Let’s go to the frukost: – A case study of a teenage influencer’s use of English in a Swedish-language YouTube channel.

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Let’s go to the frukost

A case study of a teenage influencer’s use of English in a Swedish-language YouTube channel.

YouTube channel. YouTube channel.

Let’s go to the frukost

En fallstudie av en influencers användning av engelska i en svenskspråkig Youtubekanal.

Veronica Gustafsson

Faculty of Arts and Social Science English

English III: Degree Project.

15 credits Silvia Kunitz Erica Sandlund Autumn 2019

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Title: Let’s go to the frukost – A case study of a teenage influencer’s use of English in a Swedish- language YouTube channel.

Author: Veronica Gustafsson

Pages: 68

Abstract

From the perspective of an English teacher, the way students communicate in English is a point of interest. For the last half a century, the English language has had and continues to have, a major influence on our language. For teenagers, code-switching (CS) between the languages, for specific words or phrases, has become natural and effortless.

The phenomenon, called code-switching, has been widely researched. However, there seems to be a lack of studies regarding code-switching between English and Swedish among Swedish adolescents.

This paper, therefore, intends to fill this gap in the code-switching literature. Data in this study are four video clips recorded and posted on YouTube by a young girl who calls herself Misslisibell. The results show that most occurrences of English language words were loanwords more specifically, nouns. The result also shows that code-switching occasion seems to have increased since previous studies (Sharp, 2001). Furthermore, most code-switches relate to fashion words (e.g., size), make- up words (e.g., concealer) and technological related words, for example, video, blog and mobil (literally, ‘mobile’). The result also indicates that the code-switches occur within a sentence (e.g.,

“Hej, vill du joina?”, Eng; Hi, do you want to join?) or form parts of the phrase (e.g., similar to the title of the present study, “Let’s go to the frukost!”, Eng; Let’s go and eat breakfast!).

Key words: Code-switching, English, Swedish, adolescents.

Sammanfattning på svenska

Det sätt som elever kommunicerar på gällande det engelska språket är intressant från en engelskalärares perspektiv. Under det senaste halva seklet har det engelska språket haft och fortsätter att ha ett stort inflytande på vårt språk. För ungdomar har kodväxling mellan språk, för specifika ord eller fraser, blivit naturligt och enkelt.

Många studier har gjorts gällande fenomenet kodväxling. Det tycks dock finnas brist på studier om kodbyte mellan engelska och svenska bland svenska ungdomar. Denna uppsats avser därför att fylla Titel på svenska: Let’s go to the frukost – En fallstudie av en influencers användning av

engelska i en svenskspråkig Youtubekanal.

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denna lucka. Data i den här studien är fyra videoklipp inspelade och publicerade på YouTube av en ung influencer som kallar sig Misslisibell. Resultaten visar att de flesta av kodväxlingarna är låneord och mer specifikt substantiv. Resultatet visar också att kodväxling mellan engelska och svenska verkar ha ökat hos ungdomar sedan tidigare studier (Sharp, 2001). De flesta kodväxlingar avser dessutom modeord (t.ex. size), sminkord (t.ex. concealer) och teknikrelaterade ord, till exempel video, blogg och mobil. Resultatet indikerar också att kodväxlingarna förekommer inom en mening (t.ex. “Hej, vill du joina?”) eller utgör delar av frasen (t.ex. liknande titeln i denna studie ”Let’s go to the frukost”).

Nyckelord: Kodväxling, engelska, svenska, ungdomar.

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1. Introduction and aims

In 1949, the English subject was introduced in Swedish schools as the first foreign language.

Sweden’s interest in the English language originated before the Second World War, and the mid-20^th century has been observed to be the beginning of the English influence on the Swedish language. However, the number of loanwords or borrowings from the English language into Swedish had increased since the 15^th century, with a peak around the mid 20^th century when the number of loanwords doubled (Stålhammar, 2010). The status of English in Sweden is controversial. In fact, some people find that the English language has too much impact on the Swedish language, while others find that the English effect on the Swedish language is necessary, making it more exciting and modern (Stålhammar, 2010). The first camp concerning the English impact on the Swedish language might concern, for example, the stagnation of the Swedish development of different domain lost in the language such as education, technology, science, media, etcetera. Some people worry about the widespread influence of English in the Swedish language, where discussions can touch the death of the Swedish language (Josephson, 2018). Others believe that the influence of one language on another enriches and develops it and has happened at all times throughout history (Josephson, 2014; Josephson, 2018). According to Josephson (2014), there is an internationalisation going on at Swedish colleges where some want more education to take place in English; then

international students can study in Sweden. The consequences could then be that students lose their Swedish scientific language, which can create problems when students, for example, have to process the results of the reports because science also shows that people learn best in their mother tongue (Josephson, 2014). The technological development that took place during the 1980s affected the Swedish language when new technology-related words were borrowed mainly from the English language (Josephson, 2018). Josephson (2014) believes that it is no coincidence that computer-playing boys are the best English students in Swedish schools.

Some people claim that Swedish language has become more complicated as there are more languages, more language situations, more competing norm systems, multiple production forms, more techniques to keep track of than ever before, but according to Josephson, the best way to care for a language is to use it (Josephson, 2014).

