Committing to a tramway through policy development

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Committing to a tramway through policy

development

Alexander Linné

Urban Studies Two-year master 30 credits Spring 2020

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Summary

This thesis researches a decision-making process culminating in the building of a tramway in Lund, Sweden drawing on theories of institutionalism and isomorphism (DiMaggio & Powell, 1991; Chien 2008; Czarniawska, 2015), and policy development (Flyvbjerg, Skamris holm, & Buhl, 2003). Discourse analysis and a case study is used as methodology to interpret and analyze collected empirical data. The overall objective of this thesis is to find out what role policies play in decisions of urban infrastructure investments. A case study will help to find out if the decision to build a tramway in Lund was influenced by the global phenomenon of cities growing more alike. More specifically, the thesis researches the driving factors behind the decision to build a tramway in Lund and how policies influenced the decision. By doing this, the thesis uncovers and break down what influenced the decision to build a tramway to reveal potential risks or benefits for decision-makers in Lund municipality. The empirical data mostly consists of documents found on the official website (sparvaglund.se) for finding information about the tramway in Lund. The analysis of the empirical data over the tramway project uncover a certain level of local development isomorphism in the decision-making process. The municipality singled out a tramway to be the only feasible public transport mode, that could solve the city’s anticipated capacity problem. The decision formed a sort of singular truth because it is, empirically, the only appropriately investigated alternative. The decision to build a tramway is supported by a couple of policy documents which creates a narrative for a certain political intent. Then, findings in these essential policy documents reveal an intentional or unintentional commitment to a certain degree of local development isomorphism. The thesis concludes that the decision to build a tramway in Lund has been reinforced by consultancy involvement by adopting strategies that are perceived as successful in eliminating risks and abide to external pressures. Resulting in municipalities forming similar, if not identical, solutions to potential problems. Inclusion of consultancy groups may therefore reinforce the tendency of imitation phenomena outlining the future for municipalities in Sweden.

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I would like to disclaim that this thesis is not about giving critique to the municipality of Lund or saying that the investment in a tramway is appropriate or not. Making the most appropriate urban infrastructure investment is challenging. Instead, this thesis is about finding out if there are underlying potential issues or risks in the decision-making process to develop the tramway in Lund. This should hopefully give insights into the transport infrastructure decision-making processes in a growing municipality. Allowing for improvements in decision-making processes that hopefully in the end, helps decision-makers to develop Lund in the most appropriate way. I would also like to thank my partner for the quality of time spent during COVID-19 isolation. In the end, this allowed for discussions that positively improved this thesis.

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1. Introduction

In recent discussions of urban infrastructure investments, a controversial issue has been whether actual costs are overrun, risks overlooked, and benefits exaggerated. On one hand, some argue that infrastructure investments have positive economic impacts, improve accessibility, increase land and property values. From this perspective, investments in urban infrastructure is good for the general wellbeing of a city. On the other hand, however, other argue that the exceptional power of intervention and decision-making that project agencies obtain in the process of developing a major urban project may leave vulnerable gaps in urban policy development. In the words of Flyvbjerg, Skamris-Holm, & Buhl (2003), one of this viewer’s main proponents, “…with overwhelming statistical significance that in terms of costs transport infrastructure projects do not perform as promised”. According to this view, decisions of urban infrastructure projects needs to be thoroughly investigated before implemented in the built environment. In sum, then, the issue is what the decisions of urban infrastructure investments are based on or what influences it. This thesis view is that decisions of urban infrastructure investments are often based on other cities successful investments. Though this thesis concede that imitating other cities may turn out to be successful, this thesis still maintain that blindly importing solutions from a globalization context may turn out be counterproductive and have economic, social, and environmental consequences. For example, Edinburgh struggled many years with building a tramway but finally got it operating in 2014. Although some might object that learning from others are key to success, the thesis replies that not considering one’s own location and context will bring about sub-optimal solutions. The issue is important because urban infrastructure investments often carry a substantial investment sum which may be partly based on arbitrary parameters.

Infrastructure projects play an important role in what they deliver, as they significantly alter the built environment and require large investments. Additionally, major infrastructure decisions are subject to uncertainty. In addition, transport infrastructure projects carry a substantial time horizon and large budget. Although investments in infrastructure may be crucial to economic growth, making the right urban infrastructure investment is challenging. This raises questions concerning on what grounds decisions of transport infrastructure are made and how they are justified? This thesis explores how policy development influences urban transport infrastructure decisions. Undoubtedly, cities are growing more similar in terms of communication systems and general

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8 policies which signify that the structure of organizations and policy development are in the process of converging on a global level (Drori, Yong Jang, & Meyer, 2006). It is the conception of local municipalities or cities imitating the organizational forms of global cities while still applying their own practice. Czarniawska (2015) identifies some risks when the imitation happens, it is possible that the process is prolonged greatly and that costs may skyrocket. It is when the local context is neglected, and global policies are applied that procurement may not be optimal or appropriate for the given situation. These statements and the concept of isomorphism together form the framework for analysis. Additionally, the tramway project is explored through the three interrelated types of isomorphism: Coercive-, mimetic-, and normative isomorphism. This thesis research if these three mechanics of isomorphism influenced the decision to build a tramway in Lund. The tramway project in Lund, Sweden is used to test and substantiate this theoretical inquiry through applying local development isomorphism (Chien, 2008) theory in a real-world context. The narrative of this thesis focuses specifically on a theoretical perspective of imitation. On this basis, the thesis also explores if there is a relation between the processes of decision-making of transport infrastructure and imitating other cities successful urban policy development.

The case study of Lund provides insight on how a decision-making process of a major tramway infrastructure project may be outlined in Sweden. Lund presents an interesting case as it is the only city in Sweden that is currently building a completely new modern tramway. This is noteworthy because it allows for an open discourse analysis of publicly available material and to apply selected theoriesto understand the underlying reason to why the tramway is being built. The process offers an opportunity to study a major developing urban infrastructure project in Sweden. The decision constitutes a main step in reshaping the communications and networks in the municipality. Therefore, an understanding of the process of tramway in Lund is critical because it has an extensive history that is not transparent but clearly influences the way problems and solutions are framed in the decision-making process. To understand the process, it becomes central to identify the key points that shaped the outcome. This opens up opportunities to understand the process of how the tramway was constructed through policy development even though the tramway project is a project of physical transit solution. Analyzing key points in documents supporting the decision provides a broad knowledge of the process itself and concepts of global policy development, and the phenomenon of imitation. The thesis will contribute to how policy development influences urban infrastructure decisions in Sweden.

