The role of female entrepreneurs in a changing society : Investigating a business field that has experienced rapid change during the past decades

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The role of female

entrepreneurs in a changing

society

Investigating a business field that has experienced rapid change during

the past decades.

BACHELOR THESIS WITHIN: Business Administration NUMBER OF CREDITS: 15

PROGRAMME OF STUDY: Marketing Management AUTHOR: Fanny Lange Edman & Liisa Punkari TUTOR: Jasna Pocek

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Bachelor Thesis in Business Administration

Title: The role of female entrepreneurs in a changing society - Investigating a business field that

has experienced rapid change during the past decades.

Authors: Fanny Lange Edman & Liisa Punkari Tutor: Jasna Pocek

Date: 2020-05-23

Keywords: female entrepreneurship, entrepreneurship, development, societal change.

Abstract

Background: Female entrepreneurship has been through a big upswing during the past decades.

More women are deciding to start their own business and engage in the business creation world, which is proven to be one of the most important and fast-growing aspects of entrepreneurship worldwide. However, in the past, females who made such decisions have faced many obstacles and resistance in terms of treatment, financial support and combining working and family life. Further, previous research regarding female entrepreneurship and its correlation to societal change proves that the progression is affected by external factors such as governmental institutions, attitudes and fundamental assets (first developed by Baumol in 1990).

Purpose: By identifying certain rapid changes that society has been through during the past

decades, the purpose of this study is to highlight what these developments mean for female entrepreneurs and their current role in a changing society.

Method: This is a qualitative research based on an inductive approach where semi-structured

interviews are the foundation of its empirical findings. The method has adopted the Gioia (2012) method with the purpose of identifying patterns and themes that can generate useful conclusions on the chosen topic.

Conclusion: The findings show that digitalization and technology have been two of the most

significant changes in society during the past decades. These have generated more role models, new social networks, better communication and new entrepreneurial fields - all promoting the growth of female entrepreneurship. Combining work and family life seem to be primarily an obstacle and it is no longer a huge disadvantage to be a female when starting a new business. Its developments have resulted in new advantages for investments and gaining opportunities, as well as new entrepreneurial fields.

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Acknowledgements

First and foremost, we would like to give our deepest gratitude to our tutor Jasna Pocek for her many suggestions, implications and encouragement throughout the whole process. Without her

guidance and belief in us and our work, the results would not have been the same. Secondly, we want to say thank you to all participants for their investments of time to the interviews. Every single one of you have provided our thesis with the most important content of

all - your personal experiences and opinions.

Lastly, we would like to share our appreciation with everyone involved in the process of the thesis; opponent groups, tutors, Jönköping University and family, who all have been a part of this

journey.

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4.1SOCIETAL CHANGE ... 32 4.1.1 Technology ... 32 4.1.2 Digitalization ... 32 4.2MOTIVATION ... 34 4.2.1 Pull-factors ... 34 4.2.2 Control ... 34 4.3OBSTACLES ... 35 4.3.1 External ... 35 4.3.2 Internal ... 36 4.4FAMILY LIFE ... 36 4.4.1 Challenge ... 36 4.4.2 Superwoman ... 38 4.5ATTITUDES ... 38 4.5.1 Negative ... 38 4.5.2 Advantages ... 39 5. ANALYSIS... 41 5.1SOCIETAL CHANGE ... 41 5.2MOTIVATION ... 42 5.3OBSTACLES ... 43 5.4FAMILY LIFE ... 44 5.5ATTITUDES ... 44 6. CONCLUSION ... 45 7. DISCUSSION ... 47 7.1CONTRIBUTIONS ... 47 7.2PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS ... 47 7.3LIMITATIONS ... 48 7.4CRITICAL REFLECTION... 48 7.5FUTURE RESEARCH ... 49 9. REFERENCES ... 50 10.APPENDICES ... 58 10.1APPENDIX 1 ... 58 10.2APPENDIX 2 ... 60

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Tables and Figures

TABLE 1:INTERVIEWS TABLE ... 28

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1. Introduction

This chapter aims at introducing background knowledge and previous findings on the current and historical state on the field of female entrepreneurship. It is followed by an outline of the problem formulation, purpose statement and research question of this study.

1.1 Background

As research shows, female-owned innovations and business are one of the most important and fast-growing aspects of entrepreneurship worldwide (Brush & Cooper, 2012). It is also one of the societal elements that creates wealth, economic welfare, employment and change in societies (Brush & Cooper, 2012). Despite its significance, many argue that the subject is understudied, and estimations show that only 10% of all research regarding entrepreneurship concerns the female field (Brush & Cooper, 2012). In Sweden, approximately 23% of all businesses are run by women and 33% of new start-ups are run by women (Swedish Agency for Economic and Regional Growth, 2012). Yet, the country - and most other Scandinavian countries - are ranked in top of the most gender equal countries in the world (Grunfeld et al., 2020).

When looking historically at entrepreneurship and its correlation to societal change, one can find that societies have had different levels of development when it comes to inventions and developing processes, especially discussed by William J. Baumol (1990) and his theory concerning the impact of institutional factors on entrepreneurial development. Therefore, this research assumes that environmental factors have an impact on entrepreneurship and its significance. What this paper aims at researching is the angle of societal factors in regard to female entrepreneurship. The motivation for choosing the given field of study emerged based on the lack of research (Minniti and Naudé, 2010) as well as the notice of many global developments during the past decades.

“The role of female entrepreneurs in a changing society”. This question will be investigated through a qualitative study that has primarily adopted an inductive approach yet has a somewhat deductive reasoning as well since the research is based on the acceptance of the theory of Baumol (1990). It will investigate female entrepreneurs and their experience of starting a business during the past three decades - from 1990 to 2020 - and the data gathered will be analyzed through the

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1.2 Problem

In previous research, a wide range of female entrepreneurial-related topics have been explored; motivational drivers, personal characteristics and obstacles for starting own businesses to name a few (Minniti & Naudé, 2010; Lee & Stearns, 2012). However, personal characteristics are proven not to be the only determining factor in terms of entrepreneurial spread, environmental factors also play a crucial role (Baumol, 1990; Mustapha & Subramaniam, 2016; Lee & Stearns, 2012). The rate of female entrepreneurs has seen a rise during the past decades (Ferreira dos Santos et al., 2019), and due to the many global developments in terms of inventions, as well as social structures, it is interesting to further investigate their relationship to female entrepreneurship. Hence, if accepting the theory that entrepreneurial activity is dependent on environmental factors and institutions (Baumol, 1990), then it should be further investigated what these are at a present state. According to Brush and Cooper (2012), entrepreneurs create social change with their new inventions and systems, but how does society affect entrepreneurs? And more specifically, how has it affected the role of female entrepreneurs in a changing society?

