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Active consumers at the centre of the

energy system:

Towards modelling consumer behaviour in

OSeMOSYS

Author: Agnese Beltramo

Supervisor: Mark Howells

August 2016

EGI_2016-064 MSC

Master of Science Thesis

KTH School of Industrial Engineering and Management Department of Energy Technology

Division of Energy Systems Analysis SE-100 44 STOCKHOLM

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Abstract [English]

This thesis focuses on assessing current technologies, policies, KPIs and modelling tools for enhancing the characterization of current energy demand coming from the residential sector in long term energy models. Today, thanks to the increasing spreading of smart grid and metering systems through the energy sector, new features are made available, allowing for more customized and optimal use of energy technologies, according to consumers’ behaviours and attitudes that affect energy demand. Through the assessment undertaken in this study, a more detailed representation of the residential demand has been made possible. In addition, it has been allowed also to identify potential benefits coming from a more flexible use of technologies and the consumer’s engagement in optimally monitoring and managing energy consumption. Finally, the OSeMOSYS modelling tool has been enhanced with a better characterisation of the demand side in its Reference Energy System. A solution for defining rates of flexibility for the demand side technologies analysed has been proposed. In addition, a theoretical framework for integrating consumers’ behaviours and attitudes in the system has been developed. This has been based on the modelling of virtual technologies representing costs and variations in energy demand associated with specific behavioural patterns, following the example provided by the Socio-MARKAL model.

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Abstract [Svenska]

Denna Thesis fokuserar på att bedöma nuvarande teknik, politik, nyckeltal och modelleringsverktyg i syftet att förbättra hur den aktuella energiefterfrågan av bostadssektorn karakteriseras i långsiktiga energimodeller. Idag har spridningen av smarta nät och mätsystem inom energisektorn ökats. Dessa tillbringar nya funktioner som möjliggör en mer anpassad och optimal användning av energiteknik: de kan nu följa beteenden och attityder som påverkar konsumenternas efterfrågan på energi. Bedömningen som genomförts i denna studie möjliggör en mer detaljerad representation av bostäders efterfrågan. Dessutom kan vi nu upptäcka de potentiella fördelarna av att, å ena sidan, ha flexibla användningar av teknologier, och, å det andra, att ha engagerade konsumenter som övervakar det optimala styrning av deras energikonsumtion. Slutligen har det OSeMOSYS modelleringsverktyget stärkts genom en bättre beskrivning av Reference Energy Systems efterfrågesida. En lösning som definierar flexibilitetsnivåer på efterfrågesidan teknologier som analyserats har föreslagits. Dessutom har ett teoretiskt ramverk som integrerar konsumenternas beteenden och attityder in i systemet utvecklats. Med referens till den Socio MARKAL-modellen har detta baserats på modellering av virtuella teknologier som föreställer både kostnader av och variationer i efterfrågan på energi i samband med specifika beteendemönster.

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Table of Contents

Abstract ... 2

1 Introduction ... 5

1.1 The Strategic Energy Technology Plan ... 5

1.2 Smart technologies and definition/relevance ... 6

2 Aim and Objectives ... 9

3 Methodology ...10

3.1 Background of studies ...10

4 Results ...12

4.1 Current state of the art – Technology development...12

4.1.1 Smart features ...25

4.2 Policies, measures and technologies to activate consumers ...26

4.3 Metrics and KPIs to quantify the effectiveness of different parameters on energy demand ...40

4.4 The impact of active consumers on the energy system ...43

4.5 Energy modelling systems for the demand side ...49

5 Discussions ...58

5.1 Solution for modelling elements of demand flexibility ...59

5.2 Solution for integrating consumer behaviours in energy modelling ...60

6 Suggestions for future studies ...63

7 Conclusions ...64

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1 Introduction

As reported in the Green Paper “A European Strategy for Sustainable Competitive and Secure Energy” (COM(2006) 105) by the European Commission, the European Union (EU) is currently working to provide strategies and measures in six different areas of the energy system:

1. The completion of the EU internal market for electricity and gas;

2. To ensure the security of supply, creating solidarity between Member states;

3. To diversify the current energy mix, while increasing efficiency and improving sustainability; 4. To be leader in working against climate change;

5. To support research and innovation towards new energy technologies, to reach and further improve current targets set by EU policies;

6. To create a common EU external energy policy, thus being able to address international dialogue with a common strategy.

Effective and quick actions in these six areas are fundamental to address the three core objectives of the EU energy policies: economic competitiveness, security of supply, environmental sustainability (IEA, 2014a). This in order to fulfil the EU energy and climate objectives set for 2020.

Due to the recent economic and financial crisis of the European economies that required policy makers to focus on supporting the recovery though, today energy security and industrial competitiveness are considered as key drivers for the development of new policies (IEA, 2014a)

Two are the major reforms that the EU is currently undertaking: the energy and the climate ones.

Regarding the energy market, the reform is related to the implementation of the “Third Package” for the liberalisation of the internal electricity and gas markets in all the Member States. More specifically, it aims to create a fully integrated European energy network and market, particularly working on cross-border capacity at interconnections and congestion problems for gas and electricity, considering also the need to connect Eastern and Southern European markets that are currently still isolated. In addition, it intends to increase the share of variable renewable energies and therefore adapt the system to manage this energy production (IEA, 2014a)

For the climate policy sector, there are climate and energy targets that need to be achieved by 2020 as defined within the “2020 Climate and Energy Package”. They are about:

1) Reducing greenhouse gasses (GHG) emissions by 20%, in comparison to 1990 levels;

2) Increasing the share of renewable energy installed to 20% in the gross final energy consumption, and to 10% in the transport sector;

3) Reducing the European total primary energy consumption by 20%, in comparison to the projections on energy consumption made in 2007. (IEA, 2014a)

This means that the EU needs to implement and develop new policy initiatives that can stimulate the market to invest in new technologies. In particular, new policies and stimulus should be developed to foster investment on renewables as solar photovoltaic (PV) and onshore wind, and to fully implement measures and directives for energy efficiency and saving (IEA, 2014b).

It is particularly in this context of energy efficiency, emissions reductions and increasing share of renewables that demand side management and ‘smart’ solutions will become fundamental, to better monitor and adjust the balance between demand and supply sides. Active consumers will increasingly play an important role in managing their consumptions to optimally take advantage of energy supply when available on the grid.

1.1 The Strategic Energy Technology Plan

In order to achieve the goals mentioned above, major EU Research&Innovation(R&I) challenges have been investigated, together with the stakeholders needs (European Commission, 2014). In relation to these challenges, the strategic Energy Technology plan has been defined, where an overview of the major energy

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system challenges is provided, with guidelines about the aims and the actions the European Union intends to engage in for developing and transforming the current energy system (European Commission, 2014). Particularly, the “Integrated challenge 1: Active consumers at the centre of the energy system” focuses on the need to engage energy consumers in the system to bring more flexibility to the market, thus allowing better integration of renewable energy and increasing overall efficiency of the system. It includes the following two themes:

 Theme 1: Engaging consumers through better understanding, information and market transformation

It focuses on trying to understand better consumers’ behaviours, and to investigate the relation with consumption data and information to achieve better efficiencies in the system. It intends to stimulate the research and understanding how to better engage and address consumers in the system.