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1.1 Research objective and purpose

The overall objective of this thesis is to find out what role policies play in decisions of urban infrastructure investments and what influenced the decision to build a tramway in Lund. Urban infrastructure investment decisions are researched by presenting a case study about a tramway project in Lund. A case study allows for an open discourse analysis of publicly available material and to apply selected theoryto understand what influenced the decision to build a tramway. The case study will help narrow down the research objective and to collect empirical data to analyze. Additionally, this thesis tests local development theory as explained by Chien (2008) to find out if the decision to build a tramway in Lund was influenced by the global phenomenon of cities growing more alike. The analysis hope to uncover and break down the decision in order to reveal potential risks or benefits to decision-makers in Lund municipality. Infrastructure investment decisions needs to be fully investigated because they are inherently uncertain – as supported by multiple scientific findings (Flyvbjerg, Skamris Holm, & Buhl, 2003). Furthermore, it is also important to understand the processes of how alternatives were framed and how the tramway was communicated and justified, leading up to the decision. By answering those questions, this thesis sheds light on what influences infrastructure investments for the sake of policy development and assurance of a well-integrated and optimal transportation system. This would allow for the identification of key points in the decision process that can be subject to analysis and potential improvement.

The research provides a solid understanding as to how the decision-making process was shaped and what the decision was partly based on. To clarify, this thesis elaborates upon whether the decision to build a tramway in Lund was influenced by mimetic measures as described by Chien (2008) or not.

The following research questions will form the base of this thesis:

1. What role does policies play in decisions of urban infrastructure investments? 2. What influenced the decision to build a tramway in Lund?

By asking these questions, this thesis will draw from an understanding of urban planning to explore the processes of decision-making in a major urban infrastructure. This research is informed by earlier studies of transport policy development (Wang, et al. 2018; O’Brien, et al. 2019), also similar research already conducted on the tramway in Lund (Reinholdsson, 2013; Huynh, 2018; Hjalmar & Jakobsen, 2017). This study thus links to a broader range of decision-making processes related to large urban infrastructure investments in Sweden. This thesis helps to understand what influences a decision of a major infrastructure investment in a municipality in Sweden. Hopefully, the conclusion will shed light on possible benefits or consequences of local policy development.

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1.2 Literature review

It is often the case that economic impact is the focus of international research of transport infrastructure. This may be because the economic calculation is quantifiable and relatively easy to measure. Moreover, several scientific findings reveal that light rail projects are often used to help regenerate, boost employment, and increase property values of urban areas (Knowles, Ferbrache, 2016). Research on transport infrastructure projects has both been criticized and endorsed. One side of it generally finds that large-scale projects often have actual costs are overrun, risks overlooked, and benefits exaggerated (Flyvbjerg, Skamris Holm, & Buhl, 2003). The other side suggests that tramway transport infrastructure investments have positive economic impacts, improve accessibility, increase land and property values, but location and context is relevant (Knowles & Ferbrache 2016). Furthermore, research also show that transport infrastructure has a positive impact on tourism inflows and that high-income destinations are more frequently revisited (Khadaroo & Seetanah, 2008). The outcomes of large-scale urban infrastructure projects are often subject to uncertainty and may therefore exceed the budget. This is why decisions of urban infrastructure investments have been widely associated with uncertainty, particularly in forming similar solutions to other cities. The relation between organizations growing more alike and decisions of urban infrastructure is well-established; a journal by Powell and DiMaggio (1983) describe the phenomena of organizations imitating other successful organizations to stay competitive. However, in an era of effortless accessibility to information, imitating others are easier than ever, and the findings of older studies like this one might be even more relevant than before. In light of this phenomena, researchers have become interested in the specific developments of cities converging on a global level. Chien (2008) theorizes that regions in development zones in Jiangsu in China would decide on similar solutions when: they are subject to new regulations from the government; they seek the same immobile/mobile resources; regional leaders imitate so-called successful experiences; leaders are selected from a professional managerial pool; and, regions engage the services of professional consultancies. Several empirical studies have focused on institutions and organizations forming similar strategies to cope with uncertainties (Boxenbaum & Jonsson 2017; Cairney, 2019; Narayanan & Adams, 2016), while Chien (2008) confirmed a relationship between imitation and policy development for investment decisions. Across these studies, there is consistent evidence that organizations are imitating other successful organizations not necessarily by actively choosing to do so, but by engagement with different interactive aspects of isomorphism. Nevertheless, there is a lack of robust research on the notion of imitation in urban planning, even so on a municipal level in Sweden.

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1.2 Layout

The first chapter outlines the decision-making process behind the controversial tramway project in the municipality of Lund. To this end, the thesis provides insight to the project’s context in Lund, both historically and contemporary.

Chapter two describes the methodology used which outlines discourse analysis as the primary method of interpreting texts and analyzing documents.

Chapter three elaborates upon the theoretical framework used to analyze the collected empirical data. The main emphasis of this chapter is developing an in-depth understanding of the concept of isomorphism. This will help to ensure a theoretically informed analysis of the empirical material. The thesis takes as its point of departure the new institutionalism (DiMaggio & Powell, 1991) and combines it with local development isomorphism (Chien, 2008).

Chapter four presents the empirical data that provides insights to the tramway project in Lund. This chapter elaborates on the tramway project’s background, and how the project takes place in relation to its context in the built environment in Lund.

Chapter five recapitulates the empirical data by analyzing and comparing it to local development isomorphism. Furthermore, this thesis analyzes how the municipality assessed the availability of a tramway in Lund. This will shed light on how alternatives to the tramway project were framed. Chapter six concludes the thesis by answering the research questions and demonstrates the empirical and theoretical contributions of the thesis.

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2. Methodology

This chapter discusses the collection of empirical data and reflect upon the methods used. Moreover, it outlines the scope and limitations of this research and how it may affect the outcome. The purpose is to make the reader understand how the analysis was conducted and how the conclusion was reached.