1.3 Purpose

The purpose of this study is to investigate how society and societal change affects female entrepreneurship on the Swedish market. By doing so, the aim is to gain a deeper understanding of the conditions for female entrepreneurs and their perceptions of their situation today. Additionally, this research will put its main focus on Swedish female entrepreneurs who have either created their own business from scratch or are currently leading and owning a business. Society today is under constant change and has gone through many phases during the past decades, such as digitalization, globalization and equal rights movements (Vinopal, 2019). Therefore, this research is hoping to contribute with new insightful knowledge to a very relevant problem. Also, the expectation is to open up for further investigations on the subject that up until today seem to lack a great bit of knowledge (Minniti and Naudé, 2010).

The findings of this study are expected to show personal insights, experiences and knowledge about the development of female entrepreneurship in Sweden. By interviewing female entrepreneurs, themselves, the study hopes to gather as specific insights as possible, to be able to analyze why and how the development of female entrepreneurship has been affected by society.

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1.4 Delimitations

Scope. This research focuses on female entrepreneurship in Sweden and only in Sweden, a choice based on a need of limited resources, mostly time and capacity. Focusing on one market has been necessary in order to be able to cope with the timeline of this research. One further limitational factor is that not all segments and industries of entrepreneurs will be presented, the same goes for age being represented. Since the selection of the participants was mainly done by “convenience sampling” according to their availability, the industries they operate in, as well as age range were random to the authors. Hence, the findings can therefore not be applied to the whole market of Sweden since it is not fully represented when collecting the data.

Sample. The females chosen to participate in the interviews were selected by taking a subset of the population, with a convenience sampling method. Applying a convenience sample was made intentionally, also with the purpose of matching the timeframe and limitations of this research. Time frame. The research has adopted a limited time frame of approximately 30 years when referring to societal change. This choice was made based on the motivation of investigating “recent” change. Also, since the findings are based on interviews with current entrepreneurs, applying a suitable time frame based on their age was needed.

Findings. What should also be mentioned is the choice of investigating the female field of entrepreneurship. This research does not state that the findings are only applicable or limited to females only. However, it was chosen because it is seen as a separate field of entrepreneurship that can be studied individually. As a suggestion, the reader should have in mind that investigating entrepreneurship and female entrepreneurs is a complex subject.

Conclusion. Just like previous research suggests, it is not only societal aspects that play a role in entrepreneurial behavior, also personal character, background and personal conditions have impact (Grunfeld et al., 2020). Therefore, this research does not imply that the findings are the only components for explaining how female entrepreneurship function.

1.5 Research Question

Q1: The role of female entrepreneurs in a changing society: Investigating a business field that has experienced rapid change during the past decades.

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The research question is based on the acceptance that environmental and institutional factors do have an impact on entrepreneurial activity, which was first developed by Baumol (1990) and later adopted by several researchers such as Estrin & Mickiewicz (2011), Klyver, Nielsen & Evald (2013) and Bruin (2014). Hence, it is interesting to investigate what these influential developments are. Thus, the research gap that is trying to be filled is the relationship between recent societal developments and the current female conditions. The aim is to investigate what specific factors that have had a significance on their standpoint in the entrepreneurial market.

1.6 Definitions of Main Concepts

Entrepreneur - An entrepreneur is someone who has the capability to enforce new opportunities.

It is a creator of a new business who faces uncertainty and takes risks (Batool & Ullah, 2017). “An entrepreneur is a person who starts a business with a goal to perform an income-generating activity” (Grunfeld et al., 2020).

Societal change - By societal changes, it refers to changes that have happened in society in the

past 30 years. These changes are happenings that have had an impact on the greater part of a society and not only a few. Examples of such changes are technology, feminism, digitalization and politics.

Past decades - In this study, “past decade” refers to the time between 1990 and 2020 or close to

it. This timeframe has been chosen due to the timing of changes in society.

2. Frame of Reference

This chapter will introduce relevant concepts, theory, and previous findings in order to develop a fully conceptual framework that contributes to the foundation for empirical findings and analysis. First, an explanation of how the framework was conducted will be presented, followed by an outline of the theory of Baumol (1990), the evolution of female entrepreneurship, motives, obstacles, success factors, female entrepreneurs in Sweden and lastly a review of the concept of societal change.

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2.1 Method

With the purpose of introducing previous research and knowledge about the chosen field, a thoroughly theoretical framework has been adopted. In order to ensure a structured and insightful exposition, the frame of reference has been divided into subcategories with its own rubrics. The aim of conducting an extensive body of literature is to capture and prepare the reviewer of what has already been found on the subject, how it has been researched and what potential gaps there might be, which can set a foundation for the research purpose (Hart, 2018). Hart (2018) also says that reviews of applied literature is important because it shows that the authors possess insight on previous research, its main theories as well as being somewhat critical towards previous findings. This review has chosen the following key topics: The theory of Baumol, Evolution of female entrepreneurship, Motives/Obstacles/Success factors for female entrepreneurs and Societal change and its impact on female entrepreneurship.

The sources chosen for this study have been carefully selected based on publicist, relevance, credibility and trustworthiness. Primarily, the most essential theories have been selected based on their appearance in the ABS Journal 2018 which are journals being ranked based on quality and impact significance. The journals are ranked from 1-4 where 4 is the highest value. Most of the journals being used in this review lies between 3 and 4 in the ranking list. Two additional sources for the frame of reference have been Primo and Google Scholar where most articles have been peer-reviewed to ensure high quality. In terms of relevance of publication, the authors have tried to find recent published articles, however, in some cases older articles have also been used since they were considered relevant and not many newer findings have been found in the same subject. To ensure the slightly older sources were trustworthy, the authors ensured that they had been cited by several and that the authors were established.

In total, 27 articles were carefully reviewed and analyzed in order to get an overview of the topic and to identify the research gap. The articles used were published between 1990 to 2020 and with this timeframe, the authors got a wide overview of the development of female entrepreneurship.

2.2 The Rules of the Game

In research concerning entrepreneurship and its correlation to society, one of the most used and accepted theories may be the one by William J. Baumol (1990) and his paper on “Entrepreneurship: Productive, Unproductive, and Destructive”. It has been published many

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Baumol (1990), every society has its own share of entrepreneurs. However, the level of their significance and use of energy depends upon something he calls “rules of the game”, meaning the institutions of a society. He claims that depending on which society, entrepreneurs are given certain conditions due to its institutional factors, and he examines why some societies are more affected by entrepreneurial development than others.