 Theme 2: Activating consumers through innovative technologies, products and services.

It focuses on specific innovative technologies, products and services that help consumers in better managing their demands in relation to the available supply. It includes new business models and control systems that focus on the consumers to stimulate their engagement on managing energy demands and increase the flexibility of the energy system (European Commission, 2014).

1.2 Smart technologies and definition/relevance

Currently there are several names and definitions available for technologies and solutions that can provide customers with better monitoring and control of their energy consumption. Technologies are generally grouped under a common adjective of “Smart”. For the purpose of this thesis, in order to clarify what is meant when referring to smart technologies or systems, the following definitions has been considered.

 Smart Grid: “Upgraded energy network to which two-way digital communication between the supplier and consumer, smart metering and monitoring and control systems have been added” (European Commission, 2012)

 Smart metering system: “Electronic system that can measure energy consumption, adding more information than a conventional meter, and can transmit and receive data using a form of electronic communication” (European Commission, 2012)

 Smart home: “A dwelling incorporating a communications network that connects the key electrical appliances and services, and allows them to be remotely controlled, monitored or accessed.” (King, 2003).

 Smart appliance: modern appliances can be integrated into Smart Grids, through remote connection and enhanced functions.

Concerning methods and techniques to engage consumers in managing their consumption patterns and adapting to inputs coming from the grid, Demand Side Managements (DSM) techniques and Demand Response (DR) methods were proven to be effective. For the purpose of this study, the following definitions from Gelazanskas and Gamage (2014) can be considered for a better understanding of the related solutions considered:

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 Demand Side Management: “The planning, implementing, and monitoring utility activities that are meant to influence consumers’ use of electricity and to encourage them to consume less power during peak times and shift energy use to off-peak times” (Gelazanskas and Gamage, 2014);  Demand Response (DR): “Specific tariff or program to motivate end-users response to changes in

price or availability of electricity over time by changing their normal patterns of electricity use.” (Gelazanskas and Gamage, 2014).

More specifically, an overview of DSM and DR methods currently available is presented in the following graph, following the information provided by Gelazanskas and Gamage (2014):

Figure 1: Overview of current DSM and DR methods available, as presented by Gelazanskas and Gamage (2014) and Boßmann and Eser (2016).

Incentives-based programmes include all those measures that “give customers time-varying rates that reflect the value and cost of electricity in different time periods”. As can be seen in Figure 1, examples of these types of programmes are:

 Time-Of-Use (TOU) tariffs, where electricity prices vary during the day, according to pre-defined time slots;

 Real Time Pricing (RTP), where electricity prices vary almost on real time, more usually each hour during the day or even more frequently, following standard economic rules applied to the energy market;

 Extreme peak pricing as well as critical peak pricing, where electricity prices vary in a similar way as for TOU tariffs, but with higher prices for limited number of days or hours; these time periods are considered critical due to the critically higher demand registered (Boßmann and Eser, 2016; Gelazanskas and Gamage, 2014).

Price-based programmes instead, are those that “pay participating customers to reduce their loads at times requested by the program sponsor, triggered either by a grid reliability problem or high electricity prices”.

DS M a nd DR me th od s INCENTIVE-based programmes Classical

Direct Load Control (DLC) Load limiter or interruptible/curtailable (IC)

program

Market based Incentive-based load reduction programmes

PRICE-based programmes

Time-Of-Use (TOU) tariffs

Peak rates Off-peak rates Real Time Pricing (RTP)

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They can be distinguished between classical (Direct Load Control, Load interruptible/curtailable control), and market based programmes (incentive based). The main measures involved are the following:

 Direct Load Control (DLC), which engage consumers by asking to give up the control over some domestic appliances;

 Load limiter or interruptible/curtailable (IC) program, where consumers are limited in the amount of electricity they can use;

 Incentive-based load reduction programmes, where load curtailments and mandatory, but can be either controlled, as in the case of Emergency Demand Response Programmes (EDRP) and Peak time rebates (PTR), or negotiated, as in Ancillary service markets (ASM), Demand bidding (DB) and Capacity market programmes (CMP). In this last case, negotiations would be based on energy market rules (Boßmann and Eser, 2016; Gelazanskas and Gamage, 2014).

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2 Aim and Objectives

The aim of the thesis is to provide an insight in current energy technologies and policies that are relevant for future development of the EU energy system, in order to activate and engage consumers in managing their energy consumption.

In addition, this thesis intends to develop a modelling framework for the integration of elements of Demand Side Management (DSM) and consumer behaviour in long-term energy system modelling (e.g. OSeMOSYS) of the residential sector.

In order to achieve the aims of this thesis, the following objectives have been defined:

• Assess current technologies, relevant to engage end-users in the active management of their energy consumption

• Assess the EU climate and energy policies, in support of energy efficiency and smart grid measures • Assess consumer behaviour information and patterns, and the effects on residential energy demand • Investigate energy modelling approaches and tools for integrating elements of consumer

engagement in defining the demand side

• Develop a modelling framework for the residential demand side in the long-term modelling tool called OSeMOSYS.

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3 Methodology

The methodology used for this report is a comprehensive literary review of the following:  Smart technologies that can effectively activate consumers’ engagement

 European policies and measures to support the interaction with the demand side  Demand Side Management and Demand Response methods

 Consumers’ behavioural information and patterns, in interacting and participating to the management of energy demand and consumption

 Present modelling tools for energy consuming behaviours and demand side interactions with energy system, and related programming language

In addition, metrics and KPIs relevant to assess performance, effectiveness, and efficiency of smart technologies in relation to consumers’ behaviour have been briefly analysed.

3.1 Background of studies

For the assessment of current relevant energy demand technologies for the residential sector, the Technology Briefs released by the Energy Technology Systems Analysis Program (ETSAP) under the International Energy Agency (IEA) have been used as main source of information. Each of them provides the following information about current appliances available on the market: cost, service life, functions, market penetration, energy demand. These information are normally provided targeting the European and the US market respectively, as well as other international market where particular technologies are more widespread. They are also divided between industrial and residential application, thus providing complete overview of technologies available today.

Regarding the European Policy assessment, the Energy portal of the European Commission website as well as the EUR-Lex portal of the European Union have been used to search for specific legislations currently in place, concerning the topic of this thesis and supporting related programmes and initiatives or providing funds. Particularly useful it was looking at the Summaries of EU legislations within the Energy section. In this regard, the following topics were considered:

 European energy policy  Internal energy market  Energy efficiency  Renewable energy

 Security of supply, external dimension and enlargement.

Additionally, in order to come up with a complete list of legislations, other sources of references were used to check and fill in possible gaps.