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In the mid-nineties, some people thought that the Internet was going to be a fad. We know now that this was not the case since people are using the Internet all over the world for different purposes. In Sweden young people (and older people too) are playing different computer games online. On some occasions, they communicate with co-players by writing in chat groups and speaking with each other. Partly as a consequence of exposure to English on the Internet and other media related sites (e.g., TV, films, Newspaper), but also because English is more prevalent in the Swedish society today than it was a few decades ago, many people in Sweden tend to use single English words or phrases when speaking their native Swedish with friends. Compared to other languages (in countries like German, Austria, Italy), Sweden does not dub films and TV-shows from foreign languages such as English but subtitle it in Swedish, apart from child-related movies and TV shows (Hermansson & Persson, 2012).

This language alternation between English and Swedish is also apparent in video clips that are uploaded on YouTube and other websites with people talking about all types of topics.

Previous studies concerning English code-switching into the Swedish language seem to be dated (e.g., see Sharp, 2001). Sharp’s (2001) study is relevant to the present study since the focus is on English influence in spoken Swedish context where one of her two corpora

investigate young peoples’ talk and the fact that our findings may be comparable, for instance, in the use of specific word classes. There also appears to be a gap in the specific research area of code-switches occurring at the word level or in compound-words (with two languages combined in one word). In order to fill this gap, the present study investigates code-switching practices in video clips that have been posted on YouTube by a teenage girl from Sweden that calls herself Misslisibell. Misslisibell speaks mainly in Swedish but frequently code-switches into English. This study focuses on the type of English words (nouns, verbs or adjectives) she is using when talking and on her register (whether formal or informal). This study is also relevant for teachers, since gaining knowledge on how young people talk in their spare time may be useful when planning lessons. For example, it may be interesting to know what type of English words and phrases young people of today are using and if they use them correctly.

Hopefully results from this study can guide teachers in their work to develop their pupils’

language skills (word choices, number of words, synonyms, vocabulary). This study is not only interesting from a teaching perspective but also regarding the English status in Swedish society. Has the amount of English spoken words increased among adolescents in the Swedish language since Sharp’s (2001) study?

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3 1.1 Aims and research questions

This empirical study focuses on the occurrence of code-switching, code-switching, here defined as all instances of English used in an otherwise Swedish language context (see 2.1 below), by an adolescent Swedish YouTuber. To this end, I intend to answer the research questions below:

1) What kinds of English words, phrases and expressions are being used?

2) Do the code-switches occur in other semantic fields than, for example, fashion, make- up, etcetera?

In order to answer these questions, data were collected from video clips that were posted by a Swedish teenage girl, called Misslisibell, who code-switches between Swedish and English.

The selected clips were then transcribed and analysed.

2. Background

In the first part of this section (2.1), key concepts will be defined and explained. Relevant previous research will be discussed in the second part of this section (2.2), both international (2.2.1) and Swedish (2.2.2). Lastly, I will summarise studies concerning the impact of the English language on the Swedish language (2.3).

2.1 Definitions of key concepts

The critical concept of code-switching (hereafter CS) is the most relevant in this study since the main focus is on the phenomenon of CS. Other important concepts that are going to be used in the analysis are loanwords or borrowings since this study takes into account all instances of English language use, including usages at the word level even if the target words might have been officially adopted in Swedish language dictionaries (as in the case with borrowings; see below). The influences of English in spoken Swedish context in the present study uses the concept code-switching as an overview of the phenomena in the present study, meaning that the present study has approached the material broadly and includes everything that has an English connection as CS and these English connections are broken down and discussed in the analysis section (4).

According to Mesthrie, Swann, Deumert and Leap (2013), code-switching occurs when bi- /multilingual speakers “switch back and forwards between languages, even during the same

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utterance” (p.146), which is investigated in the present study. In many cases, CS might occur among bilingual children when they start speaking, and they mix two or more languages (Clark, Eschholz, Rosa, & Lee Simon, 2008). Backus and Dorleijn (2009) define CS as “the use of overt material (from single morphemes to entire sentences) from Language B in Languages A discourse” (Bullock & Toribio, 2009, p. 76). Bullock and Toribio define the phenomena CS as the ability for bilinguals “to alternate effortlessly between their two languages” (Bullock & Toribio, 2009, p. 1). Kharkhurin and Wei (2015) define CS as “the alternation and mixing of different languages in the same episode of speech production”

(Kharkhurin & Wei, 2015, p. 153), which also can be argued as a creative act. However, to distinguish between CS and borrowings is complex since sociolinguists seem to fail on agreeing on how to describe the two concepts and how to identify those (Sharp, 2001).

Research concerning CS can be investigated from different perspectives, for example, flagged CS (Weinreich, 1968), which investigates, for example, speakers’ pauses of various lengths, hesitations, repetitions, interruptions, change in tempo (Bullock & Toribio, 2009). Studies on CS at the lexical level have been conducted by, for instance, Muysken (1995) and Wei (2018).

CS at intra-sentential level (which investigate bilingual speakers proficiency to produce “full clauses in each language” (Bullock & Toribio, 2009, p. 3) have been studied by, for example, Poplack (1980) and Muysken (1995).