Baumol (1990) proposes that the entrepreneurs always play a certain role for their society, although the extent of those roles, and the types of roles, may vary. This leads to entrepreneurs' efforts and contribution may not even be positive, rather destructive to its society and economy. The name of the paper says “Entrepreneurship: Productive, Unproductive, and Destructive” and is referring to the different types of entrepreneurs and their contribution to its society. He says that they are either productive, implying being innovative and contributory. The less contributory entrepreneurs of a society are referred to as unproductive, meaning that their work is either positive or negative, he says their activities have “questionable value to society” such as organized crime or rent seekers. Moreover, the destructive part of entrepreneurs he claims are those where negative affect is done to society, through their entrepreneurial activities. What activities they choose to engage in is determined by institutional guidance (Baumol, 1990). Other researchers (Minniti & Nardone, 2007; Estrin & Mickiewicz, 2011; Klyver, Nielsen & Evald, 2013; Welter, Brush & De Bruin, 2014) show a strong link to Baumol’s (1990) rules of the game and female entrepreneurship. Minniti & Nardone (2007) did research about the role of gender in nascent entrepreneurship. Their research investigated the socio-economic characteristics, employment status, finance and other determinants which might have an impact on an individual’s decision to become an entrepreneur. Their study found that employed individuals, both men and women are more likely to start a business and become an entrepreneur. In addition, other scholars agreed and found that opportunity recognition, self-confidence and networking to other entrepreneurs are the most important drivers to entrepreneurship. However, Minniti & Nardone (2007) rely on Baumol’s (1990) perception about the quality and quantity of entrepreneurship, and as a final result, they found that the quality and quantity of entrepreneurship will vary depending on the different levels of per capita income, growth potential, and economic freedom (Minniti & Nardone, 2007).

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Estrin & Mickiewicz (2011) did research where they compared the impact of institutions on men and women’s decisions to start a new business. Since the research was built around institutions, Baumol’s (1990) theory about institutions and female entrepreneurship plays a crucial role. The results indicate that institutional components of discrimination against women makes it less likely for women to start a business and jump into entrepreneurial aspirations (Estrin & Mickiewicz, 2011). Klyver, Nielsen & Evald (2013) investigated the scope to which gender equality affects a female's choice to start a business and if this choice is dependent on the country's development stage and industries. The study found that self-employment choice is associated with the country’s development stage and industries. However, Welter, Brush and De Bruin (2014) did a study about entrepreneurship, when and where it happens, in terms of gender, social networks, family and household. They found that entrepreneurial behavior is heavily gendered because of the institutions. Those institutions accept gender norms that force women into a specific industry or business sizes.

2.3 Evolution of Female Entrepreneurship

The evolution of female entrepreneurship has changed during time, and so has the position of women in society. The number of female entrepreneurs and their contribution to society are of high importance, and it will continue to grow (Ramadani, 2015). However, it is vital to understand the importance of genders in society and especially, to understand the input females bring to entrepreneurial activities.

Women around the world got a voting right in the early 1900 century (Yuval-Davis, 1997). The voting right was the first real step towards a gender equal world, yet complete gender equality has not been reached. In 1905, the world’s first female entrepreneur made her breakthrough in an entrepreneurial field (Michals, 2015). Attitudes and assumptions towards female entrepreneurs changed during the following years (Ferreira dos Santos et al., 2019) and in the early 20th century, women achieved civil and political rights by providing them access to education (Ferreira dos Santos et al., 2019). This, and many more happenings were a huge step towards a more gender-equal world. Female entrepreneurship started to rise in the mid-80s’ when people started to be more aware of the possibilities women in general and female entrepreneurs could provide. Thus, they were still viewed differently because of their gender (Ferreira dos Santos et al., 2019).

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In addition, the relationship between male and female entrepreneurs has been argued a lot and during the years, feminism and societal standards have shaped the idea of female entrepreneurs (Lee & Stearns, 2012). Every country has its own ratio for entrepreneurs and the number of female entrepreneurs differs a lot; depending on the social structure, culture, customs and technology (Ferreira dos Santos et al., 2019). As Ferreira dos Santos et al., (2019) stated, the evolution of female entrepreneurs demonstrates the relationship between females and society as a whole. The lack of social credibility and acceptance by others, causes a fear to open criticism and pressure (Ferreira dos Santos et al., 2019). However, even with the advancement and development of female entrepreneurship, women will face challenges in their entrepreneurial career now and in the future.

2.4 Motives

The phenomenon behind women entrepreneurship is complex and besides the general factors like age, gender and race - there are multiple determinants why people choose to become entrepreneurs (Ferreira dos Santos et al., 2019).

Many studies indicate that females are either “pushed” by negative experience or “pulled” by positive opportunity when starting a business (Lee & Stearns, 2012). Several studies highlight the importance of freedom of choice (Rey-Marti, Porcar & Mas-Tur, 2015; Gill & Ganesh, 2007), such as freedom to become your own boss, freedom to decide when to work and freedom to take risks. Many female entrepreneurs are motivated by the freedom of doing things in their own way (Ferreira dos Santos et al., 2019). In modern working life, people are used to working a nine-to-five job, where following the schedule and respecting the authority is of high importance. However, some are instead scared of the freedom that being an entrepreneur will offer (Mustapha & Subramaniam, 2016). As Stevenson (1990) stated, human beings are driven by social and cultural dimensions. Those dimensions determine who in society becomes an entrepreneur. Thus, the entrepreneurial mind is driven by personhood, which emphasizes freedom of choice, autonomy and responsibility (Gill & Ganesh, 2007). When taking into account the fact that women will face more interruptions in their career, such as maternity leave e.g., being an entrepreneur can somewhat offer freedom of flexibility.

Finally, as stated in several studies (Ascher, 2012; Walker & Webster, 2006), push- and pull factors play an important role when females are starting their entrepreneurial path. In many cases, females are frustrated or dissatisfied in their current job, which pushes them to start a new venture by themselves (Walker & Webster, 2006).

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As Ascher (2012) proposed in his study, entrepreneurship is more common in low-income countries which have a high birth-rate. This creates a contradiction, since the perception is that the more kids you have, the harder it is to become an entrepreneur. However, many studies (Kevane & Wydick, 2001; Huarng, Mas-Tur & Hui-Kuang Yu, 2012; Akehurst, Simarro & Mas‐ Tur, 2012) indicate that having a family and kids will have a negative impact on female entrepreneurship. Hence, having a family in combination with being an entrepreneur is both one of the main reasons to start your own business as well as one reason for not doing so.