2.1 Discourse analysis

This research applies a comprehensive approach to the problem, relying on qualitative and interpretive method to explore the topic. To study policy development and decision-making processes discourse analysis has been suggested as a useful tool (Bacchi 2015; 2016). Discourse analysis is a broad term to study the use of language (Byrne, 2017) in different subfields such as ethnography of communication, interactional sociolinguistics, conversation analysis and critical discourse analysis (Frey, 2018), However, it is also used in philosophy, humanities, and the social sciences. Writers such as Foucault established the significance not just of discourse but of discourses – emphasizing the importance in which knowledge becomes relevant in its context. The discourse analysis originates from the perspective of social constructivism, that identities and the social world are constructed from discourse. Phillips & Hardy (2002) explain it in one sentence as: “Without discourse, there is no social reality, and without understanding discourse, we cannot understand our reality, our experiences, or ourselves”. Discourse analysis focuses on communication between different actors and the patterns of interaction (Byrne, 2017). This method is primarily used when exploring the relationship between texts and its social context. Moreover, it is also defined as an interrelated set of texts and the production, distribution and reception of texts that produce a social reality. An individual texts on its own is not adequate to produce an understanding of a topic, instead it is through interconnections with other texts and discourses that together are making. Policy documents are not uncommon material for discourse analysis (Bacchi 2015; 2016). Discourse analysis is appropriate when empirical data is relatively homogeneous and focused on a particular topic.

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13 This thesis uses discourse analysis to study the tramway project in Lund as a narrative to understand what influences decision-making processes in the municipality. The empirical data is analyzed as for how it creates emphasis for a certain intent and what was the reasoning behind it. In this sense, the empirical data is interpreted based on both the details of the material itself and on contextual knowledge about the tramway. This will allow the thesis to analyze the tramway project for themes and patterns to discover a certain purpose for the tramway to uncover what influenced the decision.

Figure 1: Map of methods related to discourse analysis (Sage research methods, 2020).

2.2 Case study

A case study is selected to help focus this thesis by researching what influences urban infrastructure investment decisions. Lund is selected in which a controversial decision has been made about building a tramway. A case study is appropriate for gaining concrete, contextual and in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows the research to construct meanings and implications of the case. It helps build a narrative around what influences decision-making of a major infrastructure investment in a municipality in Sweden. Selecting one case will keep this thesis focused and manageable. The case provides new or unexpected insights into what influenced a relatively transparent decision-making process of a major infrastructure investment. Although selecting one case study is not sufficient to draw conclusions of what influences decision-making processes in all municipalities in Sweden. However, it will give in-depth insights to the decision-making processes of one particular municipality in Sweden. Conducting multiple case studies to compare different decisions in multiple municipalities would provide a limited

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14 conclusion to decision-making processes in Sweden. Although it would illuminate different aspects of this research on a wider scope.

2.2 Material

The official documents relating to the policy development and decision-making process of the tramway in Lund are well suited for using the method of discourse analysis to reveal how the decision was made and justified.

An abundance of information covering the tramway project is available on various websites, however this research carefully picks out a selection of newspapers and articles that was considered purposeful for the thesis. Furthermore, essential official documents published by the municipality and consultants are selected to give a broad scope to this research. These public documents demonstrate the municipality’s intent and perspective to communicate the tramway project. For instance, the website from where the empirical data is collected has multiple official documents containing information that may or may not be critical or noteworthy to this study. However, only a few is carefully chosen to properly analyze methodically and include in this study while the other documents are read for the researcher to get an understanding of the context for the decision-making process in the tramway project.

Notably, discourse analysis recognizes that it is impossible to study all aspects of discourse (Phillips & Hardy, 2002). Therefore, a subset of texts and articles has been selected to make the context manageable. Empirical data is selected to limit official documents published by either the municipal, consulting firms or other organizations. Discourse analysis also considers the researcher’s cultural and social background when interpreting the texts and documents. Which is why the end result may be subject to invalidation. Several studies on this particular subject would have to be conducted to properly validate the claim that this thesis makes. It is also important to keep in mind that this thesis demonstrates a relationship between decision-making and imitation. Statements and sentences in official documents and texts have been critically analyzed to look for wordings that circulate an intent in the decision to build a tramway in Lund. Most of the official documents can be found in a website called spårväglund (https://sparvaglund.se/), which is the official site for finding information about the tramway project in Lund.

The following official documents have primarily been used as empirical data: 1. Pre-study: tramway Lund C to ESS (Lund municipality, 2011).

2. LundaMaTs III (LundaMats III, 2014).

3. Lund comprehensive plan (Lund municipality, 2010). 4. Spårväglund (https://sparvaglund.se/)

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15 The documents listed above are selected to provide a basis for the analysis. The selection of documents is based on their relevance to the tramway project from the perspective of a resident in Lund. This is focused on how frequently a particular set of documents are referred to and communicated as basis for the decision. This helps the analysis by identifying linkages to selected theories.

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3. Theoretical framework

The theoretical framework will consider insights from policy development, organizational theories, and isomorphism, and how it may act as a catalyst for a particular vision within a Swedish municipality. The purpose of this chapter is to present and discuss the theoretical perspective and key concepts that will inform the analysis.

3.1 Isomorphism of local policy development

Isomorphism is a concept that explains why firms, organizations or businesses within a similar organizational field, tend to look the same over time. Isomorphism is closely related to institutionalism by developing a sociological view of institutions and organizations. However, the original institutionalism is a distinctive approach to study social, economic, and political phenomena, although there is a consensual understanding that it is easier to define what institutional research is not, rather than what it is (DiMaggio & Powell, 1991). This may be because researchers who do organizational research vary in their defining of institutions in different disciplines. They also vary in their emphasis on micro and macro components as well as their underlining of cognitive and normative aspects of institutions. Fundamentally, institutional studies are an analytic framework which attempts to explore themes of change, conflict, and competition, and therefore falls under the category of social science. The main purpose of this kind of theoretical tradition is to provide a valuable lens for understanding contemporary organizations and management.

The new institutionalism emerges with a new focus from the old institutionalism. The old institutionalism focuses on state/government laws and rules which are applied to citizens. The new institutionalism shifts its focus on the interaction between different institutions within society, and how institutional dynamics, rules and norms determine the behavior and actions of individuals. On a micro level, new institutionalism unravels why and how institutions emerge in a certain way within a given context (DiMaggio & Powell, 1991).