According to Yule (2010), the word borrowing means “the process of taking words from other languages” (pp. 54-55). Borrowings of words from one language into another occur in all languages; loanwords can be stated as adopted by the borrowing language when they are listed in dictionaries of that language (Yule, 2010). During the time when the Vikings invaded Great Britain, many words from the Scandinavian languages (e.g. anger, bank, sister) were adopted by the people there, and traces of this phenomenon remain in the English language in our days (Svartvik, 1999; Westman, 1995). Today many English borrowings come from languages spoken in countries that are well developed in technical matters, like Japan and America (Westman, 1995). Since the development of computers and the Internet, new words are rapidly adopted into the Swedish language. In some cases, the English words adopt the morphology of the Swedish language, as in the case of the noun videos and the verb att skypa (Eng: to skype) (Crystal, 2006). The concept loanwords/borrowings are relevant to the present study since many words are adopted from the English language.

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5 2.2 Previous research

Different aspects of CS have been investigated in previous studies around the world, but not much research has been done concerning adolescents’ use of English in Swedish. In this section, I will first mention a selection of international studies (2.2.1) on CS; then I will summarise studies conducted in Sweden (2.2.2) which are relevant for the present investigation.

2.2.1 International studies

Research concerning digital CS is a relatively new field, and the language used on the Internet is often informal and can be produced in both writing and oral discourse (Bullock & Toribio, 2009). Dorleijn and Nortier state that CS on the Internet remains to be investigated much more, for instance, “the degree to which the structures attested conform to or deviate from spontaneous oral CS speech is an area open to study” (Bullock & Toribio, 2009, p. 140).

According to Mesthrie et al. (2013), the reason for CS choices is socially significant; CS can be both marked and unmarked and are equally meaningful in the relation between speakers choice of language. Marked CS can be seen as non-expected choices because “[m]arked choices may function as attempts to redefine aspects of context, or the relationship between speakers” (Mesthrie et al., 2013, p. 166). Unmarked CS can be seen as expected choices. The reason for CS may differ among speakers. For example, the language choice speakers make may have to do with sustaining or managing a certain kind of shared identity concerning others, which means that “code-switching between language allows speakers (simultaneous) access to different social identities” (Mesthrie et al., 2013, p.170). At the same time, in some cases, unexpected switches “may function as an attempt to initiate a change to relationships”

(Mesthrie et al., 2013, p.170).

According to Muysken (1995), much research on CS has been conducted concerning different aspects. Findings have shown that, in interactions among bilingual speakers, CS occurs regularly and can be a sign of high proficiency in two languages. CS often occurs in the middle of a sentence (in which case they are referred to as intra-sentential CS; see Muysken, 1995).

Zhiganova (2016) studied the perception of CS into English in German advertisements by creating a survey that involved 153 German-speaking people aged 19-86. The study found

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that the respondents’ have mixed feelings toward this phenomenon, if these English CS scenarios “look suitable and do not encounter any tension on the part of the audience”

(Zhiganova, 2016, p. 228), CS can be experienced positively by recipients. Still, if the code- switch “doesn’t carry any meaning, it is considered unreasonable, and the perception of the advertisement is largely negative” (Zhiganova, 2016, p. 228). There might be various mixed feelings concerning the impact English may have on the Swedish language among some Swedes. Even employees in the advertising business in Sweden have mixed feelings

concerning the impact English have on the Swedish language. Some argue that the increasing number of English words in Swedish advertising is unnecessary, for example, using the word

‘sale’ instead of the Swedish equivalent word rea (Lindblom et al., 2013). Other advertisers may argue that the English impact enriches the language by making new word creations (Lindblom et al., 2013). The English impact on advertisements in German and CS in videos posted on YouTube may be useful for the present study since both Swedish and German are affected by the English language (Zhiganova, 2016; Lindblom et al., 2013; Stålhammar, 2010).

Kharkhurin and Wei’s (2015) study the creativity in CS among bilingual speakers who frequently CS, habitual code-switchers (HCS) who “often produce highly innovative forms that incorporate elements from different languages; moreover, they do so seemingly

effortlessly” (Kharkhurin & Wei, 2015, p. 154), to those who not regularly CS between languages are referred to as non-habitual code-switchers (NHCS). The participants (157, American University of Sharjah (United Arab Emirates) multilingual students) in Kharkhurin and Wei’s (2015) study first answered two online questionnaires (one biographical

questionnaire and one reporting their CS behaviour and attitudes) than complete an offline test concerning of selective attention; all tests were in English. Their findings confirmed their first hypothesis; (1) extensive CS practice enhances creative performance, meaning that bilingual speakers who CS frequently showed a higher creative capacity than those who do not CS in their everyday talk (Kharkhurin & Wei, 2015). No evidence was found to their second hypothesis; (2) extensive CS practice strengthens selective attention, however, “one possible explanation is that HCS and NHCS differ in their language switch cost” (Kharkhurin

& Wei, 2015, p. 162). Kharkhurin and Wei’s (2015) findings may be an intriguing point of view for the present study since Misslisibell’s inherent creativity concerning her CS in, for example, single-word switches (see Section 4.3) and compound-word switches (see Section 4.4).