It is said that female entrepreneurs tend to have a higher educational level than males in the same industry (Huarng, Mas-Tur, & Hui-Kuang Yu, 2012; Rey-Marti, Porcar, & Mas-Tur, 2015). As Reynolds et al. (2002) proposed, there is a strong connection between education and entrepreneurial success. When women start their own business, they tend to seek opportunities and create ones for other females (Gill & Ganesh, 2007). However, in the future, there should be a strong focus on entrepreneurship education with a mindset that every entrepreneur is a job creator rather than a job seeker (Mustapha & Subramaniam, 2016).

2.5 Obstacles

As Ascher (2012) stated, every female entrepreneur will face obstacles during their journey to self-employment and these obstacles are universal and similar regardless of the country. These obstacles can, for example, be divided into individual factors or business factors based on the issue (Asli & Nour, 2018). Personal factors like fear of failure, stress and hard work are common barriers female entrepreneurs face (Mustapha & Subramaniam, 2016).

Financial capital is vital in the entrepreneurial process. Many studies (Gill & Ganesh, 2007; Ferreira dos Santos et al., 2019) indicate that females experience financial discrimination from the banks and therefore are less likely to get external financing. Both studies connected the lack of financial support straight to the fact that they are women (Gill & Ganesh, 2007; Ferreira dos Santos et al., 2019). Besides that, women who start a business alone, tend to have more difficulties getting financing for their businesses. As Cowling & Taylor (2001) and Anna et al., (2000) found, it is proven that women tend to face discrimination in wage, thus, also experience discrimination in their position in the workplace. And as stated, men are more likely to get bigger wages and stand in a leading position even if a woman has the exact same education (Cowling & Taylor, 2001).

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As Ferreira dos Santos et al., (2019) found in their study, many female entrepreneurs have a family or run a family-owned business. However, the biggest barrier to start a business is related to the difficulty in balancing family and working life (Ferreira dos Santos et al. 2019). Additionally, family is both, the biggest reason for women to start a business, but also, the biggest obstacle for not starting one. As stated by Ferreira dos Santos et al., (2019) the lack of credibility by society and the fear of criticism will prevent females from starting their own business.

2.6 Success Factors

Success can be defined in many ways. It can be measured in revenue, profit or by the number of customers, however, everyone defines the term “success” in their own way but in many cases, success is connected to wealth and prestige (Dyke & Murphy, 2006). Therefore, measuring success is controversial because there is no concrete measure for it (Batool & Ullah, 2017). As Mustapha & Subramaniam (2016) and Lee & Stearns (2012) stated, internal motivations (skills, good characteristics, education, want or need) and environmental factors (government support, political demands) play the key role in the success of female entrepreneurs. However, success can be measured by the factors that lead to success e.g., with motivations and reasons (Batool & Ullah, 2017). Batool & Ullah (2017) found in their study that motivation played the most significant factor when measuring the success of female entrepreneurs. Another important aspect was personality traits such as skills and education as well as creativity and lastly, access to finance.

Grunfeld et al., (2018) found that females tend to operate in businesses that are directed to the following sectors: personal service, health care, education, arts, entertainment & recreation, accommodation and food. However, the industry they operate is not connected straight to the success of an entrepreneur.

2.7 Female Entrepreneurship in Different Contexts

Research shows that the development rate of ventures created by females is way higher compared to men in the United States (Minniti & Naudé, 2010). Despite this trend, which can be found in several places around the world, the total share of entrepreneurs who are female is significantly lower (Ferreira dos Santos et al., 2019). The answer has been argued by many. However, it is safe to say that the answer is multidimensional and complex. Female entrepreneurship should not be seen as a single concept functioning in the same way all over the world. Culture and societal rules play a significant role and may look different in different countries. As Minniti and Naudé

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(2010) also mention in their study, political and social status has changed dramatically for females across the globe during the past 30 years. This has also contributed to an increase in research about the subject, even though they refer to it as “vastly understudied”.

According to Ferreira dos Santos et al., (2019), besides certain characteristics that are connected to female entrepreneurship in different contexts such as public policy, culture, economic- and technological development, there are some characteristics that are the same no matter the context. Some of these are risk aversion, preferring small businesses, being capitalized by venture financing, and starting their business relatively late (in comparison to men). The authors also state that despite the development and upsloping curve of female entrepreneurship, they are still facing some challenges when it comes to combining their professional life with the tasks at home that have traditionally been performed in majority by women. In addition, women also have the need for improvement in terms of knowledge in finance, science, technology and marketing (Ferreira dos Santos et al., 2019). Furthermore, the standing obstacle of gender inequality is also something that has a significant impact on the limitations of female success and access of resources, along with the insecurity and vulnerability coming from this fact. In the area of personal awareness, women in some extent lack self-confidence as well as self-esteem (Ferreira dos Santos et al., 2019). In conclusion, the authors state that there is a real correlation between cultural dimensions of social awareness, institutional collectivism, gender equality and women’s empowerment. While female business owners and venture creators are constantly increasing due to higher equality standards across the globe, historically the entrepreneurial field has always been male dominated (Ferreira dos Santos et al., 2019). According to the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) report 2019/2020, the relationship between male and female entrepreneurs varies between regions and age. The highest rate of female entrepreneurship is found in Saudi Arabia, Madagascar, Qatar and Brazil. On the contrary, Pakistan, Japan, North Macedonia and Norway are the countries with lowest rates of female entrepreneurs. As Achtenhagen & Tillmar (2013) found, female entrepreneurs adjust their businesses according to their family situations and therefore prioritize their time differently. However, entrepreneurial activities and starting a business offer flexibility and freedom to combine family life and work (Kovalainen & Arenius, 2006). What has also been noted is that women tend to start business later in life than men, because it is more reasonable to have a stable job and income while on maternity leave (Yadav & Unni, 2016).

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2.8 Female Entrepreneurs in Sweden

Female entrepreneurship in Sweden is a phenomenon which raises continuum attention in the Swedish business environment since it has seen a growth during the past decades (Isaakidis & Mouresioti, 2020). As stated in the European Institute For Gender Equality (2020) study, Sweden is ranked as number one in the EU in gender equality, yet, females get notably less recognition in the entrepreneurial field. However, it is not a surprise that similar patterns emerge in other gender equal countries. As statistics show, Swedish females stand for 23% of the ones who manage and run a business and 33% of the ones who start and create ventures and start-ups are women (Swedish Agency for Economic and Regional Growth, 2012). Hence, the female proportion is still under-represented in society even though it has increased over time.