The Energy Policies of IEA Countries - European Union 2014 Review by the International Energy Agency (IEA) was consulted, in order to find relevant information about the current legislative framework that regulate the European Energy system and define its future development.

Also, the Energy section of the European Commission website was consulted. Here, a list of documents including mainly Communications, Directives and Recommendations by the European Commission (EC) was identified. These documents are related to the several energy topics, as defined by the European Commission (e.g. energy strategy, energy efficiency, technology and innovation, market and consumers, renewable energy).

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Several scientific articles accessed mainly through the Science Direct online portal have been used instead to get an overview of current techniques and methods for energy consumers’ engagement, and to collect consumer behavioural information and patterns. This source has been used also to collect information concerning the current modelling alternatives for the demand side, together with websites of academic institutions and research centres working on the enhancement of present modelling tools. Among these, it is worth mentioning the University College London (UCL), which is developing independently several energy modelling tools, each of them focusing on specific sector of the energy system. The UCL is also leading partner of the wholeSEM Whole System Energy Modelling Consortium, together with the Imperial College London, the University of Surrey and the University of Cambridge. The consortium is funded by the UK Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), and it aims to link and apply interdisciplinary modelling tools to address current key energy policy issues (wholeSEM, 2015).

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4 Results

4.1 Current state of the art – Technology development

Within the area of Smart Grids, there are many technologies involved in the activation of consumer in the management of their energy consumption and the interaction with the supply side of the energy system. Referring to the IEA Technology Roadmap – Smart Grid (2011), the following categories of technologies have been identified, which directly relate to the residential sector:

 Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) integration: it includes all the communication infrastructures that support the transmission of data, to guarantee the correct operation of the grid on real-time and provide optimal services and communication system to all the stakeholders involved in the grid.

 Renewable and Distributed generation integration: it includes technologies for automated control of operations on the electricity system, for the integration of small scale renewable and distributed energy resources on residential buildings, as well as electrical or thermal based energy storage systems. Thanks to smart grids, these technologies can be optimally managed to balance supply and demand.

 Distribution grid management: it includes sensor and meters that provide real-time data that are processed to ensure the correct performance and effective utilisation of assets in the grid.

 Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI): in involves different technologies for providing consumers with information that can stimulate a change in consumption patterns. For instance, it enables the provision of data on the amount, the time and the price of the electricity consumed. It also enables to detect losses, outages, remote connections or disconnections, etc.

 Electric Vehicle (EV) charging infrastructure: it involves all features to enhance smart charging of EV from the grid, when there is a low energy demand, thus interacting with AMI and the consumers.

 Customer-side systems (CS): for the residential sector, it includes Energy Management Systems (EMS) for houses, smart appliances, energy storage devices, as well as in-home displays, thermostats, price-responsive systems. They can contribute to the monitoring and management of electricity consumptions, the increment of energy efficiency, as demand response solutions (IEA, 2011).

In addition, the following categories of technologies are still needed to build up the smart grid and provide all infrastructures to deliver data and information to provide an optimal service to the demand side:

 Wide-area monitoring and control: it relates to the generation and transmission areas of the supply side of the grid. This category of technologies provides real-time information on the components and performances of power systems, allowing system operators to optimise their use and improve reliability.

 Transmission enhancement applications: it includes all different technologies and application for the transmission system, to enhance the controllability and maximize the capability to transfer power along the network (IEA, 2011).

Concerning the purpose of enhancing present long-term energy modelling tools, this section will focus more specifically on technologies and appliances for the residential sector. Particularly, on those ones that have been identified as potentially relevant in affecting consumers’ energy demand and consumption patterns and to provide demand flexibility.

First, a list of relevant domestic appliances is provided as presented by Silva et al. (2011). Here, they distinguished between shiftable and interruptible appliances, according to the degree of flexibilities different appliances allow:

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-13-  Shiftable appliances: o Dishwasher o Washing machine o Wash-dryer/tumble dryer  Interruptible appliances: o Refrigerator o Freezer

The first group includes appliances classified as either shiftable or flexible, which are those ones that can increase demand flexibility allowing several smart, more efficient operations throughout the day. For instance, they can allow to be scheduled at different times of the day, or to be interrupted during their operation cycle, or to lower the energy demand by choosing to work at lower temperatures. The second group mainly consists of cold domestic appliances, which can enhance demand flexibility by being temporarily switched off when needed for lowering energy demand, as long as temperatures are kept low enough to perform as needed (Silva et al., 2011).

Second, referring to the European Smart-A project conducted in several European countries (i.e. Germany, Italy, United Kingdom, Sweden), the following technologies and appliances have also been considered for enhancing management and flexibility of demand side, together with the previous ones listed by Silva et al. (2011):

 Electric storage heating;  Heating circulation pump;  Air conditioner;

 Electric water heater;

 Oven and stove (Intelligent Energy Europe (IEE), 2009).

According to the project results, these technologies can also contribute to load shaping through demand side management techniques or demand response programs (IEE, 2009).

For all the above-mentioned technologies and appliances, it was possible to collect several information and data mainly from the Technology Briefs of residential energy demand technologies provided by the Energy Technology System Analysis Program (ETSAP) (IEA Energy Technology Systems Analysis Programme (ETSAP), 2012), as listed below.

 Building shell, Thermal insulation  Space heating and cooling  Water heating  Lighting  Cold appliances  Cooking  Dish-washing machines  Dryers

 Other electric appliances  Electronic devices

This information is fundamental to be able to better characterize them in future energy models and to fully understand the potential for flexibility they can provide on the demand side. For this reason, they have been organized in the following Table 1, so that can be easily accessed and used for future modelling purposes. Here, information about market penetration, cost, energy source, service life, energy efficiency and consumption are provided.

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Regarding washing machines though, all information have been collected through other online sources of reference, since the related Technology Brief from the IEA ETSAP website is currently under revision.

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Technologies for Domestic sector Non-shiftable appliances Shiftable appliances Interruptible appliances EU Market penetration/Market shares Average cost (capital costs, no taxes included) Energy source Equipment Service life (EU data) Energy efficiency and consumption

Building shell, Thermal insulation

Not relevant for the purpose of this study Space Heating and Cooling Boilers (dwelling

scale)  - Gas: 115-125 €/kW, Oil: 125-135 €/kW, Biomass: 596 €/kW, Coal: 115 €/kW Gas (majority), Oil - 15 yr Annual Fuel Utilization Efficiency (AFUE): 86-90% Furnaces (dwelling scale)  - Gas: 120-130 €/kW, Oil: 145-165 €/kW

Gas, Oil - 17-18 yrs Annual Fuel

Utilization Efficiency (AFUE): 78% (up to 85-90% for high-efficiency models) Boilers (building-scale, typically 40 dwellings)  - Gas: 70-80 €/kW, Oil: 75-90 €/kW, Biomass: 375 €/kW, Coal: 100 €/kW Gas (majority), Oil, Biomass