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7 2.2.2 Studies conducted in Sweden

Sharp’s (2001) study is an investigation on English single and multi-word expressions in spoken Swedish discourse both from a quantitative and a qualitative perspective. The analysis is using two language corpora; the Cool Corpus and the Visby Corpus, as empirical data. The Cool Corpus consists of recordings of twelve business meetings among employees in a shipping company in Stockholm (Sweden). According to Sharp (2001), communication in the Cool Corpus recordings is informative and “clear and specific in order to attain some mutual goals” (p. 41) since the conversations are mostly work-related. The Visby Corpus, on the other hand, is based on recordings of a televised “reality TV” (original idea: MTV England but was shown on TV1000 and TV3 in Swedish television 1996-97) called The Real World that was recorded in Visby in the region of Gotland (Sweden) in 1996. The young adults in this show did not know each other before the recordings; they were now supposed to live together for three months and were filmed continuously during this time.

The main language in both these corpora is Swedish, and the CS occurs between Swedish and English. The oral sessions were then transcribed (Sharp, 2001). The study contains 2173 CS instances, and 80% of those CS were single English ones. Sharp (2001) has subdivided the CS utterances into two categories: “mixed utterances” and “unmixed utterances”, in order to explain the connection between Swedish and English lexical elements in the conversations. In Sharp’s (2001) terminology, mixed utterances contain only one English word or a few English words in spoken Swedish. Unmixed utterances are, as the term implies, utterances that contain only English words, single lexical items, non-clausal multi-word strings, and clauses. The results in Sharp’s (2001) study show that “of all the unmixed utterances in the material, unmixed single-word utterances are the most common realisation of unmixed utterances.

They represent 9% (196 tokens) of all CS made by the speakers. Single-word switches within mixed and unmixed utterances together constitute as many as 88% (or 1907 tokens) of all CS in the material of the 2173 CS scenarios” (p.104). The present study’s result will be compared to Sharp’s (2001) study in the analysis and the discussion since the purpose is similar.

Sharp’s study was published in 2001, and constitutes a relevant point of comparison for the present study, as it can be expected that the influence of English in Swedish has continued to grow since.

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Nyroos, Sandlund and Sundqvist’s (2017) study is an investigation on Swedish 9^th graders’

insertion of the Swedish conjunction eller (‘or’) in Second language learning (L2) English oral proficiency tests. Students use the Swedish conjunction eller (‘or’) to initiate self-repair on, for example, grammar mistakes which may indicate that the test-taker is aware of its mistake and takes care of it by adding eller (‘or’) before making their corrections in an English speaking context. Nyroos et al.’s (2017) study differs from the present study from many approaches (e.g. the CS occurs in English discourse rather than in Swedish); however, their findings may still be relevant to the present study’s analysis and conclusion.

2.3 English in Swedish

Some people might say that English is a threat to the Swedish language these days, but historically the Swedish language has borrowed words from the English language for many hundreds of years (Stålhammar, 2010). The majority of English loanwords into the Swedish language seem to be transferred with new objects like technical types of equipment or new ideas or thoughts; the majority of those words are nouns. According to Stålhammar (2010), different kinds of words have been imported during different time eras. For example, during the 1800s terms connected to the industrial development were introduced (Swe: hästkraft, Eng: horsepower). Nowadays, innovations in the entertainment industry have increased with such speed that the corresponding English words start to get used in Swedish before

equivalent Swedish words are created, not least on the Internet, where many young people come in contact with new words and expressions in English and continue to use them even in Swedish. At the beginning of the 19th century, the number of loanwords increased more than five times (Stålhammar, 2010). 80% of the loanwords during the 19^th century are direct loans, with or without adaption to the Swedish language, and only one out of five words are words that have been translated into Swedish (Stålhammar, 2010). Throughout the 20^th century, a third of the loanwords have been translated into Swedish, and less than two-thirds are direct loans, of which the majority are loan words that have been adjusted according to Swedish morphology (Stålhammar, 2010).

Stålhammar (2010) categorises loanwords depending on the purpose of the loan; demand- loans (words that refer to new objects or behaviour, see example (1) below), sound-loans (English words pronounced according to a Swedish phonology, see example (2) below), and compound-loans (an English word compound with a Swedish word, see example (3) below).

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The examples sentences, in for example, (1), (2), and (3) belongs to the present study but is applied to Stålhammar’s categorisation. Stålhammar’s (2010) categories, demand-loans and sound-loans will be used in Section 4.2 when analysing specific loanwords. The category compound-loans in the present study are referred to as compound-word switches and are analysed in Section 4.4.

(1) ”Du kan ju filma lite med min kamera när jag har fanträff där borta.” (You could film with my camera when I meet my fans over there.)

(2) “Jag gillar inte å filma när det är mörkt ute för då måste man ta studiolampa men oavsett så ser man fejk ut.” (I do not like to film when it is dark out because then you have to take a studio lamp but whatever you look fake.) (3) ”Jag har ba bara sånna här chill-kläder nu.” (I am just wearing chill-clothes

now.) (Literally, ‘chill-clothes’; i.e., clothes used when relaxing)

According to Stålhammar (2010), perspectives on English loanwords into the general Swedish language seem to vary vividly. On the one hand, specific jargons might exclude some people in conversations. For example, those who use English words in their everyday speech can see it as a marker of belonging to a particular group, such as adolescents. On the other hand, it seems like people have a positive attitude to English as a useful language in their working life and for international communication. Stålhammar (2010) claims that the globalisation among borrowings has been going on much longer than one might think, and traces are seen in the language for example, in the advertisement not least in the fashion and make-up industry this fact is useful in the present study when analysing some words used by Misslisibell. In any case, Stålhammar (2010) argues that loanwords from English hardly affect the everyday Swedish to any significant extent. Finally, this author also claims that borrowings have a positive impact on the Swedish language since they not only fulfil empty spaces but also provide the Swedish language with options and inspire to be creative making new words like the compound “Sneakers-klackar”, see example (4).