According to Statistiska Centralbyrån (2017), one fourth of all females who start their own business are also employed at the same time and this is most likely because it is less economically risky. The statistics shows that in comparison to men, where less than one fifth had an employment at the same time, females are more likely to take the risk of starting a business, and it is also proven that female entrepreneurs in Sweden run small businesses. In 70% of the cases, they had zero employees, as in comparison to men where the corresponding share was 56% (Statistiska Centralbyrån, 2017). According to the same study, it was less likely to have a higher degree education as an entrepreneur compared to being employed, this goes for both men and women (31% and 47%). Hence, female entrepreneurs are usually more likely to be educated than male entrepreneurs (Statistiska Centralbyrån, 2017).

2.9 Societal Change

By societal change, the authors refer to the changes that have happened in society during the past 30 years, between 1990 and 2020 (approximately). These changes are happenings that have had an impact on the greater part of a society. In order to get a realistic overview of what social change means, referring to the Oxford dictionary, social change means “A change in the customs, institutions, or culture of a society, especially due to ideological or technological factors; also, as a mass noun.” In order to get a fair understanding of some social developments that have occurred during the past decades, some of these will be presented as examples below.

2.9.1 Digitalization

The era of computers, digitization and digital platforms allow a lot of freedom to practice entrepreneurship (Della Giusta et al., 2019). Both men and females nowadays are benefiting from

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the flexibility of where, when and how to work. As Autio (2017) stated, digitalization shapes the entrepreneurial opportunities in the economy, thus, helps to practice those opportunities. Since the world is turning to be more digital, it opens a lot of opportunities to both entrepreneurs but also entrepreneurship researchers, and it is important to be aware of those connections and identify the opportunities (Kraus et al., 2018).

As Kraus et al., (2018) stated, storing, computing, and searching for information is becoming easier and more flexible because the cloud services are evolving and transforming the internet to be more Internet Of things (IoT). Digitalization is not only affecting individuals - but rather human beings also overall and can have a huge impact on business models. Every company that has entrepreneurial activities in a digital form can be referred to as digital entrepreneurship (Kraus et al., 2018). While digital entrepreneurship is evolving and technologies like 3D-printing, big data, social media, and open-source software are arising, new technologies can be seen as job creators (Sahut et al., 2019). Nevertheless, information and communication technology guides digital entrepreneurship and therefore plays a big role in digital entrepreneurial activities. As Sahut et al. (2019) mentioned, information and communication technology work as a facilitator by helping start-ups to operate; as a mediator for the operation of the new venture; as an outcome for entrepreneurial activities and lastly, as a ubiquitous tool to enable new business models in a digital form. Hence, this research is investigating female entrepreneurship between 1990 and 2020, it is important to take into account that digitalization has taken a huge step forward since 1990.

Digitalization and digital technology have shaped working culture - it has given us flexibility, which blurs the lines between work and free time (Rajahonka & Villman, 2019). It is found that females who use mobile phones to plan the day also manage and schedule their family affairs more effectively while working (Rajahonka & Villman, 2019). As Mölsä (2018) stated, digitization and digital platforms give us a huge advantage when networking.

As digitalization is moving forward, so is communication. We communicate with others with facial expressions, by talking, with our body language, and, sometimes not saying a word is a sign of communication (Adejimola, 2008). Nonetheless, we communicate through phone, internet, letter, email or face-to-face, the ways are limitless. As Adejimola (2008) stated, entrepreneurs need a form of communication in order to link people together into business activities, and without doing this, they cannot succeed. However, effective communication in any

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2.9.1.1 Social networks

As Grunfeld et al., (2020) found, social networks play a crucial role when starting a business, and it is highlighted to be more important in female entrepreneurship. Role models and close relationships with other females who have started their own business has a positive impact on starting a new business (Grunfeld et al., 2020) and entrepreneurs constantly seek potential relations to the same interest or experience in order to get guidance from others (Greve & Salaff, 2003). This is due to the fact that female entrepreneurs need a social network in order to succeed (Greve & Salaff, 2003).

Social networking can be defined as an individual's ability to gain social resources and benefits from social structure (Xie & Lv, 2016). As Xie & Lv (2016) stated, with a strong external social network, female entrepreneurs can obtain valuable recognition and trust from other business partners. However, social networks are important regardless of gender and are an important asset when starting a new venture. Social networks work as a guideline for a new beginner, but also helps to find information and confirmation for what you are doing (Grunfeld et al., 2020). However, it can be much more than only stakeholders, co-founders or co-partners. Social networks can refer to family, and especially the strong tie entrepreneurs have to their families. As Greve & Salaff (2003) pointed out, entrepreneurs are more likely to have parents who are entrepreneurs and at the beginning of their journey they are most likely to take advantage of this and get help and feedback straight from the family (Greve & Salaff, 2003).

2.9.2 Equal rights

As many other social developments, equal rights are also something that has not happened over night. History shows that equality can be construed as a “right to be equal” or “right to be different” (Guerrina, 2001). However, the rights of being a woman or man should be the same in the working-life. Nevertheless, it is still a fact that women earn less money than men in the labor market (Lalive & Stutzer, 2010).

Many big movements - like feminism - have had an impact on the development of society. Many recent movements have taken a place in society and therefore the attitudes have changed. For instance, “MeToo” campaign in the world and “Tystnad tagning” in Sweden. Both of the movements have made people realize that behaviors and attitudes against women need to change in order to achieve equality.

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As Grunfeld et al., (2020) stated, Nordic countries are seen as a forerunner on gender equality with a high percentage of female entrepreneurs taking part in labor markets. Thus, from many countries, Sweden has been called an equal welfare society (Molina, 2020). Equal rights are at least almost the same for men and women in Sweden. Nowadays, men can have long parental leave just like women, and it is not unusual for men to take care of the children and household while the mom is working. As Bennhold (2010) stated, in order to achieve equality by society, equality needs to be achieved at home. Despite high rates of equality in a country like Sweden, it is not applicable on the division of male and female entrepreneurs.

2.9.3 Family structure

The structure and framework of families have evolved based on social conditions and influenced the family dynamic over time (Gambheera, 2016). In western countries, the occurrence of the “modern family” has been observed since the beginning of the industrial era which in combination with modernization has led to a more independent individualistic structure that is less traditional (Gambheera, 2016). According to the author, a traditional family structure is more common among developing countries, while the modern family structure has a greater extent in developed countries. As Bianchi and Milkie (2010) suggest, the family dynamic in terms of child-care and overall participation has changed during the 21st century. Research by Perry-Jenkins & Gerstel (2020) shows that the hours women spend on taking care of the home have been reduced while the time spent in the home by men have increased. However, despite this trend, women - employed or not - still spend significantly more time on home-related tasks than men (Bianchi & Milkie, 2010). Therefore, family structure and culture still play an important role even though the increase of females working full-time jobs is evident. They explain that this pattern has its roots in early ages with unequal divisions of housework between sons and daughters.