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17 On a macro level, new institutionalism argues that institutions in the global arena develop to become similar, not matter the given context and even though they evolved differently (DiMaggio & Powell, 1991). John Meyer is a prominent scholar of rationalized governances. During 1985-2002, Meyer assessed factors that influenced national administrative rationalization in the worldwide movement for governance reforms. It is important to note that the key point with institutional analysis is not to expose the inefficiency or optimality of organizational practices. Instead, institutional analysis develops robust explanations of how institutions incorporate historical experiences into their policies and organizing logics. The vagueness of how decisions are framed and the doubt if a particular decision is the most appropriate decision, is something that urban planners and politicians battle every day. According to new institutional theory, organizations tend to turn to mimetic measures to look for a solution in times of uncertainty (Powell & DiMaggio, 1991).

A way to deal with uncertainty and risk is to push for certain policies. Politicians may push through policies that makes the city “trendy” and “modern”, because that would mean media attention, and attract investors and tourists, eventually generating economic prosperity (Czarniawska, 2015). Barbra Czarniawska describes that cities are being teared between the global and the local. The local are growing more similar to the global which is a phenomenon of imitation and a strive for “success”. Ideas and trends that spread across the world are powerful forces contributing to both organizations and individuals becoming more similar. Ideas travel easily and fast in the global world and may influence and explain glocal societies. Barbra Czarniawska (2015) writes about how organizations watch and imitate each other if there are no official rules or professional values which they must abide. Czarniawska relates this phenomenon to fashion by arguing that fashion is created by nobody and everyone: those who create the fashion, and those who follow the fashion (2015, p. 130). For instance, tramways in Stockholm differs so much from tramways in Rome that they are impossible to compare. Yet both cities invested in tramways because they were trendy (Czarniawska, 2015). Edinburgh struggled many years with building a tramway and finally got it operating in 2014. In addition, fashion is known to be repeating itself in a circular fashion. The phenomenon of imitation in city management is best described by isomorphism (Powell & DiMaggio, 1991, Chien 2008).

Isomorphism is explained by Shiuh-Shen Chien (2008) as a phenomenon of global policy development growing more alike around the globe. Chien describes the phenomenon as a result of local and regional governments and institutions engaging in policy innovation to increase economic development since the 1970s. The idea of policy innovation was that local employment and economic prosperity and growth would be achieved through innovation. Chien points out that a consequence of this was that governments and institutions formed similar (and sometimes identical) development strategies. These policy innovations were specifically focused on:

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18 1. New space for production (export processing zones and development zones). 2. New methods or facilities for production (internet access and skilled labor). 3. New markets for consumption (gentrification or cultural activities). 4. New sources of development financing (the Structure Fund of the European Union). 5. New roles cities (Brussels as the European capital).

These five policy innovations form an informal agency for cities growing more alike. Specifically, policy development for infrastructure strategies was particularly formed to have similar agendas. The policy innovations strongly tie into liberal economic ideologies whereas the market is decentralized as a notion for economic growth.

Chien (2008) develops the concept of local policy isomorphism from national development zones in the Jiangsu province in post-Mao China. Chien (2008) finds that the rapid economic growth in China is not only seen on a national level, but also predominantly at a local level. Local governments were encouraged to engage in local policy innovation for rapid economic growth. The result varied both negatively and positively for these development zones. Some of the zones was dominated by multinational corporations which became a growth engine. Some of the zones rushed to build infrastructure for airports and seaports without researching their own local relative advantages. This resulted in a lot of regions growing more alike whereby the concept local development isomorphism sprouts. The general argument made by the author, Chien, in his work The Isomorphism of Local Development Policy: A Case Study of the Formation and Transformation of National Development Zones in Post-Mao Jiangsu, China, is that local governments aiming for economic growth tend to formulate and implement very similar, or even identical, policies. More specifically, the author argues that organizations competing for investments engage in mimetic learning measures to cope with the uncertainties of development. He writes, “…local policy isomorphism can be understood as the consequence of local policy innovations whereby different policy agents at various spatial scales strategically interact with others in order to respond to macro (national and global) economic and political restructuring”. In this passage, the author is suggesting that organizations indulge in policy innovation to attempt to generate real and positive local economic development. In conclusion, the author’s belief is that in some cases, organizations would form similar strategies when they are subject to new regulations from the central government. Also, seek the same mobile resources and engage in services of professional consultants. In my view, the author is right because organizations tend to evolve into becoming similar over time by adopting similar strategies. More specifically, I believe that constrained organizational fields with limited access to local consultancy groups may be inclined to form similar global policies. For example, cities implement policies to reconfigure prioritizes from cars to people. Although the author might object that among the 12 development zones studied in his work, only a few succeeded in generating good economic performance as planned. I maintain that imitating other global successful policies does not necessarily translate

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19 into decent local growth. Therefore, I conclude that simply imitating other organizations without considering their own localities may be subject to sub-optimal solutions and loss of long-term sustainability.

Three mechanics of isomorphism coercive-, mimetic- and normative typology is described to intermingle in an empirical setting. However, they tend to derive from different circumstances and may lead to numerous outcomes. The three mechanics are not always empirically distinct, as Powell & DiMaggio (p. 150, 1991) writes: “external actors may induce an organization to conform to its peers by requiring it to perform a particular task and specifying the profession responsible for its performance”. The three mechanics of isomorphism is described more thoroughly in the following chapters.

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3.1.1 Coercive pressure typology

Isomorphism is divided into three themes of imitative processes which is then circulated into five sub-themes as a theoretical framework for analysis. The first theme coercive pressure typology (CP) is described as various parties resembling one another because of external formal, or informal coercive pressures. For instance, compulsory regulation (CP1) means that regions or cities are forced to develop in a certain way due to formal regulations or informal rituals. For example, companies must abide to certain regulations or laws depending on what systematical framework they are under. Informal coercive pressures are created by traditions or rituals where companies are forced to adopt a particular marketing strategy in order to attract and attain customers. For instance, black Friday, where shops are likely to be forced to offer 50-70 percent discounts. In some circumstances, organizations are forced by the government to adopt new regulations or policies. For instance, adopt new pollution control technologies to correspond environmentally friendly strategies. Coercive pressure may also stem from subtle sources such as global movements or trends. Organizations modelling themselves accordingly may attract capital or investors because they get the attention of media. This ties unto the second sub-theme immobile/mobile resource (CP2). Organizations create similar policies in order to pursue immobile funding from the same authority (Chien, 2008). For example, an organization pursuing funding for a project may have increased odds if the project is aligned with environmentally friendly policies.