(4) “Jag tänkte först ha mina såna hära sneakers-klackar men jag ångrade mig, det blir för fancy.” (I was thinking of wearing my high heeled sneakers at first, but I regretted it, it is too fancy.)

Sharp (2001) implies that since the post-war era, the English language has gone from

borrowing words from other languages to be the leader of donating words to other languages.

However, she also states that some fears the impact and spread that English has on languages that might destroy or erase smaller and vulnerable languages.

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Furthermore, Sharp argues that the use of English, in both written and spoken Swedish is a debated subject in Sweden, whether English is a threat to the Swedish language or not. Many people might fear that the influence of English would lead to the ruin of Swedish, but Sharp disagrees and says that “linguistic borrowing has been going on since time immemorial”

(Sharp, 2001, p. 2).

Sharp (2001) claims that the contact Swedish adolescents have with the English language is mainly one-way, through music, films, television and radio programmes, computers, literature, etc. except going on trips when English is used to communicate. Even though young Swedes lack direct contact with others when communicating, it seems that their general knowledge of English is overall so good that it has been suggested by Mannberg that “English is the language of the youth culture in Sweden” (Mannberg, 1986:19, as cited by Sharp 2001, p. 36). In addition, Sundqvist (2009) also agrees on this, meaning that Swedish adolescents are influenced by their broad contact with English in their spare time, so-called extramural English. This acquisition increased with the extended use of technology in the mid-1990s (Sundqvist, 2009, pp. 1-2).

As mentioned in the introduction, English has been a subject in the Swedish school system since 1949 and according to the syllabus from the Swedish National Agency for Education are the English language taught from year 1 (Skolverket, 2011). Meaning that English has been taught to Swedes for more than a half-decade, which might have helped the English language to increase its position among Swedes. Sundqvist (2009) claims that the English language has a unique position in the Swedish school system which also reflects the status of the English language in the Swedish society. Taking this into consideration, this fact could confirm an increased number of English words in the present study.

3. Material and method

The material that was used in the present study will be presented in Section 3.1, and the method of analysis will be explained in Section 3.2.

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11 3.1 Data

The present study is empirical research by selecting four video clips recorded and posted by Misslisibell on YouTube.com. Misslisibell (Lisa Jonson, age14 at the time) is a Swedish teenage girl who publishes videos on different topics and started her YouTube channel in 2012 and has over 450 000 subscribers and her videos have been viewed over 268,000,000 times (information retrieved January 23, 2020). The number of subscribers and viewers may be significant to the present study since it might mean that young people are affected by Misslisibell as an influencer meaning that influencer seems to have a significant impact on their viewers. The recordings are mostly made at her house, where she shows different make- up techniques or products that she uses or has bought. Since the video clips are displayed on a publicly accessible website, no permission to use the material was needed.

At the beginning of this investigation, many different video clips, made by young people, posted on YouTube.com were watched. At first, it was not easy to find video clips made by adolescents that frequently made CS. Since it was harder than first expected to find instances of CS, a group of previous pupils of mine in the 9^th grade were consulted, and they made some suggestions, including Misslisibell’s clips, which turned out to be a right choice for the present study’s aim because of the amount English that is spoken by her. However, this case study does not represent all young people’s ways of CS but can only be seen as a case study of how young people’s CS can look, but the fact that Misslisibell is a well-known influencer may impact other adolescents’ talk. When selecting the materials for this study, a few clips by Misslisibell were watched, and the four most recently published videos at the time of the data collection were chosen (see Table 1.). My focus when watching these clips was on the CS that was made and since Misslisibell CS in all four clips, it suited this investigation well. One could also have chosen to investigate more influencers than just one, Misslisibell, but at that time (2015) younger YouTubers were less common than today (e.g. Bianca Ingrosso started her YouTube channel in late 2016).

YouTube is a video-sharing website where people can upload videos that can be seen by everyone. YouTube was introduced in May 2005. Millions of people can share and watch video clips on this page (https://www.youtube.com/yt/about/sv/) and were therefore chosen for the present study for the investigation on how young Swedes’ may CS from Swedish to English.

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12 Table 1. Overview of the video clips.

Video clip number

Date of publication

Video clip name Time length

1 November 3^rd Häng med mig till COMIC CON & SPLAYDAY 20:38

2 November 6^th Stockholm Haul 12:52

3 November 8^th Häng med mig 18:30

4 November 10^th Empties #8 Produkter jag gjort slut på 7:59 The total amount of time: 58:79

The video clips that have been selected for this study were posted on YouTube during November 2015, see Table 1. Video clip 1 was posted November 3^rd, and is named by

Misslisibell“Häng med mig till COMIC CON & SPLAYDAY” (Eng. ‘Join me for Comic-Con

& Splay-day’). Video clip 2 was published November 6^th, and is named “Stockholm Haul”.

Video clip 3 was posted November 8^th and is called “Häng med mig” (Eng.’Hang out with me’). Video clip 4 was published on November 10^thand is named “Empties #8 Produkter jag gjort slut på”(Eng. ‘Empties #8 Products I have Ended’). The videos are 58 minutes and 79 seconds long in total.