Another important aspect in terms of development in family structure is parental leave. In Sweden, parents have the right to over a year of parental allowance (compensation) where both the mom and the dad have the right to 60 days each. This makes Sweden the country in Scandinavia providing most flexibility and most rights in terms of gender equality between parents (Valdimarsdóttir, 2005).

2.10 Summary of Frame of Reference

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in society has changed during times and decades. In the twentieth century women achieved political and civil rights and got access to education (Ferreira dos Santos et al., 2019). This was a huge step closer to a more gender equal world. However, many internal and external factors have a significant impact when starting a business as well. As previous research found, (Ascher, 2012; Walker & Webster, 2006; Stevenson, 1990) besides push- and pull factors, humans are driven by social and cultural dimensions and these dimensions help to determine who in society is more likely to become an entrepreneur. Different motivations, external and internal, drives the decision to start a business. However, there are still barriers to start a business, and as previous studies found, (Kevane & Wydick, 2001; Huarng, Mas-Tur & Hui-Kuang Yu, 2012; Akehurst, Simarro & Mas‐Tur, 2012) having a family and children will have a negative impact on entrepreneurship and especially female entrepreneurs tend to prioritize their time differently when having children (Achtenhagen & Tillmar, 2013). Thus, Batool & Ullah (2017) found that motivation plays the most significant role when measuring the success of female entrepreneurs. However, success can be measured in many ways and in most cases, success is connected to wealth and prestige (Dyke & Murphy, 2006). As stated, previous research (Baumol, 1990; Ascher, 2012; Walker & Webster, 2006; Stevenson, 1990; Ferreira dos Santos et al., 2019; Kevane & Wydick, 2001; Huarng, Mas-Tur & Hui-Kuang Yu, 2012; Akehurst, Simarro & Mas‐ Tur, 2012) shows that there are many reasons, motivations, barriers, success factors and theories about female entrepreneurship and how different factors have had an impact on entrepreneurs. Alexandre & Kharabsheh (2019) suggested for future research; “the attitudes held towards risk and the balance between family and professional life.” Another interesting suggestion for future research is made by Brush & Cooper (2012): “An important question is whether women venture owners face specific challenges as they seek to maintain the entrepreneurial effort of their ventures.For women in particular, there is a need to reflect the challenges they face in growing their ventures, in terms of family/work balance issues, human capital development over the life cycle of their careers and that of their ventures, sector choice and opportunity identification.” And lastly, Ferreira dos Santos et al., (2019) suggested investigating “Information about the influence of the environment, culture, economy, religion and other aspects involving female entrepreneurship.”

Yet, there is little research about how recent societal changes have impacted the conditions for female entrepreneurs. This research investigates how the conditions have changed for female

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entrepreneurs due to rapid global changes with the purpose of answering “how” and “why” these conditions have changed.

3. Methodology

This chapter will introduce the fundamental methodology as well as what method that was chosen for conducting the research. The first part consists of the research paradigm, followed by the research approach and the research design. The second part examines the different layers of method, including data collection, sampling approach, data analysis and ethics.

3.1 Research Paradigm

When considering conducting research, the researcher should settle with the fundamental starting point of the research and determine several questions that need to be asked in order to adopt an accurate research philosophy. According to Holden & Lynch (2004), the question of “Why research?” is perhaps the most significant one. The author continues by explaining that the research philosophy is based on the researcher’s core assumption of science as well as nature. Once this fundamental knowledge and acceptance of the stance of reality has been established, a research paradigm can take form (Lowndes et al., 2018). According to Kothari (2004), the purpose of doing research is to find answers to questions by the help of scientific procedures. It is safe to say that each study probably has its own purpose, although the underlying aim of performing accurate research is to find the truth which is yet to be discovered. Likewise, the underlying motivation for conducting research may vary, where personal gain, desire to face a challenge, desire to be of service to society or wanting to gain intellectual joy may be some of them (Kothari, 2004).

According to Collis & Hussey (2014), two of the main divisions within research paradigm are positivism and interpretivism. Adopting any of these paradigms require the researcher to make basic assumptions on social reality, which sets the base for the research framework. Positivism suggests that reality is independent of us and is verified by scientific testing through empirical findings such as experiments. This kind of research usually adopts a quantitative method

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(interpretivism), which takes on the assumption of social phenomena as being affected by the person investigating it. Hence, it is subjective and shaped by personal beliefs and perceptions (Collis & Hussey, 2014). In order to best serve this particular study, an interpretive approach will be adopted since the purpose of the data collection and its interpretation is to find knowledge that can not be tested with the assumption that all participants will have the same answers.

3.2 Research Approach

There are several ways how research can be conducted. For qualitative research, Pratt (2017) suggests either an inductive or a deductive approach, but in some cases, it can be both. As Collis & Hussey (2014) stated, the inductive approach aims to validate assumptions drawn from the theory, whereas the deductive approach bases the analysis on pre-existing theory (Azungah, 2018). With regards to the approach, this research will assume an inductive approach. However, the research will be based on the acceptance of Baumol’s (1990) theory and therefore will somewhat apply a deductive reasoning as well. As Gehman et al., (2017) stated, qualitative research covers a heterogeneous set of different approaches. In terms of data analysis, the Gioia method is used. The Gioia method is well appropriate when there is a grounded theory, and the theory is rooted in the data (Gehman et al., 2017). The method was used when transferring the interview data into 1st order concepts, 2nd order themes and later, aggregate dimensions. This research will assume the theory by William J. Baumol (1990), that entrepreneurial activity, its spread and development is correlated to institutional factors. Hence, the research accepts the assumption that these two parameters (entrepreneurs and society) do have an effect on each other. Therefore, this theory will not be tested, rather it will work as a basis for the layout and investigation of “what” and “which” aspects of society have had the most significant impact, with the goal of gaining a deeper understanding of the development of female entrepreneurship. With this in mind, the primary approach of this research will be done inductively. However, since it is applying the theory of Baumol (1990), the approach can also be seen as deductive reasoning, only that the research is not testing the theory itself, rather relying on it.

3.3 Research Design

In order to answer the research question in the best way possible, the thesis will adopt an exploratory research design. By doing so, expectations of gaining in-depth answers can be made, as well as the possibility of flexibility and adaptiveness. This approach is also appropriate when the answers are unpredictable or unexpected (Erickson, 2017). Common methods for conducting

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data within exploratory research design are focus groups, in interviews or both. In depth-interviews can be done face-to-face or via any type of technological form (phone, internet e.g.) and the aim is to let the participants have the flexibility of answering without regards to a structured construction, rather speaking more freely by asking open-ended questions (Erickson, 2017). Due to the purpose of this study, an exploratory design is well-suited in terms of the possibility it generates when it comes to shedding light on new insight about the field of female entrepreneurship and its correlation to society.