3.1.2 Mimetic learning typology

Mimetic learning typology (ML) is typically when organizations face uncertainty tend to imitate other organizations that seem successful according to themselves (Chien, 2008). Uncertainty is a powerful force that encourages imitation. In this sense organizations are adopting similar strategies and policies to help prosper economic, social, and ecological sustainability. One such example is Japan’s modernization strategy during the nineteenth century. New governmental initiative was based on successful western prototypes. They studied courts, the police, and the army in France, the postal system and the navy in Great Britain, banking, and art education in the United States. In return, less productive companies are now implementing their perceptions of Japanese models and strategies. This has a ritualistic aspect – companies at least show that they are trying to improve by adopting those new innovative strategies (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983). For example, cities facing congestion problems use similar policies to London’s or Stockholm’s “successful” congestion charge. Under such circumstances, organizations tend to mimic other organizations that are perceived as successful (Chien, 2008). Mimetic learning typology is described as a standard response to uncertainty to eliminate risks.

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3.1.3 Normative involvement typology

The last theme is described as normative involvement typology (NI) and explains the usage of similar professional sources for consultancy. One professionalization stems from formal education and one from professional training. Universities and professional institutions are two important pillars for the development of organizational norms and behavior. The two control and greatly influences the way professional behave and what sorts of solutions are presented. Large firms conforming in educational programs, workshops, consultancy activities, or employer-school networks reinforce the notion of organizations in the same field growing more alike. A few large firms are significantly responsible for the professionalization of a particular field (Powell & DiMaggio, 1983). Professionals tend to propose similar strategies or policies to proposed problems. Particularly when these professionals work together with one another, emphasizing and propagating on certain ideologies and norms. Consultancy involvement (NI1) is where regions would formulate similar if not identical development strategies based on some consult company or association. The last theme for isomorphism is Personnel recruitment (NI2) where regions and cities make similar decisions because mayors, leaders, or managers are recruited or headhunted from the same pool of experience (Chien, 2008).

3.3 Summarising the theoretical framework

It is important to note that the isomorphic processes can increase organizational efficiency or enhance its competitiveness in a particular field. Organizations may be rewarded for affiliating themselves with policies or strategies that other successful organizations use. Nevertheless, copying these policies or strategies does not ensure that it is the most appropriate action to take in its local context.

The concept isomorphism in sociology addresses the notion of similarity of processes and structures of organizations. It is the conception of local municipalities or cities imitating the organizational forms of global cities while still applying their own practice. Czarniawska (2015) identifies some risks when the imitation happens, it is possible that the process is prolonged greatly and that costs may skyrocket. It is when the local context is neglected, and global policies are applied that procurement may not be optimal or appropriate for the given situation. These statements and the concept of isomorphism together form the framework for analysis. This thesis research if the three mechanics of isomorphism influenced the decision to build a tramway in Lund. This thesis will explore the mechanics of each isomorphism that is theoretically distinctive but nevertheless intertwined when analyzing the empirical data.

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4. The tramway project in Lund

This chapter introduces the case study with background information about the city. Firstly, this chapter will describe the contemporary situation of Lund and Scania as a multi-city region and how they are connected to discussions of a large rail-network. Secondly, this chapter describes traffic planning in Lund since the 1900s and how this is related to the emergence of a tramway in Lund, contributing to policy development within the municipality. Furthermore, the text clarifies how ideas of a tramway developed and how it concretized.

4.1 Lund in a multi-city region

Lund is typically characterized by its medieval cobblestone and half-timber houses built in an organic city-grid. The city is located south-west in a so-called multi-city region in Scania with close proximity to two larger cities, Malmö and Helsingborg. With a population of 124 935 and growing, a couple of development plans to cope with this growth has been set in motion (SCB, 2019). Students make up 40 000 which makes them the major socio-economic group of Lund. This impacts the way services are available and how revenue is generated in the city. Therefore, the university is a large center of attention both

internationally and nationally. The built environment of Lund is shaped through a public strive for consuming via shopping, leisure, tourism, subset of university, and interconnectivity with outer villages. The university was built in 12th century and since then the city has been growing as a place for knowledge and scientific research. In 1964 a university for technology (LTH) was founded in Lund by the royal institute of technology. This led to Lund being a center of technological innovation and global companies

Illustration 1: Major areas within the border of Lund municipality (Lund geoportal, 2020)

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23 like Sony mobile, Alfa Laval, Ericsson modems, Tetra Pak, moved to Lund (Wickström, 2016). One of the main areas of industry for Lund is the scientific and technological industry even though old half-timbered houses characterize the city of Lund. Hence, the labor force in a service-based economy saves space as production is marginalized to outer regions of Lund municipality such as Veberöd, Södra Sandby, Genarp, Dalby, etc.

Illustration 2: The tramway transit starting from Lund C and with end station at Science Village / ESS (Lund municipality, 2016)

Brunnshög in north-east of Lund is a developing area whereas significant research facilities “MAX IV” and “ESS” were recently established. MAX IV is the world-leading synchrotron radiation laboratory and is one of the world’s most powerful neutron source (Hallonsten 2011). These buildings invite and attracts researchers and visitors to a relatively newly developed area. Thus, the university and technology organizations are major actors for employment and growth for Lund. The socio-economic structure of Lund very much affects the built environment and how Lund is perceived. New buildings, laboratories, offices, etc. connected to the university keeps are planned in the city and huge complex of student apartments are established in the city. This evidently show that the urban economy of Lund is partly based on production, exchange, and consumption of

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24 services of one sort or another. The labor force in a service-based economy saves space as production is no longer necessary.

Scania is unique in the way that the region has a large number of railways – some active, some inactive. This makes Scania highly interconnected with rural areas and thus – have highly developed mobile urban areas. These clusters of societies such as Dalby, Veberöd and Genarp is typically populated by rural commuters and families of three or more (Nilsson, 2014). Lund is a quaint city that historically rarely undergo any major changes to the built environment and a tramway would deliberately and decisively reshape this medieval city. A tramway has long been discussed as a means of transportation in Lund. In fact, for the last 26 years, the tramway has been a topic of discussion, but the process has been in a constant state of uncertainty (Technical department, 2018).

4.2 Global policy development

This section will explain contemporary issues that most cities face in terms of traffic, networks, capacity, and sustainability. It will provide general information as to why governments attempt to shift a car-based city to a public transport-based sustainable city.