- 25 yrs Annual Fuel

Utilization Efficiency (AFUE): 75% (up to 85-95% for high-efficiency models) Heat pumps (domestic scale)  - Existing: 1500 €/kW, Ground-to-water: 1625 €/kW, Air-to-water: 1275 €/kW, Air-to-air: 600 €/kW, Gas absorption: 700 €/kW Electricity (majority), Gas

- 15 yrs Primary Energy

Ration (PER) [for gas fired heat pumps]: 1.5

Large scale CHP [for District heating networks]

 - 800-4500 €/kW Gas,

Biomass

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Micro-CHP  - 5300-6300 €/kW Gas - 15 yrs

Mini-CHP  - 2382 €/kW Gas - 15 yrs

Hybrid technologies (boiler + solar/heat pump)  - Boiler-Solar: 275 €/kW, Heat Pump-Boiler: 1402 €/kW Electricity, Gas - 15-20 yrs

Air conditioners  - 440 €/kW Electricity - 14 yrs Energy Efficiency

Ratio (EER): 3.2-3.5 Water Heating (dedicated

systems) Storage heaters (with internal storage tank, of at least 15L)  EU market shares for Small systems: - gas: 1%, - electricity: 34.8%; Large systems: - gas: 1.1%, - electricity: 20.6% Small systems: - gas: €400 (medium storage), - electricity: €99-295; Large systems: - gas: €600-1250, - electricity: €394-973 Electricity, Gas (or oil or biomass) Average: 15 yrs; Large systems: - gas: 13 yrs, - electricity: 13 yrs Small systems efficiencies: - gas: 27% , - electric: 38%; Large systems efficiencies: - gas: 29-41%, - electric: 27-30% Instantaneous heaters (tankless)  EU market shares for Small systems: - gas: 15.8%, - electricity (hydraulic): 19%, - electricity (electronic): 3.8%; Large systems: - gas: 1.5%, Small systems: - gas: €250-350, - electricity (hydraulic): €81-252, - electricity (electronic): €245-448; Large systems: - gas: €312-508/600 Electricity, Gas (or oil or biomass) Average: 15 yrs; Large systems: - gas: 20 yrs, Small systems efficiencies: - gas: 21-27% , - electric (hydraulic or electronic): 34-38%; Large systems efficiencies: - gas: 44%, Solar Thermal systems  EU market shares for Large systems: 2.3% Large systems: €2940-5880

Solar energy Large systems:

20 yrs

-

Heat pumps  - - Electricity,

Gas

Large systems:

15-20 yrs -

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Lighting General Lighting

Service (GLS), [using Incandescent tungsten filament lamps]  EU market share (2010): 52% €1.93-11.5 per unit (2011)

Electricity 1000 hours 5-17 lumens per

watt (lm/W) Halogen Lamps (HL), [Infrared coated (IRC) or non-IRC lamps]  EU market share (2010): 20% €2.00-8.00 per unit (2011) Electricity 2000-8000 hours 10-30 lm/W Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs)  EU market share (2010): 28% €1.5-11.5 per unit (2011) Electricity 6000-15000 hours 35-75 lm/W

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) and Organic LEDs (OLEDs)  - €11.00-57.00 per unit (2011) Electricity 12000-50000 hours >15- 1000 lm/W

Cold Appliances Fridge-Freezer (EU

typical size of 213-78l)  47% (UK value, 2009) €333 (average cost in EU, 2011); Range from €528 to €283 (for A++ class and B class energy label efficiency respectively) [UK Market Transformation Programme data] Electricity Various possibilities to increase energy efficiency and sustainability of cold appliances, and lowering lifecycle energy costs: - advances thermal insulation systems, - improved gaskets and refrigeration systems, - use of low global warming process fluids, - more efficient components 15 yrs (2009) 0.84 kWh/l/year (2009); 350-400 kWh per year (normalized average value for new products)

Refrigerator  28% (UK value,

2009)

€223 (average cost in EU, 2011); Range from €404 to €132 (for A++ class and B class energy label efficiency respectively) [UK Market Transformation Programme data]

Electricity 12.5 yrs (2009) 163.7 kWh per

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-18- Freezer (temperatures down to -18°C, EU typical size of 169ll)  25% (UK value, 2009) €186-302 (average cost in EU, 2011); Chest freezers: range from €344 to €141 (for A++ class and C class energy label efficiency respectively); Upright freezers: range from €508 to €188 (for A++ class and B class energy label efficiency respectively) [UK Market Transformation Programme data]

Electricity 15-16 yrs (2009) 1.47 kWh/l/year

(2009); 270-370 kWh per year

Cooking Oven (can be:

electric ovens, or gas ovens)  EU residential market shares: - 77% electric ovens, - 28% gas ovens €200-600 for gas ovens; €350-1500 for electric ovens Electricity; Gas (natural gas or LPG) Current focus on improving energy efficiency: - multifunctional options - new cooking methods Gas/Electric ovens: 15-20 yrs EU domestic electric ovens are rated A-G, according to the related energy labelling scheme; Average energy consumption: - 184 kWh per year for gas ovens, - 164 kWh per year for electric ovens Convection ovens are generally 20% more efficient that conventional ones 77% of EU domestic oven sales in 2008 had A-class labels Potential future energy efficiency gains: 6-7% for electric and gas ovens

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Microwaves  EU market shares:

- 55% conventional microwave ovens; - 10% combi-ovens; - 35% microwave with grills; Predicted growth of microwaves sales: 9.9% in EU-27, for years 2010-2020

- Electricity 8-10 yrs Average energy

consumption: - 75-91 kWh per year Potential future energy efficiency gains: 4% Cooker (with combinations of several heating mechanisms: - conduction - convection - radiation - inductive heating)  In EU market (2007 sales data): - 70.8% radiant hobs, - 19.8% induction hobs, - 9.4% hot plates €130-1000 for gas hobs; Wide range of variable prices for electric hobs, according to specific types and energy efficiencies: €137 for solid plate hobs, €380 for radiant hobs, €810 for induction hobs (2007 data) Electricity; Gas (natural gas or LPG); Biomass (in developing countries) Optional: - digital control systems (for electric appliances) - gas burners (to regulate temperatures on gas systems) - LPG cylinders (for LPG cookers, limited diffusion) Gas hobs: 19 yrs; Electric hobs: 15-19 yrs 60% of EU domestic cookers sales in 2008 had A-class labels Domestic average consumption data: - 333-996 kWh per year for gas hobs; - 190-250 kWh per year for electric hobs Potential future energy consumption savings of 10-15%, switching from solid plate to induction or radiant hobs Grill  In EU market (2008 data): - 15% gas grills - 40% electric radiant grills - 45% electric radiant covered grills €100-1500 for gas grills; €80-1500 for electric grills Electricity; Gas (natural gas or LPG) Gas/Electric grills: 19 yrs Typical consumption data: - 47 kWh per year for gas grills, - 24-703 kWh per year for electric grills