Video clip 1 in the present study is different from the other three clips since Misslisibell is on the road, visiting Comic-Con and Splay-day with her mother and later on in the clip meeting up with friends, which makes this episode dynamic since Misslisibell interacts with others. In the other three clips, Misslisibell’s speech is monologic since she is mostly alone talking to her viewers. The choice to include video clip 1, where several young people talk to each other in the study, is a conscious choice to see if the code changes are different to the other three more monologic video clips, although there is awareness that the results may have been affected.

Some parts of video clip 1 contain speech situations with adults talking, and these situations are not included in this study since this study focuses on young people’s speech and CS.

Video clip 1 also contains speech made by other adolescents than Misslisibell’s, and their speaking are included in this study. The occasional singing by the adolescents in Video clip 1 are not included in this investigation since there are actual songs and not instances of CS.

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3.2 Method for data processing and analysing

The four video-clips were then entirely transcribed in their entirety. The recordings were watched several times to make sure no mistakes were made in the transcription; however, it was sometimes difficult to determine where one utterance ends, and another one begins which may affect the structure in some sentences. Table 2 illustrates the transcription notations in the present study, which was inspired by https://www.universitytranscriptions.co.uk/jefferson- transcription-system-a-guide-to-the-symbols/. In the transcriptions, there is a distinction between filled pauses (/: :/) and pauses (one dot per second..). Unclear talk (inaudible) is also marked. Timestamps are provided in square brackets ([ ]) and can be found on the left-hand side of the transcripts. Lastly, an abbreviation is provided for each of the participants in order to specify who the current speaker is.

Table 2. Transcription notations Participants:

(M) Misslisibell

(W) Woman (probably Misslisibell’s mother) (J) Misslisibell’s friend Jenny

(B) Boy (G) Girl (Man) (I) Ida

Time notation: [ ]

Filled pause notation: /: :/

Pause notation (one dot per second): ….

Unidentified/unclear speaking notation:

(inaudible)

Instances of CS were identified and the categorized into (1) loanwords, (2) single word CS, (3) compound-word switches, (4) code-switching in utterances, (5) brands and product names, and (6) reading from packages. The first category includes loanwords; that is, words those are listed in the Svenska Akademiens ordlista (SAOL) (Svenska Akademien, 2019) and can, therefore, be seen as words that are accepted into the Swedish language. The second category consists of single-word CS, which refer to single English words produced in an utterance in Swedish; the words in this category do not appear in SAOL (Svenska Akademien, 2019) and thus have not officially been adopted into the Swedish language yet (e.g., tutorial). Most of these words are listed in the Oxford English Dictionary; remaining words could be found in the Urban Dictionary, an online glossary for slang-words. The category of compound-word switches includes a compound with one word in English and one word in (e.g., sneakers-

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klackar, see example (4) in Section 2.3). The fourth category, code-switching in utterances, concerns instances when either an entire utterance is produced in English or when there is a string of more than one English word in an otherwise Swedish utterance, see example (5) and (6) below. The English words appearing in these utterances are not listed in SAOL (Svenska Akademien, 2019). The fifth category was created to accommodate instances where

Misslisibell reads from the packaging of products (in video clip number 2), which cannot be seen as real CS. Finally, the sixth category includes brands and product names (see example (7) below); some of these words will be pointed out and discussed in the result section. Some brand names and product names were searched on the Internet to gain the correct spelling and knowledge about the product. If words occurred more than once in the dataset; each instance of its occurrence was counted. The transcriptions to the present study have been replaced with example sentences in the present study where all presented examples in the present study, are numbered 1-56 (see example (5-7) below) chronologically, and the English word/s or

influenced English word/s is marked in bold letters. Each example has been translated from Swedish to English and added in parentheses in this study.

(5) “I guess I see you later.”

(6) “And I am very taggad.” (With taggad meaning ‘excited’.)

(7) ”Sen drar vi helt enkelt till Comic-Con.” (Then we simply go to Comic-Con.)

4. Analysis and results

In the following section, I will first present the general results across the 4 clips (Section 4.1), and then I will present the data category by category.

4.1 General results

The following section presents how often CS occurs in Misslisibell’s and her friends’ talk in the transcribed data of this study. The total frequency of CS is reported in Table 3.

The transcribed data show that Misslisibell talks in Swedish, but she occasionally CS into English. The total number of instances of CS, all 6 categories included, in this study was 401;

in the case of single-word switches and loanwords. The total number of utterances, both Swedish and English, was 8,300. Table 3 also shows that in the data, there is an average of 4,8 % CS instances which can be compared to Sharp’s (2001) study of 2,5% of English

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words. The data in the present study show higher frequencies of CS than Sharp’s (2001) study.

Table 3. Instances of code-switching and total utterances

Table 4 illustrates the total number of instances of single-word switches, loanwords, compound-word switches, and code-switching in utterances and also the percentage of CS instances in the present dataset.

Table 4. Instances of code-switching in each category.

Categories Instances Single-word switches 67

Loanwords 157

Compound-word switches

15

Code-switching in utterances

84

Brand names and product names

78

TOTAL 401

Table 4 shows that Misslisibell engages in all four different kinds of CS, but that she most frequently produces loanwords, which mean words that are listed in SAOL (Svenska Akademien, 2019) and are therefore officially adopted into the Swedish language.