Due to the urbanization, cities of today are challenged by large forces of mobility. People make several trips a day to make a living. Transportation of goods and deliveries add to the number of vehicles on the streets. Car dominance and the urbanization is a growing problem for cities which contributes to congestion, pollution, health issues, affecting the overall attractiveness of the city. The key point is that car-dominated cities have become increasingly seen as unsustainable from a climate and environmental perspective, making cars an unwelcome presence in urban areas. This helps explain why western cities have shifted from a prime car-based planning narrative to a strive for the sustainable walkable city (Kickert, 2020). However, there are other reasons for why cities strive to decrease the dependence on cars. It is imperative to understand the reason why there is a shift in urban planning, and why investment in public transport infrastructure is more common today.

Transport infrastructure in cities is often understood to be integral to economic growth, as international research suggests a strong link between transport investment and a better general economy (Brooks, Donaghy, Knaap, Reynolds‐Feighan, & Vickerman, 2011). It is also pivotal for different aspects of urban development, because transport infrastructure determines communication systems in a city and generally influences the well-being of a population (Donaghy, 2012). Infrastructure undoubtedly add to mobility in economic, social and environmental aspects. It is the quality of urban infrastructure that is used to measure the quality

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25 of urban living conditions (Donaghy, 2012). Cities should therefore strive to develop sustainable public transport and other public infrastructure (Fabre, 2016). Both in the sense of being sustained over time, but also that it is equitable for the city. Adding more connectivity in a region opens the labor market on a national level. This means that in terms of mobility, roads of different types are generally good for urban development. However, there are different types of mobility whereby the car was particularly prioritized during the 20h century.

The car is a powerful means of transport, which is why many cities have centralized cars in their planning tradition. The car opened new means of transportation, which in turn offers a skilled division of labor force and greater opportunities for communication. Additionally, the car in terms of mobility, arguably economically benefits local citizens within a city, due to interconnections elsewhere (Bridge & Watson, 2010, p. 99). This is proposedly, among other things why transport infrastructure was centralized, and this marked the rise of the car-dominated city as it was a great catalyst for economic growth. Nonetheless, the construction of freeways and railroads has had heterogenous impacts on urban living conditions, and economic prosperity (Bridge & Watson, 2010). Infrastructure, mobility, connectivity, transit, urban economics, public transport, policies, and global capital are all concepts that contribute to how societies are understood as modern. Even though increased mobility has improved living conditions, some problems follow, for example congestion. Congestion is a challenge that many large cities face today and is one of the reasons why so many urban planners attempt to de-emphasize the car and strive for the sustainable walkable city, as this would partly solve the problem.

“A well-developed system of infrastructure also underlines that the provision of public goods is a local political priority. Investments in infrastructure for transport and communication are crucial to a city’s well-being and progress, and it should, therefore, be in the best interests of cities to develop sustainable public transport and other public infrastructure” (Fabre, 2016, p. 19).

This quote explains why traffic problems are often met with the solution to invest in public transport. The solution becomes to invest in infrastructure that supports public transport. As Kieran P. Donaghy writes in his work Managing Change in Urban Infrastructure Systems, it is the quality of urban infrastructure that is used to measure the quality of urban living conditions. Urban infrastructure systems, or interurban as he calls it, are critical to the continuation and improvement of social and economic life the world over (2012). More specifically, Donaghy emphasizes the importance of urban infrastructure as a tool for growth, and the importance to reconstruct the infrastructure systems in order to prevent decay (2012, p. 82). What Donaghy addresses in his work is how urban infrastructure should be managed and how functional or non-functional infrastructure can be identified and what decision making should be based on when managing (Donaghy 2012, p. 83). It is also clear that in postmodern times the amenity of an area is subject

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26 to decay if congestion keeps piling up. Resulting in a potential loss of economic prosperity by having longer travel times, and therefore having increased commuting costs. American economist Richard Solow (1972) was one of the first to introduce congestion costs in urban economic models by implementing a monocentric model. Proving that there is a relation between congestion/commuting costs and land rents. There is also the generalized travel time cost equation ‘In Vehicle Travel Time’ (IVTT) to calculate costs. Which in turn gives an understanding for the significance of congestion issues. In relation to this, Donaghy (2012, p. 82) has identified the importance of urban infrastructure as a tool for growth, and the importance to reconstruct infrastructure systems in order to prevent decay. This then reflects yet again to the vision of the public transport city. Which may explain why there is a shift in urban planning, from the car-based to the walkable city.

4.3 The emergence of tramway discussions in Lund

The early discussions of a tramway are traceable all the way back to 1896 where it was first mentioned by G. M. Frick and Bertil Sederholm (Andersson, 2018). However, the traffic planning tradition in Lund has up until recently always been heavily favored to the car as primary mode of transport. Therefore, the tramway discussions were temporarily pushed to the side for a time as a result of SCAFT 68 being established as a policy document for the municipality (Melchert, 2011). The policy document that was appropriated by the municipality underlined safety and availability with the car as central planning object. Issues related to car dominance such as noise and emissions were foreseen to be resolved by technological solutions in the future. SCAFT 68 was policies built on ideas to distinctly separate different transport modes which inspired planners in Lund to propose Genombrottet (breakthrough) (Wahl, 2005). The breakthrough proposal had the intention to build a highway from east to west through the center of Lund. Thoughts of east western highway connection already existed in 1915, also with ideas to convert to a tramway (Nathell, 2018). The SCAFT 68 planning tradition has been heavily criticized in contemporary times by scholars claiming that it contributed to criminal activity and isolated urban areas. Later, in 1969, city council dropped the plans for the highway link and appointed a traffic and environment committee which would change the course of traffic planning in Lund. In a vote 29th of May 1969, party representatives stopped “the breakthrough” in votes by 24 to 20. Stopping the breakthrough shifted the powerful car and access-oriented planning direction that had been predominant up until that point. Since then the appointed committee has been slowly implementing strategies that aims to reduce the use of cars.

The early discussions of tramway faded into the background until the start of 1992 where trams were mentioned in a comprehensive plan of Lund. The plans were to build tracks that would go from Lund C through the university hospital and out to Dalby. Three years later, a significant bus

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27 line “Lundalänken” was discussed that would take passengers from the center to the northeastern parts of Lund. The bus line was planned to be 6 kilometers and have priority tracks and fast driving lanes. During the planning phase of Lundalänken, the future vision was to convert the route to a modern tram system that would eventually be embedded in a larger track-network throughout the southwest region of Skåne. Hence, the plans were to eventually connect Lundalänken to other cities in Skåne (City planning office, 2003).

