the flow of the interview. Furthermore, additional questions might be added during the interview in order to explore the research question further.

3.4.4.1. Thematic analysis

Thematic analysis is a tool used when conducting qualitative research. The analytical method is frequently used despite the lack of acknowledgment it has received (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The method identifies existing patterns within the data collected as well as providing a theoretical framework used to identify the themes that exist within the data. However, the analysis differs from other methods that have the same purpose, examples of such are interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) and grounded theory. Another benefit of using thematic analysis is that it is not bounded to any theory while IPA and grounded theory are (ibid.). Moreover, the analysis also makes it possible to avoid producing a complete grounded theory analysis within the qualitative research, which could be considered beneficial for less experienced qualitative researchers (Braun & Clarke, 2006).Thematic analysis could be used in an attempt to capture the experiences and the reality of the participants, which in this case is from the interviews. In addition, the analysis can also be used to further explain the existing topic and the effects of it ( ibid.). Since qualitative research is considered a diverse way of conducting research, the flexibility of the analysis could be considered

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as important, therefore, the thematic analysis will strengthen the opportunities to gather rich data despite existing complexity (ibid.).

In order to form a thematic analysis there are several steps that will be taken to code the data and identify the themes within the data. Firstly, the data shall be collected and transcribed. This will be done in order to interpret the data as well as an opportunity to become more familiar with the data. The transcription will be done in an ethical and precise way. Without any changes to the nature of the quotes. Moreover, it will be essential to become familiar with the data, which will be done by reading the transcription several times as well as highlighting the parts that were repeated by different participants. By doing so, the process of data analysis could be conducted by categorizing the comments that were related or similar, also known as coding. Coding is an essential process of identifying important aspects of the data collected. In addition, the data that has been coded should provide a relevant description that can be used to answer the research question. ( Braun & Clarke, 2012). In the initial phase of the coding process, a large data set was coded in order to get an overview of the existing data. The large amount of data coded laid the foundation, which then was evolved to initial coding categories. The codes consisted of words or full sentences describing its nature. By doing so, it would become easier to make the connection between the codes. The codes were conducted in an individual document and next to the data. Furthermore, as the coding process continued, data that was considered irrelevant to the research question was reduced. After analyzing and organizing the data, as well as re-coding, themes started to emerge based on the similarities but also differences with the answers from the participants and existing literature as well. Examples of coding categories were: crisis prevention, learning strategies, learning possibilities, crisis handling, information sharing, crisis response, crisis effects. The coding categories led to five themes: Transparency, Preparation, Evaluation, Experience, Observation

3.5

Trustworthiness

As mentioned by Saunders et al. (2016) there are four main aspects that need to be considered when conducting research, and these are reliability, validity, interviewer and interviewee bias. However, since this study will be conducted through qualitative

Figure

Figure 1 - Illustration of single and double-loop learning (Argyris & Schön, 1997)
Figure 2 SCCT crisis response strategies (Coombs, 2007, p. 170)
Table 1 - The main differences between positivism and interpretivism
Table 2  -  Characterization of Abductive, Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
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References

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