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Dish Washing Machines  48% of EU

households have it € 300 Electricity, hot/cold water (only in the models designed for the US) Programs and sensor combinations to determine length and type of cycle

9-15 yrs 90% of EU domestic dishwashers are performing at least at the A class energy label efficiency (= less than 1,05 kWh per cycle); Domestic average consumption: 250 kWh per year

Washing Machines  market saturated,

new sales for replacement of old appliances

- Electricity Load Auto-Sensor

Automatic Temperature control Automatic dispenser Spin speed Zero control Fuzzy control Neuro Fuzzy control

All water washing machine Energy saving function Automatic dosage detergent Availability of 20°C program Hot water supply

15 yrs Consumption:

0.17-0.19 kWh per kg of dry load

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Dryers Vented  27% annual sales

(2009) Western EU countries: €204-732 (from E to A energy efficiency class respectively); Eastern EU countries: €310-617 (from G to A energy efficiency class respectively) Electricity, Gas (natural gas or propane) Time controls (delay timers); On/off stand-by mode switchers; Moisture control runtime option (temperature sensors, moisture sensors, resistance sensing rods) 13 yrs; Usage: 160 cycles per yr Efficiency: 0.74 (+/- 25%) kWh per kg of dry load (kWh/kg load) (2008); Consumption: 2.36 kWh/cycle (2008)

Condenser  73% annual sales

(2009) Electricity, Gas (natural gas or propane) Heat-pump condenser  - Electricity, Gas (natural gas or propane)

Other electric appliances Coffee machines

(automatic drip filters, single servers, espresso)

  - Drip filter machines:

€35 per unit, Pad filter machines: €81 per unit, Hard cap espresso: €156 per unit, Semi-automatic espresso: €103 per unit, Fully automatic espresso: €595 per unit

Electricity Parameters for

increasing energy efficiency: - auto-power-down, - improved insulation of hot components, - "energy saving" functioning mode, - reduced/zero standby consumption, - reduced heated water, - reduced thermal capacity of heating unit Drip filter machines: 6 yrs, Pad filter machines: 7 yrs, Hard cap espresso: 7 yrs, Semi-automatic espresso: 7 yrs, Fully automatic espresso: 10 yrs Drip filter machines: 1030 kWh, Pad filter machines: 1134 kWh,

Hard cap espresso: 843 kWh, Semi-automatic espresso: 1367 kWh, Fully automatic espresso: 1133 kWh [lifetime electricity consumptions]

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Vacuum cleaners (upright, canister, stick, wet-dry, wide area, steam/deep cleaner)  - Upright: €49-772 per unit, Canister: €39-1000 per unit, Stick: €23-230 per unit, Wet/Dry: €39-540 per unit, Steam: €77-310 per unit

8 yrs (5 yrs, for

battery/cordless products) 1.5 kWh/hour of use (0.024 kWh/hour of use, for battery/cordless products)

Electronic devices Television

(Cathode Ray Tube (CRT), Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) or Plasma Display Panel (PDP))  EU market share (2009): - 3% CRT, - 86% LCD, - 11% PDP €281 for CRT, €985 for LCD, €2411 for PDP [data for Western EU, 2005] Electricity Power management features for TVs own energy consumption and that of associated equipment, On-mode power consumption: - CRT: 55W, - LCD: 67-72W, - PDP: 120W; TV usage pattern (2007): average 240 viewing min/person-day Personal Computer (PC) (desktop or laptop)  57% (households ownership, 2008) €620 (for desktop computers, 2005); €238 (for laptop computers in the UK, 2012)

Electricity 6 yrs (desktop

computers), 4 yrs (laptop computers)

Idle mode power consumption (2005): - Desktop PC: 78.2W,

- Laptop PC: 32W; Sleep mode power consumption (2005): - Desktop PC: 2.2W,

- Laptop PC: 3W; Off mode power consumption (2005): - Desktop PC: 2.7W,

- Laptop PC: 1.5W

Solar heating and cooling No information available yet

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Space Heating and Cooling

Generally, heating accounts for the largest residential energy demand in temperate regions. However, residential energy consumption associated with heating and cooling demand depends on several factors, like climatic conditions, seasons, and consumers’ behaviour.

In Europe, particularly combination boilers and district heating systems, associated with combined heat and power systems, are very popular heating solutions. Boilers especially are convenient since they can provide at the same time space heating and hot domestic water.

The environmental impact associated with this class of technologies is related to their energy consumption. Today though, there is a fuel transition underway, towards switching from oil and coal based technologies to electricity, gas, biomass or renewables based ones, which have lower environmental impacts. Particularly, common renewable alternatives are biomass boilers, solar thermal systems and heat pumps, and they can contribute to increase the share of renewable in use to address the residential energy demand.

Higher efficiencies for space heating and cooling systems are obtained through condensing operations of either boilers of furnaces (IEA ETSAP, 2012a).

Water Heating

Water heating represents the third largest domestic final energy use. Currently, if old technologies would be replaced with the best available ones, there would be the potential for up to 60% energy savings in the domestic sector.

Today, standard requirements for water heating systems in the EU set the need to provide 22-33 litres of hot water at 60°C per person per day, and they are trying to push towards the implementation of solar and heat pump technologies (IEA ETSAP, 2012b).

Lighting

Lighting systems account for 19% of the total electricity produced worldwide, and they represent the second largest end-use for the residential sector.

Today, in the EU the phase out of general lighting services (GLS) using incandescent tungsten filament lamps is ongoing, thus pushing towards the use of alternative more efficient lighting technologies (IEA ETSAP, 2012c).

Cold Appliances

Refrigerators and freezers accounts for 15% of EU domestic energy consumption.

Their efficiencies mainly depend on: the thermal insulation technologies and materials adopted, and the performance of major internal components (i.e. compressor, expansion valve and refrigerant circuit). Since currently the EU market for cold appliances is almost saturated, with penetration rates reaching almost 100%, major barriers for increasing energy savings coming from these appliances seem just to be related to consumers’ unawareness of potential benefits of switching to new technologies (IEA ETSAP, 2012d).

Cooking

In 2007, electricity demand for domestic cooking appliances in the EU accounted for 7.5% of the total demand from the residential sector, but consumers’ behaviour in this context can have a huge impact thus making demands differing up to 30%.

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It has been estimated that potential energy savings in the future, thanks to either the replacement of old technologies with new more efficient ones or the adoption of more conscious behaviours, can reach 7% for ovens and 4% for microwaves. However, extra 20% of annual electricity consumption accounts just for the stand-by mode, thus suggesting extra possible margins for substantial reductions of demand (IEA ETSAP, 2012e).

Dish Washing Machines

As reported in the table above, currently 90% of EU washing machines are performing at the A class of energy labeling or even better, thus meaning consuming on average less than 1,05 kWh per cycle.

The rate of penetration of these appliances on the EU market is reaching 50%, with an average cost of 300€ per machine (IEA ETSAP, 2012f).