In 1998 the first LundaMaTs policy document was released which aimed to convert transport system in Lund to sustainable modes of transport. This document states that Lundalänken was significant for the work towards sustainable transport in Lund (Eriksson, 2008). Thus, the project was granted 15MSEK in funding from the state (Kuprijanko, 2017). In 1999, Region Skåne (county of Scania) and Lund municipality decides to build Lundalänken and 2003, the project is finished. The number of commuters in this route doubles in just a few years and the project is deemed to be a success (Andersson, 2018). Up until 2007, the possibilities of a tramway in Skåne has piqued multiple actors’ interest and in particular the collaboration “SSSV” (Samverkan Skåne Sydväst). This collaboration starts an investigation and points out five projects that are particularly interesting to further investigate: Lund – Dalby, Lund C – Brunnshög, Helsingborg – Höganäs and local rails in Malmö and Helsingborg. Because roads and rails generally give the possibility to commute from outer villages into the city of Lund whereby a network of labor is created. An integrated public transport opens the opportunity for the people to live, work, and go to school in different places of Scania. In the end of October 2010, Lund published another comprehensive plan where trams were yet again mentioned, however more concrete and with intent to implement within 20 years. The tram line is planned to reach Brunnshög, Dalby, and Staffanstorp and the idea of trams in Lund had yet again become more concretized. The same year 2010, a collaboration between cities with plans of tramway was formed called “Spis” (Spårvagnar i Skåne), consisting of Lund, Malmö, Helsingborg and Region Skåne. In 2011, Spis receives EU-funds from the program “Elena” and a pilot study of a tramway between Lund C and Brunnshög finished. In the end of 2013, city council adopts the detailed comprehensive plan of Brunnshög where a tramway was greatly detailed and elaborated. Up until this point, political parties have all been positive towards the tramway plans, but in 2014 FNL (FörNyaLund) was formed to oppose the project, and on their side, they had the Swedish democrats and Fi (Feminist initiative). Around 2014, the plans for tramway was met with heated questions and debates on a local and regional level (Wagerfors, 2019). The general positivity towards the tramway plans were not overwhelming. Instead, the result various surveys showed that only 39% was spontaneously positive towards the tramway plans (Nilsson, 2014). Furthermore, it was mostly younger people that was spontaneously positive. Concerned citizens questioned whether the plans were legitimized and if it would be the most appropriate decision to make.

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28 The same year, city council appoints six detailed plans for the tramway, however this was appealed by multiple instances before the plans were able to become final (Building committee Lund, 2015§220). As a result, the municipal executive board instruct an impartial expert group to re-analyze and re-examine the tramway plans yet again. The expert group deemed the tramway plans necessary to achieve the sustainability and growth goals set by the municipality, however urged that the budget was underestimated by 100-200MSEK. The detailed plans were in legal matters from 2014-12-18 to 2015-11-11 when it eventually became legal force (Byggnadsnämnden Lund, 2015§220-225). This means that the tramway plans were in legal validity and that construction of tramway was possible. In 2016 “Skanska” were tasked as entrepreneurs to build the tramway and 18th of January 2017, the project enters phase two – the construction phase (Kuprijanko, 2017).

4.4 The controversial tramway

Firstly, it is important to quickly note that the tramway project in Lund was greatly contested by the majority of citizens. Reports and surveys conducted from 2013 and 2014 show that 94% of the respondents in Lund knew about the planned tramway and 39% were positive towards its development (Nilsson, 2014). In addition, 65% of the respondents thought the municipality was investing in a tramway for a better built environment, and 37% thought it was to increase the capacity of the public transport system along Lundalänken. The opposition to the tramway would rather see different transport alternatives such as electrical inner-city buses or something similar (árdeo, 2013). The single-issue party FNL (FörNyaLund) was the tramway project’s most zealous opponent with the people’s support in its back. The party advocated for electrical buses as a more cost-efficient solution (Hjort, 2018). Also, the opposition to the tramway argued that the investigations made by the municipality to build a tramway were unfairly conducted.

The controversial tramway project quickly caught the attention of the media which led to a lively debate about the cost, funding and other transport alternatives (Norling, 2020). With newspaper titles such as: “Expensive tramway construction in Lund, not worth completing”, or “Our tax money should be used for something other than a tramway” (see reference list) enticed the academic domain to investigate the tramway project. Multiple researchers decided to conduct studies on the matter. Some of them concluded that, on one hand, a tramway is not necessary for the expected capacity problem as portrayed by the municipality. On the other hand, a tramway is required to enable a high percentage of exploitation in Brunnshög and to retain its attractiveness (Huynh, 2018).

Some studies highlighted problems with democracy, a lack of citizen dialogue, or the refusal to recognize the opposition to the tramway and pointed out that the communication about the

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29 tramway was usually one-way. Also, that the communication was directed to a specific group that was already satisfied. Also, the lack of citizen dialogue and public hearings for the project may have led to distrust, which in turn undermined the legitimacy of the political processes for the future (Hjalmar & Jakobsen, 2017).

Other papers focused on the legitimacy of the tramway being portrayed as an absolute necessity for modernity, sustainability, and economic growth, that anyone opposing the tramway is opponents of growth, sustainability, and urban development. In this sense, some studies concluded that the tramway is being framed as the only viable solution for long term sustainability and growth. Thus, the tramway is used as a political intent for urban growth, rather than a physical transit solution (Reinholdsson, 2013).

4.5 Policy documents in Lund

It is imperative to gain an insight of the contemporary policy development in Lund to understand how the implementation of a tramway decision in Lund was highlighted as a transport solution. The policy documents act as supportive documents when forming and concretizing a decision to implement for either infrastructure or other policy development. The document also helps explain how underlying strategic and political decisions in Lund could be formed as part of a global policy movement.

Policy documents: Pre-study tramway Lund C to ESS, LundaMaTs, Comprehensive plan

4.5.1 Pre-study: tramway Lund C to ESS

The aim of the pre-study was to investigate whether a tramway was in line with the municipality’s vision and goal for growth, sustainability, employment, and economy. The evaluation of establishing a tramway from Lund C to ESS was filled with investigations of multiple officials and consultants. The purpose of the pre-study was to investigate circumstances, alternative solutions, consequences, and costs and whether the project should proceed to the next stage in the planning process or not. Policy documents such as LundaMaTs is mentioned on multiple occasions as a framework for how Lundalänken should develop. The path along the planned tramway is also mentioned as a corridor of importance for employment, research, and development. Some of the key activities such as businesses, hospital, and the university is located along Lundalänken. Moreover, it is also mentioned that the already existing busway was built with the possibility of converting into a tramway. The conversion of the busway to tramway is supported by goals and

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30 statements in policy documents. In terms of capacity, the number of trips per day in 2008 was 6000 along Lundalänken, this was predicted by the municipality to increase to 12 000 – 15 000 per day in 2020 (Lund municipality, 2011).