Since the aim of this study does not intend to measure quantity or a specific amount of any kind, a quantitative research approach was not relevant. On the contrary, the choice of applying a qualitative research approach was made on the fact that the purpose of the study is to understand underlying reasons and behaviors of several components. Kothari (2004) says that this type of approach is relevant when investigating e.g., human behavior or motivations, and it allows the researcher to analyze why people behave in certain ways or their motives of liking or disliking things. Soiferman (2010) explains that the distinction between the two methods lies in the differences in the view of reality. She portraits the quantitative way of looking at science as “a single reality that can be measured reliably and validly using scientific principles” (Soiferman, 2010). On the contrary, the term qualitative research “believe in multiple constructed realities that generate different meanings for different individuals, and whose interpretations depend on the researcher and the participant that characterizes the disciplines” (Soiferman, 2010). The author continues by saying that an additional distinction between the two methods is also the relationship between the researcher and the participants. A qualitative research approach is benefitting from having a relationship between themselves and the participants since it is a way of gaining further understanding of the observations (Soiferman, 2010).

In terms of data collection and analysis, the qualitative research approach requires other skills from the researcher in comparison to quantitative research (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). Instead of having to understand the relationship between variables by using either descriptive or inferential statistics (quantitative), qualitative researchers become part of the data collection and the understanding of the several variables conducted from that research, such as patterns, themes and meanings (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). Creswell & Plano Clark (2018) continues by saying that the purpose of qualitative research is not to test whether a hypothesis is true or not, rather it is about gathering knowledge from observations that enables the researchers to develop

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With the previous knowledge in mind, and in order to answer the research question of how societal change has affected the development of female entrepreneurship, it is most appropriate to choose a qualitative research approach and not a quantitative one since it is very difficult to count or measure the answer to a question of ‘how’.

3.4 Method

3.4.1 Data Collection 3.4.1.1 Primary Data

For research that does not base its findings on previous research, such as a literature review, is usually done through collecting primary data. Examples of primary data collection approaches are experiments, surveys, focus groups or interviews and it serves the general research community by adding new knowledge and literature to the existing one (Hox & Boeije, 2005). The authors explain that for qualitative research it is most suitable to implement in depth-interviews, observations or focus groups because it requires a large amount of data being collected from a quite small sample. According to Hox and Boeije (2005), primary data are “data that are collected for the specific research problem at hand, using procedures that fit the research problem best”. This study has implemented primary data collection by conducting semi-structured interviews with 14 Swedish female entrepreneurs. The interviews were divided and held in either Swedish or English (with regards to the authors and their native language) in order to cope with the time and resource limits of this study. Furthermore, most of the primary data was conducted online (via Teams) and some via phone calls. However, all interviews were also recorded to facilitate the process of transcribing. The analysis was done both individually and collectively with the purpose of reducing the risk of subjectivity and/or neglection of information (Collis & Hussey, 2014). Each finding from the individual transcription was discussed and analyzed together between the two authors in order to best utilize all information and make accurate interpretations (Collis & Hussey, 2014).

3.4.1.2 Sampling Approach

According to Vehovar et al., (2016), a sample is a subset of a population and in this study the population is all female entrepreneurs in Sweden and the sample is a group of 14 chosen female entrepreneurs. As Kothari (2004) suggests, depending on the representation basis and the selection technique, there are two main proposed sampling designs; probability sampling or non-probability sampling, which this research has applied. The first mentioned one is suitable when

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the purpose of a sample is to be random, and each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. However, when the purpose of a sampling method is to select a non-random sample, it is called non-probability sampling and is usually more suitable for qualitative research. Acharya et al., (2013) define non-probability sampling as “those in which the probability that a subject is selected is unknown and results in selection bias in the study”.

This study applied a ‘purposive/convenience approach’, which is one of the most commonly used when the chosen sample is based on “being in the right place at the right time” (Acharya et al., 2013). According to Tyrer & Heyman (2016), convenience sampling is also suitable when the primary way of contacting people is done through email, which was the method chosen for this study. The motivation for choosing convenience sampling was based on the fact that the only criteria for the selected sample was a variety of age, hence, seeking diversity to some extent was therefore accepted. Furthermore, due to the fact that the ones who were chosen for the interviews were partly based on who answered the emails, ‘convenience sampling’ (mainly ‘availability’ and ‘opportunity’) can be considered as being part of the approach (Vehovar et al., 2016). The sample selection process for this study was carried out by contacting in total 36 females with an entrepreneurial background. 16 out of these 36 females were found by searching online, keywords such as “årets unga entreprenör” (young entrepreneur of the year) and “svenska kvinnliga entreprenörer” (Swedish female entrepreneurs) were used. The remaining 20 females were found by contacting an acquaintance at “Almi Invest Göteborg” which is an investment company with good relationships within the entrepreneurial community in Gothenburg. Vehovar et al., (2016) also suggest ‘network sampling’ as an appropriate sampling method when a part of the sample are units being sequentially added from a network, such as this study did by contacting a source who was known to have additional contacts in the entrepreneurial community. Out of all 36 females being contacted, 14 responded positively and were selected to participate for an interview.

3.4.1.2.1 Deviation

Vehovar et al., (2016) proposes several ways in which non-probability sampling can cause errors, such as serious deviations from the total population. Thus, knowing the risks of choosing a non-probability sampling method, the decision was made on the grounds of knowing the limited resources such as time and size of the study, as well as being the most suitable sampling approach

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3.4.1.2.2 Sampling Approach Discussion

In terms of improvements and doing the study with greater availability of resources, the authors of this study suggest having a more covering sample in terms of region and age. Due to convenience, the majority of the chosen sample was located in the area around Gothenburg (not everyone though), hence, in order to get a more accurate result, a sample based on several regions should be considered. Further, in terms of age, the authors noticed that the older generation was under-represented. This should also be considered as a potential deviation from the whole population. However, in terms of business area, the members of the sample seem to be quite distributed in terms of field of business area.

3.4.1.3 Interviews

When the participants were successfully chosen and contacted, 14 interviews were established. The interviews were divided between the two authors and contacted one more time before the interviews took place, just to remind them of the time scheduled. The interviews were held on a platform that best suited them, e.g., in Microsoft Teams, in a phone call or in Zoom. A platform where the ability to record the interviews was preferred and they all took place in the end of March 2021 to the beginning of April 2021.