Washing Machines

In 2007, washing machines accounted for 6% of total electricity consumption of the EU residential sector. Today, there is a trend in increasing the standard size of the machines, from 5 kg to 6 kg with potential benefits for improving the energy efficiencies of this class of appliances, although the market is already saturated and the replacement for old technologies is not frequent (Lindström and European Council for an Energy Efficient Economy, 2011).

Dryers

For this class of appliances, the European energy labelling systems seems to have worked well in promoting the selling of efficient technologies so far. Market demand though is currently focusing more on low capacity machines, which are also less efficient, thus preventing manufacturers to sell and produce most efficient ones.

Industry experts say in the future heat pump dryers will be the new technologies increasing their share in the market (IEA ETSAP, 2012g).

Other Electric Appliances

There are currently no European legislations targeting the energy performances and efficiencies of this group of appliances.

In order to reduce the energy demand associated with these technologies, and to stimulate consumers to switch to more efficient products, the following parameters need to be taken into account: cost, style and design of the products, inertia, consumer convenience, lack of consumers’ awareness and knowledge on the functions and performances of different products (IEA ETSAP, 2012h).

Electronic Devices

This group of technologies includes personal electronic devices, like for instance personal computers or televisions.

Particularly, concerning televisions, they accounts for approximately 7% of residential electricity consumptions, and the present trend towards buying new TVs with larger and higher resolution screens will further increase the associated energy consumptions (IEA ETSAP, 2012i).

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4.1.1 Smart features

In addition to the basic common features domestic appliances can perform, there are smart features available for most of the appliances listed in Table 1. If implemented on large scale across households in the EU, in combination with smart metering systems allowing the transmission and management of real time consumption data and patterns, they could enable optimal monitoring and control of appliances.

Some examples are the ability to connect appliances to WiFi networks and remotely access and operate them through smartphones or other electronic devices. This functionality allows for instance to control operating temperatures and programs on washing machines or ovens, or to track energy usage and allow consumers to visualize their consumption patterns, or to schedule the operation of different appliances at different times of the day. In some cases, trough remote connections, appliances can also allow users to check the status of the machine, and to automatically receive real-time pricing information and schedule more energy intensive operations when prices go down (General Electric (GE) Company, 2015; MIT Technology Review, 2009; Pilkington, 2013)

Many of the largest manufacturing companies that are developing smart home appliances created their own WiFi network platform to allow the interaction of several appliances with the same personal device through specific app, and to stimulate the consumer to buy all home appliances from the same brand.

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4.2 Policies, measures and technologies to activate consumers

In the EU there are many policies and legislations currently in place to support and foster Researches, Developments and Demonstrations (RD&D) focusing on solutions and technologies aiming at increasing energy efficiency of the system. Once implemented, these solutions can contribute in reducing Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions coming from the energy sector and providing low-carbon alternatives for the future economic development of the Union, thus helping in reaching current targets in place.

There are also specific policies aiming at renovating current energy infrastructures and networks. They intend to provide a better integration of smart technologies and local sources for energy production, as well as to create a common internal energy market and network to effectively allocate the electricity available in the grid. In this context, enabling consumers to better monitor and manage their consumption patterns and taking advantage of Demand Side Management (DSM) and Demand Response (DR) techniques and methods can also have an impact. For instance, according to Gelazanskas and Gamage (2014), demand response methods applied to HVACs, water heaters and electronic devices (e.g. lighting systems) in households allow to shift approximately 20% of the energy load coming from HVACs and 9% of the one related to water heating systems, while maintaining high comfort levels. The DR method used in this case was a passive controller reacting to real-time energy price information, which needs smart meters and grids to be able to perform an effective two-way communication between the grid and the user appliances.

A list of main relevant policies and legislations is provided in Table 2 below, together with brief descriptions of main goals and objectives.

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Policy Document Topic Main goal Objectives Time horizon Legally binding

Non-legally binding

2020 Energy Strategy COM(2010) 0639 EU energy strategy To set out European

Commission's energy strategy until 2020

Five priorities to implement the strategy: - limit the energy use in EU

- build a pan-European Integrated energy market - empower consumers and achieve highest level of safety and security

- extend EU leadership in the development of energy technology and innovation

- strength the external dimension of the EU energy market

Building and transport sectors providing relevant energy-saving potential

2010-2020 

2030 Energy Strategy COM(2014) 015 EU energy strategy To highlight the need for a EU

transition to low-carbon economy, following the progress achieved with the EU 2020 targets

Full implementation of the EU 2020 targets and the following additional ones, to be achieved by 2030: - 40% EU GHG emissions reduction, below 1990 levels - at least 27% increase in share of energy from renewable sources consumed in the EU

- reform of the Emissions Trading System (ETS), and creation of new market stability reserve and tightening of annual cap on emissions post 2020

- review of 2012 energy efficiency directive, to further improve energy efficiency and establish a new energy saving policy

- creation of a new EU governance system for delivery of energy and climate objectives

- definition of key indicators for the monitoring of progress in all aspects related to competitiveness, security, sustainable energy

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2050 Energy Strategy COM(2011) 0885 EU energy strategy To provide new indications for

the Energy roadmap 2050, in order to address the commitment to reduce GHG emissions by 80-95% below 1990 levels by 2050

To provide alternative scenarios to achieve

competitiveness in future EU low carbon economy by 2050, ensuring security of energy supply.

The following factors are identified as relevant: - full implementation of 2020 energy strategy - need to focus on energy efficiency, particularly in building, transport, products and appliances - potential to supply 30% of EU energy consumptions with renewable sources by 2030

- need for investments in R&D and technological innovation to increase affordability of low-carbon energy alternatives

- substitution of oil and coal with gas to reduce emissions from energy technologies currently in place

- better matching of energy prices and actual costs - development of new energy infrastructures - ensuring safety and security of energy sources - broader and more coordinated EU actions towards international energy relations and climate change - set milestones to achieve goals and give guidance to investors, in relation to the 2030 policy framework

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Energy Security Strategy COM(2014) 0330 EU energy strategy To define a strategy for ensuring

EU energy security and reduce vulnerability as consequence of current geopolitical context

Key actions that need to be taken

- avoid disruption of energy supplies for winter season 2014/2015

- strengthening emergency and solidarity mechanisms among EU's countries, and protecting strategic and critical infrastructures

- moderating energy demand, through the enforcement of energy efficiency and energy performance of buildings directives and review of other directives, and attracting private sector investments in low-carbon economic activities

- building an integrated, well operating and efficient internal energy market

- increasing internal local energy production in the EU - foster the development of energy technologies - diversifying external supply and related infrastructures to reduce dependence form other countries

- improving coordination of national energy policies and finding common solutions for communicating on external issues (ensuring coordination on key political decisions related to energy)

2014- 

Energy Efficiency Directive 2012/27/EU EU energy

efficiency

To establish a common framework of measures for promoting energy efficiency in the EU