Achieving attractive public transport and urban environment is framed as a possibility only via a tramway. Furthermore, a tramway fulfils political goals on a national and regional level (Lund municipality, 2011). For the urban dwellers, the tramway is communicated as a modern public transport strong in capacity and with possibility to contribute to urban development with low environmental impact. Simrishamnsbanan is an inactive regional rail network which is often mentioned as a pivotal network for growth, however, in need of renewal to be functional again.

Illustration 3: Rail network illustrating the development in different stages (Lund municipality, 2014)

The pre-study informs that previous conducted investigations already points to a tramway, in combination with additional buses, is the most appropriate public transport solution to Lundalänken in the long run. A 12-meter bus has 24 seats, whilst a 30-meter tram has approximately 70 seats (Lund municipality, 2011, p. 10). Therefore, a tramway is being further investigated with the comparison to an alternative where no investments to infrastructure has been made, called zero alternative. In the zero alternative Lund NE / Brunnshögs is described as an area that is being developed, which is why bus traffic in this alternative must be increased. Over the course of 40-years the area is expected to have been expanded by 50,000 residents and employed. The majority, 70% or 35,000 persons, are counted to be active in the area. Normally, 30-40% of those travel to work in the rush hour, that being over 10,000 people. If public transport is to account for a third of the trips to the area, then the goal for public transport must be to be able to handle over 3000 trips in one hour in the maximum direction (taking into account also that some of the public journeys to the area do not take place via the Lundalänken). This means around 50 trips per hour and direction (if the local line is busy with articulated buses). This corresponds to almost one

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31 bus per minute and direction (Lund municipality, 2011, p. 26). In the zero alternative, no proposed investment in infrastructure has been made.

4.5.2 LundaMaTs

LundaMaTs is a strategic policy document that has been guiding transport system decisions for Lund since 2006. The work of these policy documents is renowned both nationally and internationally and has on multiple occasions received honor and awards from its ability to reduce harmful greenhouse emission from public transport. The first version of the policy document was released 1999 and has since then been reworked on two occasions. The current (2020) operational document is LundaMaTs III that was released in 2014.

LundaMaTs is the result of a long history of environmental visions and strategies to achieve sustainability in the transport sector. It acts as a foundation of decision making for politicians and public officials and has been incorporated in many of the municipality’s decisions. Historically, actors involved in creating LundaMaTs later in the 1990s, were one of the actors responsible for stopping the “Breakthrough” in 1969, which shifted the car-orientated urban planning trend to a somewhat more sustainability focused planning. The “Breakthrough” consisted of plans for having a highway going through the city center of Lund which was stopped. LundaMaTs I was released 1999 consisting of mixed strategies such as traditional supported by soft measures in the form of Mobility Management (MM), a new concept of that time. Primarily, LundaMaTs envisions future directions of development and addresses challenges such as CO2 emissions, long-term sustainable

social development, expansion, and the transition to a more sustainable transport system. MaTs originates from several actor’s knowledge and research: Banverket, Bilindustriföreningen, Boverket, KFB, Luftfartsverket, Naturvårdsverket, NUTEK, Sjöfartsverket, SIKA, Svenska Petroleum Institutet (SPI) and Vägverket. Between 1994 and 1996 they discussed different transport solutions and how to create a demand for sustainable transport concepts. Later, Lund adopted the result and with the help of Trivector, a private consultant group, they developed LundaMaTs. The sustained work has resulted with LundaMaTs being implemented in many of Lund’s official policies. It is also of importance to engage and involve politicians in the development of LundaMaTs.

The policy document is often celebrated by officials and politicians, for example: ”We have engaged the politicians in our investigations. I think that is why LundaMaTs is not questioned by the politicians today. LundaMaTs is almost partly divine. I see a great demand for innovation in the future, amongst those is electrifying vehicles” (Johansson, 2016, authors translation).

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32 As part of Lund’s planning policies, LundaMaTs consists of sustainable transport solutions and acts as guidance and decision basis for politicians and planners in Lund. LundaMaTs is renowned and extensively used by politicians and it has therefore influenced what decisions are made in terms of transport infrastructure and has since long advocated for trams as a sustainable transport method. The tramway was mentioned in LundaMaTs I as a goal to extend the municipality’s reach for sustainable transports. Summarizing, LundaMats III works with strategies and policies connected to sustainable transport and social integrity (LundaMats III 2014). Enforcing minimization for CO2 emissions through various strategies whereas one is reducing car use.

“Lund is experiencing sustainable development with balanced growth. We are known for our efficient transport system and our economizing on energy and resources. Lund offers a good quality of life in terms of health, well-being and freedom. Lund City Centre is vibrant, attractive and easily accessible for everyone. The city and its surroundings contribute to each other’s development.” (LundaMaTs III, 2014, p. 10)

This citation states future goals for LundaMats and hopes to achieve a more sustainable transport system in Lund. Enforcing not only soft measures but also caving the path for decisions of physical infrastructure systems. Lund municipality works with an ideology that underlines the importance of reducing car transportation use. Lund municipality believes that by reducing the need for motorized transport, Lund will become more environmentally sustainable. The strategy for achieving this goal is by working with a model where efforts are linked to ongoing planning and development processes (Lockby et al 2007).

4.5.3 Lund comprehensive plan

Firstly, a comprehensive plan is a strategic document that Swedish municipalities must create as a guideline for decisions to be based upon. It is a plan that generally show suggestions as to where development intends to happen in the municipality. How the municipality intends to grow in the sense of how land and water areas should be used. In more specific terms, how the built environment should be used, developed, and preserved (Boverket, 2020). This is also supported by the plan- and building act (2010) that it must contain the direction of development for the built environment. The purpose of the plan is for everyone to look at and more specifically some parties such as officials, politicians, organizations, companies, and citizens to see and gain an understanding where the municipality intents for development to happen. Secondly, a comprehensive plan generally makes the work with detailed development plans much easier as it guides the work with certain values and regulations.

Committing to a tramway through policy development