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Table 1: Interviews table

3.4.1.3.1 Interview Questions

Even though the research design has been chosen, it depends on the purpose of each study to apply an interview structure that will fit the best, such as structured, unstructured or semi-structured (Harrell & Bradley, 2009). For the purpose of this study, a semi-semi-structured interview guide (Appendix 1) was created in the middle of March 2021 and the interviews were conducted at the end of March 2021. Before the interviews took place, key concepts were introduced to the participants in order for them to prepare and think about the aspects they want to share with the authors. However, in order to follow the rules and regulations, a GDPR consent form was sent (Appendix 2) for everyone who was taking part in the interviews. With the GDPR form, the authors wanted to make sure that every participant had read and signed it and was aware of the

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of the interviews was to gather as much information about female entrepreneurs' own perceptions and opinions as possible, in a way that provided a somewhat guided interview with significant questions as a base yet opened up for new directions and angles. Therefore, it was created with many open-ended questions in order to get an in-depth insight of the subject (Collis & Hussey, 2014). The questions were structured from “small questions” (such as their age or what industry they operate in) to “big questions” (such as their perception of treatment when seeking investments). The complete list of questions can be found in Appendix 1.

3.5 Data Analysis

With the purpose of presenting a high-quality qualitative analysis, the Gioia (2012) method was applied in order to utilize the collected data. The Gioia method is “a systematic approach to new concept development based on grounded theory articulation” (Gioia et al., 2012). The findings and analysis of this study can be viewed from Figure 1: “Data analysis”, and it was constructed based on the Gioia (2012) method table. By using collected data from the interviews, 1st order concepts, 2nd order themes and aggregate dimensions were identified with the purpose of presenting clear and usable interpretations of the data.

In the beginning of structuring the data, a first order analysis was initiated. The first step was to identify codes that were drawn straight from the interviews. The codes were words or sentences that the participants had mentioned, and which was significant for the understanding of the questions. These codes were later narrowed down and named as “1st order concepts” (Figure 1). By doing so, “2nd order themes” were identified as the Gioia et al., (2012) suggests. These themes were narrowed down based on 50-100 first order codes and created representative words for the concepts. Furthermore, when the work progresses, the process of finding similarities and differences could start (Gioia et al., 2012). Once similarities and differences were able to be identified - the process of reducing the number of themes started and after reducing the number of themes, they had to be grouped and named in order to represent the most significant concepts of the data. A second order analysis was now firmly in the theoretical realm and critical thinking about the phenomenon observed was necessary (Gioia et al., 2012). After finding, identifying and understanding the concepts and themes, a third order analysis took form and aggregate dimensions could be established in the data set (Figure 1). This phase gave an overview of the graphic presentation of how the path from raw data transformed from simple codes to actual themes and aggregate dimensions. By doing such data structure, it gives the researcher the tools to start thinking about the data theoretically, not just methodologically (Gioia et al., 2012).

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After the data was finalized and successfully cycled between the emerged concepts, themes and dimensions, it was important to take a look into the literature whether new concepts were discovered (Gioia, et al., 2012). Once the Gioia method analysis was done, it was used in order to finalize the report.

3.6 Ethics

In order to conduct this research, making sure to follow the code of conduct and ethical principles were of high priority. Collis & Hussey (2014) defines ethics as “the moral principles a person possesses”. Hence, ethics are of high importance in this study and follows through the whole process in order to treat all participants with respect to their needs and wants.

3.6.1 Anonymity and Confidentiality

To ensure anonymity and confidentiality in this research, a GDPR consent form was sent to the participants prior to the interviews. It was important to inform them about the terms and conditions which each of them had, and to let them know how the data would be stored, as well as their right to withdraw from the interview at any point without any specific reason. In terms of anonymity and confidentiality, all the names were kept anonymous, and the data collected stayed only inside of the authors knowledge. However, the age and industry where the entrepreneur operates were important and of interest, it was therefore used and exposed in the report. As Bell & Bryman (2007) stated, confidentiality refers to the protection of information the participant delivers. All the information gathered was collected and processed with confidentiality and was shared only between the two authors. To make the interviews as comfortable to the participants as possible, the authors agreed to delete information that they found wrong or harmful to them.

3.6.2 Credibility

As Shenton (2004) stated, that guaranteeing credibility is the most important factor in terms of trustworthiness. Credibility refers to the endeavor of giving a truthful picture of the study (Shenton, 2004), but is also referred to the truth of the data used in a study (Cope, 2014). A qualitative study can be seen as credible if the participants share and recognize the same experiences (Cope, 2014). The first step towards trustworthiness has been done when collecting data from previous literature from reliable, valuable and extensive sources. The authors of this

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3.6.3 Confirmability

As Elo et al. (2014) stated, confirmability refers to the objectivity, accuracy and relevance of the data. Confirmability implies that the data represents information that participants have provided (Elo et al., 2014). In order to provide confirmability, researchers should be able to demonstrate how conclusions and interpretations have been established (Cope, 2014). In this study, confirmability is provided by several factors. The reader is able to follow the steps of this study, from the very beginning from data gathering to the audit trail where the reader can find the results and findings.

4. Empirical Findings

In this chapter, findings of collected data from semi-structured interviews will be presented. Five aggregated dimensions have been identified by using the Gioia method and these are presented in Figure 1. With the help of relevant citations from the interviews, a representation of the following aggregate dimensions is presented: societal change, motivations, obstacles, family life and attitudes.

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Figure 1: Data analysis

4.1 Societal Change

The first aggregate dimension identified in the data was ‘societal change’. It was composed out of two second order themes: ‘technology’ and ‘digitalization’.

4.1.1 Technology

The participants were asked to mention what social developments or movements they can think of that have had an impact on society during the past decades. A clear pattern found amongst the participants was “digitalization” and “technology” as primary societal developments. By technology, the participants referred to global developments in terms of new technological inventions such as the Internet, computers, transportation possibilities e.g.

Participant #7: “It is a combination of technological development, environmental movements, national and global economy, and a wider acceptance of differences in society at large.”

Participant #2: “Technology of course, and the fact that we have created a vicinity to people globally. It makes us see things and what is really going on, not only what the media is putting out there. There is an access to information in another way, without intermediaries.”

They also mentioned that as a result of these changes, “social networks”, “communication” and “social media” have emerged and made a big impact on society as well. Some respondents also mentioned “environmental movements” and “feminism” as somewhat significant.

In terms of digitalization and technology which were the two most clear patterns regarding societal change, most participants seemed to agree that these developments have also brought more change along such as the development of communication and social media.

4.1.2 Digitalization

After answering which societal changes the participants thought have had an impact on society during the past decades, they were asked which societal changes they think have impacted on female entrepreneurship. Clear patterns among the participants were “digitalization”, “feminism”

The role of female entrepreneurs in a changing society : Investigating a business field that has experienced rapid change during the past decades