To ensure all Member States will establish national energy efficiency targets to reach the EU energy efficiency target of 20% by 2020, in comparison to 1990, and will establish an energy efficiency obligation scheme to ensure providers will achieve 1.5% cumulative end-use energy savings by the end of 2020

2012-2020 

Energy Performance of Buildings Directive

2010/31/EU EU energy

efficiency

To promote the improvement of energy performance of buildings in the EU, in relation to different climatic and local conditions

The directive aims to define the following: - common general methodological framework for calculating integrated energy performance of buildings and building units

- set of minimum requirements regarding the energy performances of various classes of buildings and building units (e.g. new or existing buildings, building elements, technical building systems)

- list of existing and potential financial incentives for each country, to promote improvements in buildings energy efficiency

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Energy Labelling Directive 2010/30/EU EU energy

efficiency

To provide end-users with information concerning energy consumption of energy-related products, thus allowing them to choose the more efficient ones within the EU market

To establish a common EU framework for the provision of:

- common labelling and standard product information regarding energy consumption and the associated use of other essential resources

- supplementary information for energy-related products in the EU

(concerned products are the following: second-hand products, means of transport for persons or goods, product rating plates)

2011- 

Ecodesign Directive 2009/125/EC EU energy

efficiency

To ensure free movement of energy-related products with ecodesign features within the EU internal market

To establish a common EU framework to define ecodesign requirements for energy-related products (except means of transport for persons or goods), thus ensuring their contribution towards a sustainable development;

Key points will be:

- surveillance of products available on the EU market - free movements of products

- promotion of energy efficiency through national targets - ensure conformity assessment of ecodesign

requirements

- ensure the value of the European Community eco-label - creation of harmonized standards across the EU - stimulate manufacturers to support consumers in using products in sustainable ways

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Energy Technologies and Innovation

COM(2013) 253 EU technology and

innovation

To set out the EU energy technology and innovation strategy, in order to ensure a world-class technology and innovation sector to reach the targets set for year 2020 and beyond

To ensure:

- EU support in innovation through regulation and financing that focus on large-scale efforts beyond single countries achievements

- energy technologies developments that contribute to deliver cost-effective energy services to final customers - sharing of resources: state and private investments, EU funding

- to put in place a framework for delivering economic and viable energy technologies and solutions

2013- 

Investing in the development of low carbon technologies (SET-Plan)

COM(2009) 0519 EU technology and innovation

To provide Technology Roadmaps 2010-2020 for the implementation of the SET Plan, in order to move towards a new low-carbon economy

To identify key investments and financial instruments for the development of low-carbon technologies within the SET Plan, and to provide the SET Plan initiatives with the support needed at the EU level

2009-  

Electricity Directive - Common Rules for the Internal Market in Electricity

2009/72/EC EU Markets and

Consumers - Market legislation

To establish common rules for the internal EU electricity market

To introduce common rules for generation, transmission, distribution and supply of electricity in the EU, to ensure proper organisation and functioning of the sector

2009(partial implementation in 2011)-



An Energy Policy for Consumers SEC(2010) 1407 EU Markets and

Consumers - Consumers rights and protection

To provide an overview of existing European, consumers-related energy policy measures

To highlight good and bad practices that are aimed to have an impact on consumers welfare in the energy sector, and to identify areas that need to be considered for further actions in the future

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Regulation on guidelines for trans-European energy infrastructure

No. 347/2013 EU Markets and

Consumers - Smart grids and meters

To provide guidelines for the timely development of priority corridors and areas for energy infrastructures at the trans-European level

To help in:

- identifying projects of common interest, - facilitating timely implementations of projects - providing indications for allocation of costs and risk-related incentives at cross-borders locations

- setting conditions for eligibility of projects for obtaining financial assistance

2013- 

Smart Grids: from innovation to deployment

COM(2011) 202 To propose actions for the

development of Smart Grids, in support to the Europe 2020 Strategy targets

Five main objectives are defined:

- to develop common European standards for Smart Grid - to guarantee the security and protection of consumers' data

- to support smart grid deployment with incentives for investments

- to develop smart grids looking at consumers' interests in a competitive and transparent retail market - support innovation investing in research and development

2011- 

Protection of Personal Data Directive

1995/46/EC EU Data protection To protect people's right and

freedoms when personal data are processed and free to move

To ensure that processing of data are lawful and that principles of data quality are respected

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Commission Recommendation of 9 March 2012 on preparations for the roll-out of smart metering systems

2012/148/EU EU Markets and

Consumers - Smart grids and meters

To provide guidelines to Member States for designing and operating smart grids and smart metering

These guidelines are meant for: - ensuring the protection of personal data - defining measures that need to be taken when deploying smart metering applications, to ensure that national legislations on the processing of personal data are respected in accordance to the EU Directive 95/46/EC

they also provide:

- methodology for long-term CBA of smart metering systems

- set of minimum requirements for smart metering systems for electricity

2012- 

Commission Recommendation of 10 October 2014 on the Data Protection Impact Assessment Template for Smart Grid and Smart Metering

2014/724/EU EU Markets and

Consumers - Smart grids and meters

To provide guidelines to Member States, regarding Data Protection Impact Assessment (DPIA) Template for Smart Grid and Smart Metering Systems

To help to ensure that the protection of personal data and privacy in the deployment of Smart Grid and Smart Metering Systems is guaranteed

2014- 

Directive on the deployment of alternative fuels infrastructure

2014/94/EU EU Markets and

Consumers - Smart grids and meters

To establish a framework for the deployment of alternative fuel infrastructures in the EU

To help minimizing dependence on fossil fuels (especially oil) and therefore mitigate the environmental impact associated to the transport sector, setting out minimum requirements for new fuel infrastructures

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Renewable Energy Directive 2009/28/EC EU Renewable

Energy

To establish a common framework for the promotion and production of renewable energy sources

Key points are to:

- set national targets for the overall share of final gross energy consumption that must be provided by renewable energy sources in the transport sector; - establish criteria for ensuring the sustainability of biofuels and bioliquids;

- provide rules for dealing with further issues (e.g. joint projects, administrative procedures, guarantees of origins, access to electricity grid) between Member States, related to energy form renewable sources.