CLIP Number Instances of code-switching

(6 categories)

Total of utterances

Percentage of code-switching

instances

Clip 1 126 2677 4,7%

Clip 2 98 2008 4,9%

Clip 3 111 2377 4,7%

Clip 4 66 1238 5,3%

TOTAL 401 8300 4,8%

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This investigation contains brand names and product names; however, they are not the main focus in this work but still counted in the total number of CS made in this survey. Therefore are these brand names and product names, roughly pointed out since English names on Swedish products are common. English words such as names of buildings and brand names that Misslisibell talks about in the video-clips, see example (8) below (which is the name of a large stadium for sports events and music shows in Stockholm) and, example (9) below (is a grocery company sited all over Sweden) are typical examples of how English strongly influences the naming of places and venues in Sweden.

(8) ”Okej, nu är vi på väg till Friends [authors clarification: Arena].” (Okay, now we are on our way to Friends.)

(9) “Jag e inte så noga med märken på sånna här, jag tar bara typ Ica Basic.” (I don't care about brands on this, I just like use Ica Basic.)

4.2 Loanwords

Many of the words in this section are words connected to technical equipment, such as video in example (10) and mobilen in example (11). Other terms connect with beauty products such as primer in example (12) and concealer in example (13). Fashion words like jeans, in example (14) and shoppade in example (15) are also since long adopted into the Swedish vocabulary. Some of these loanwords have been adjusted to the spelling (e.g., mobil in example (11) below) and morphology (e.g., filmade in example (16) below) of the Swedish language.

(10) “Å sen så när man har en del produkter som man tagit slut på så gör man en video där man visar produkterna man tagit slut på.” (Then when you have some products that you have run out of, you make a video showing the products you have run out of.)

(11) “Annars får jag ta å filma med mobilen helt enkelt.” (Otherwise, I can simply film with my mobile.)

(12) “Jag tycker den är en väldigt bra primer.” (I think it is a very good primer.) (13) “Och på Kicks så köpte jag en concealer.” (And at Kicks, I bought a

concealer).

(14) “Så ere lite jeans eller typ fyra par byxor.” (Then there are some jeans or like four pair of pants.)

(15) “Jag åkte på fredag och på fredagen så shoppade jag.” (I went on Friday and on Friday I shopped.)

(16) “Jag filmade för någon vecka eller två sen.” (I filmed a week or two ago.)

Loanwords are the most common instance of influences from English in the present study (see Table 4) and consist of just over 39% of the four categories. 58 % of the total 157 loanwords consists of nouns (e.g., bloggen, see example (17) below) and 32% of verbs (e.g., filmade, see

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example (16) above); 5% is represented by adjectives (e.g., fräsch, see example (18) below) and 5% by interjections (e.g., okej, see example (8) in Section 4.1), see Table 5. The

loanwords in the previous sentence also show that the words have got a Swedish morphology, which also correlates to earlier studies (Sharp 2001). Many loanwords found in the present dataset concern computer and multimedia-related terms such as level (see example (19) below), mobil (see example (11) above), uppdatera (see example (20) below). This finding can be explained with the fact that many teenagers nowadays use various social media, such as Facebook, Snapchat and Instagram. Misslisibell is like most teenagers in her use of social media; for example, she mentions in her videos that she is on Facebook, Snapchat and also writes her own blog.

(17) “Jag tänker inte gå så mycket på det nu eftersom att ni får ta och läsa

bloggen om ni vill veta mer om detta.” (I'm not going to go into it as much now since you can read and read about it on the blog if you want to know more) (18) “Och det vill jag ta bort innan jag sminkar mig så att ansiktet är så här

fräscht å så tills jag ska sminka mig helt enkelt.” (And I want to remove that before I do the make-up so that my face is fresh and so till I am doing my make-up, simple as that)

(19) ”Om man e typ i level 20, finns det då några uppdrag kvar?” (If you like are in level 20, are there some missions left?)

(20) “Yes, jag kan uppdatera lite mer på the cats, the kitties, nä inte the kitties.” (Yes, I can update some more on the cats, the kitties, not the kitties.)

Table 5. Instances of loanwords divided into word classes.

Word class Loanwords %

Nouns 91 58

Adjectives 50 32

Verbs 8 5

Interjections 8 5

Total 157 100

As mentioned above (2.3), Stålhammar (2010) categorizes loanwords depending on the purpose of the loan; demand-loans (words that refer to new objects or behaviour; e.g., filma, in example (1) in Section 2.3), sound-loans (English words pronounced according to a Swedish phonology) (e.g., Swe: fejk, see example (2) in Section 2.3). Approximately 30% of the loanwords in the present study can be seen as demand-loans, while sound-loans correlate closely to 40%, remaining 30% can be seen as direct-loans, for example, words that looks and sounds like English (e.g., Halloween, see example (21) and back-up, see example (22)

below).

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(21) “Det var dagen innan Halloween, så det va folk som sålde

Halloweenpumper å liksom bara mysig stämning.” (It was the day before Halloween, so there were people who sold Halloween pumpkins and it was just a cosy atmosphere.)

(22) “Då köpte jag också en back-up, nä men nä, inte en back-up.” (Then I also bought a backup, but no, not a backup.)