2009 

A Roadmap for moving to a competitive low carbon economy in 2050

COM(2011) 112 EU strategy for

low-carbon economy

To delineate roadmaps to achieve GHG emissions' reduction targets up to 2050

To suggest the most cost-effective solution to reduce domestic emissions by 30% for 2030 and 40% for 2040 (compared to 1990 levels) ,in order to achieve the 80-95% GHG emissions' reduction targets by 2050; various contributions are considered, coming from the following sectors: power sector, transport, buildings, industry, agriculture

2011- 

Establishing Horizon 2020 - the Framework Programme for Research and Innovation (2014-2020)

No. 1291/2013 EU Horizon 2020 To establish "Horizon 2020 - the

Framework Programme for Research and Innovation (2014-2002)" and determine the framework governing support for the EU to related activities, to deliver the Europe 2020 Strategy

To support research and innovation, achieving the target of 3% of GDP for R&D in the EU by 2020, through the following priorities:

- excellent science - industrial leadership - societal changes

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Horizon 2020 - the Framework Programme for Research and Innovation (2014-2020)

No. 1290/2013 EU Horizon 2020 To set rules for delivering and

monitoring funds for RD&D projects under Horizon 2020 framework programme

Focus on participation of indirect research projects (i.e. direct research done by the EC's Joint Research Centre) and specific forms of funding:

- grants - prizes - procurement - financial instruments

2013-2020 

Benchmarking smart metering deployment in the EU-27 with a focus on electricity

COM(2014) 356 Smart metering

deployment in the EU-27 - focus on electricity

To monitor the progress of smart meter roll-out in the EU

To benchmark current smart metering deployment and future time plans of Member States, as set by the Electricity and Gas EU Directives

2014 

Energy Efficiency and its contribution to energy security and the 2030 Framework for climate and energy policy

COM(2014) 520 EU energy

efficiency

To propose the energy saving target of 30% by 2030, to improve EU energy efficiency and to move towards a more competitive, secure, sustainable energy system

To assess current EU's energy efficiency targets for 2020, and to propose a new one of 30% by 2030

2014-2030

EUROPE 2020 A strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth

COM(2010) 2020 EU strategy for growth and employment

To promote smart, sustainable, inclusive growth

2020 targets:

- at least 75% increase of employment rate - 3% GDP invested in R&D

- 20/20/20 targets from the 2020 Energy strategy - reduce school drop out rate by at least 10% and increase tertiary degrees by 40%

- reducing the number of poor or socially excluded people by 20million

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Eco-design Regulation No. 801/2013 EU energy

efficiency

Eco-design requirements for standby and off-modes of electrical and electronic household and office equipment

Setting the specific requirements for related appliances 2013- 

Table 2: Current EU policies and legislations concerning energy efficiency, GHG emissions reduction and implementation of smart infrastructures, indirectly supporting consumers’ engagement in energy management.

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Particularly in relation to the topic of this thesis, more details are provided for the following legislative documents, as they were identified as the most relevant in supporting and developing technologies, products and services contributing in enhancing the role of energy consumers in the system.

Energy Efficiency Directive (EED, 2012/27/EU)

This directive aims to achieve the energy efficiency target of 20% by 2020, in comparison with 1990 data. In order to do so, it provides a framework of binding measures for the EU Member States that acts on promoting from general requirements for all Member States to more targeted measures, for specific economic sectors. (IEA, 2014a)

More specifically, first it determines the following measures for all EU countries:

 Provision of indicative energy savings targets for different Member States, to be achieved by 2020 in order to reach the EU 20% target on time;

 Identification of cost-effective potentials for the implementation of innovative, efficient heating and cooling systems in all Member States by end of 2015;

 Assessment of gas and electricity infrastructures for the identification of measures and investments for the deployment of a cost-effective energy efficient renovation of existing network infrastructures by end of June 2015;

 Obligations for energy providers to reduce end-use energy consumptions by 1,5% per year, during the period 2014-2020;

 To secure the provision of metering and billing services on actual energy consumption of all energy sources in place for different sectors, allowing end users to take informed decisions;

 Rules for assuring that public procurements from central governments opt for high-efficient products only;

 Facilitated development of national financing solutions for energy efficient measures (IEA, 2014a). Secondly, it determines more specific measures for the following different technology sectors:

 Industry;  Buildings;

 Appliances and equipment;  Heating and cooling;  Transport;

 Energy providers;

 Energy efficiency funding (IEA, 2014a).

For the purpose of this thesis, looking at the end-users in the residential sector, the following measures were identified as particularly relevant:

 Within the Building sector, the legal framework provided by the revised EU Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD, 2010/31/EC) included in the EED, which requires the establishment and application of Minimum Energy Performance Requirements (MERS) for new buildings and old renovated ones.

The MERS should set the common basis for a set of building energy code requirements that looks at the integrated energy performances of buildings, considering all their uses.

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The EPBD also asks to all Member States to define mandatory energy performances certificates (EPCs) for informing tenants and buyers about energy performances of buildings, allowing comparisons and assessments, and recommending cost-effective options for improvements.  Regarding Appliances and Equipment, the EU legislation currently in place refers to the Energy

Labeling Directive (2010/30/EC) and the Eco-design Directive (2009/125/EC).

The first one sets a rating system for some residential appliances, and defines a set of MERS for 16 different groups of products. The second aims at reducing the environmental impacts and energy consumption of products through a life-cycle perspective.

 For Energy Providers, the EED requires them to increase cumulative end-use energy savings of 1,5%, referring to the annual energy sales over the period 2014-2020 (as mentioned above), and requires Member States for the full implementation of smart metering infrastructures.

 Regarding Energy Efficiency Funding, through Horizon 2020 Programme, several International Financial Institutions like the European Investment Bank (EIB) will support research and innovation projects providing increasing funds. These are included in the European Local ENergy Assistance (ELENA) Facility for the period 2014-2020 (IEA, 2014a).

In addition, the EED provides the present EU definition for “Smart metering system” (Article 2, point 28, directive 2012/27/EU): “electronic system that can measure energy consumption, providing more information than a conventional meter, and can transmit and receive data using a form of electronic communication”.

All in all, through all these measures, the EED supports the development of services for end-users based on data about their energy behaviours as provided by smart meters, demand response solutions and dynamic prices (COM(2014) 356).

Third Energy Package

Consisting of three regulations and two directives that came into force on September 2009, the Third Energy Package aims at creating an effective EU single energy market for electricity and gas. The purpose of this common energy market will be to ensure low energy prices and increase standards of service and security of supply (European Union, 2015).

The two directives included in the package are the Electricity Directive (2009/72/EC), defining common rules for the internal electricity market, and the Natural Gas Directive (2009/93/EC), setting common rules for the internal gas market. The three regulations included in the package instead, which were adopted in July 2009, define the following conditions:

 to access the natural gas transmission networks ((EC) No 715/2009),

 to access the network for cross-borders exchange of electricity ((EC) No 714/2009),

 to establish the Agency for the Cooperation of Energy Regulators (ACER) ((EC) No 713/2009). The two directives aim at creating common European internal markets for electricity and gas, thus enhancing competitiveness, liberalisation, market efficiency, and supporting the creation of large European utilities. Large utilities can benefit of a broader market area and should provide consumers with better tools and services addressing the demand-side (IEA, 2014a).

The three regulations focuses on defining common rules for the establishment and operation of Transmission System Operators (TSO) unbundled from energy utilities: the first ones dealing with transmission networks, whereas the latter focusing on energy production and supply. These regulations also established the ACER, to foster cooperation between national regulatory authorities and taking care of cross-border related issues, and the European Network for Transmission System Operators (ENTSO) to develop the EU network and to support collaboration between electricity and gas grid operators towards

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