4.3 Single-word switches

Table 6 illustrates a categorisation of single-word switches based on their word-class. Almost 48% of single-word switches are nouns (e.g., v-neck, see example (23) below), which

therefore are the most common word class in this category. On shared second place come adjectives (e.g., green, see example (24) below) and adverbs (e.g., seriously, see example (25) below) (almost 18%). Next are verbs (e.g., joina, see example (26) below) (nearly 11%), followed by interjections (e.g., whoop, see example (27) below) (6%).

(23) “Den är ribbad [ribbstickad tröja]och så är den v-neck.” (It is ribbed [rib knit sweater] and it is a v-neck.)

(24) “I don’t wanna look green.”

(25) “Jag va seriously grön på riktigt asså, så jag tog typ bort allt å började om igen.” (I was seriously green for real, so I kind of took everything off and started over.)

(26) “Hej, vill du joina?” (Hi, do you want to join?) (27) “Den ba whoop!” (it just whoop!)

Table 6. Instances of single-word switches divided into word classes.

Single-word Switches

English form With Swedish morphology

TOTAL Percentage

Nouns 30 2 32 48

Adjectives 12 0 12 ≈18

Verbs 4 3 7 ≈11

Adverbs 12 0 12 ≈18

Interjections 4 0 4 6

A few of the single-word switches have Swedish endings; this is the case for one noun (which occurred twice) and two verbs (one of which occurred twice). The noun with Swedish

morphology is youtubare (see example (28) below), with the typical Swedish ending –are (corresponding to English–er). The verbs are, joina (see example (26) above), which is also repeated twice and wrappar (see example (29) below). In Swedish –a is the ending for infinitive form and -(a)r is the ending for the present tense.

(28) “Å andra sidan så är det många Youtubare som har en sån här kamera så då är det kanske någon på Comic-Con som kan låna mig en laddare.” (On the

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other hand, many YouTubers have such a camera so maybe someone at Comic-Con can lend me a charger.)

(29) “Man typ wrappar håret runt huvudet så sätter man hårnålar och så blir det rakt.” (You sort of wrap your hair around your head and then you put hairpins, and it gets straight.)

Misslisibell’s recordings often focus on beauty products and fashion and therefore many single-word switches belong to these semantic fields. Interestingly, Misslisibell uses English words, although the Swedish language has a specific equivalent for the same referent. For example, there are Swedish words for concealer (täckstift/täckkräm, see example (13) in Section 4.2 above), bronzer (brunkräm, see example (30) below), primer (underlagskräm, see example (12) in Section 4.2 above) and highlighter (täckkräm, see example (30) below).

However, it might not be that strange that she is using English words instead of the Swedish equivalents since many beauty brands in Sweden market their products with English beauty terms both in ads and in stores these days and perhaps no one uses the Swedish words for these products any more.

(30) “Jag har hört väldigt mycket om den hära att det ska vara en bronzer, det ska va en highlighter eller att det ska vara ett rouge om jag uppfattat det rätt.”

(I have heard a lot about this one, that it is a bronzer, it is a highlighter or that it is rouge if I have got it right.)

The English fashion words Misslisibell uses are not as many as the make-up words. Some of these fashion words have got a Swedish ending as in the verb wrappar (see example (29) above), which she uses to indicate the process of wrapping one’s hair with a towel to make it straight. Another example is the noun outfiten (see example (31) below) with the Swedish ending –en, which in this case refers to the clothes she is wearing as it does in English.

Misslisibell also uses the English word V-neck (see example (23) above) even though Swedish has a similar term, v-ringad. Finally, abbreviations like xs and s (see example (32) below) that are referring to clothing sizes are used in Swedish as well, but neither of them is represented in SAOL (Svenska Akademien, 2019).

(31) “Här är då outfiten!” (Here is the outfit!)

(32) “Jag ville ha den i xs men den fanns inte i xs så då tog jag s.” (I wanted it in xs, but there were none in xs so I got one in s.)

4.4 Compound-word switches

This section reports the findings concerning compound-word switches, which consists of one English word that is connected to a Swedish word.

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In the present dataset, there are 15 instances of compound-word switches (see Table 4); a few of these words appear more than once. Compound-word switches often belong to the fashion field such as chill-kläder (see example (3) in Section 2.3 above), off-shouldertröja (see example (33) below), basic-tröjor (see example (34) below), kläd-sajter (see example (35) below), and sneakers-klackar (see example (4) in Section 2.3. Some compound-word switches concern multimedia such as höst-header (literally, ‘autumn headline’) or empties-videos, which may be words not used in the English language in the same way as Misslisibell does.

For example, höst-header (see example (36) below) was used by Misslisibell when speaking about the need for a new picture of her in her blog front-page that would be more in line with the season. Other compound-word switches are starstruckar-sönder (see example (37) below). Starstruckar-sönder (used when Misslisibell met famous YouTubers on Comic-Con and Splay-day) is in this case used as a verb rather than an adverb which would have been a more frequent use. Additional compound-switches are lyxshake (see example (38) below) which is also how they are sold, for instance, at hamburger chains, and stor-size (see example (39) below).

(33) “Asså, jag har typ get upp hoppet med den här off-shouldertröjan.” (So, I have like given up hope about this off-shoulder jumper.)

(34) “Jag har hittat lite fina basic-tröjor å jag har väl hittat lite goodies.” (I have found some nice basic jumpers and I have found some goodies.)

(35) “Jag kollade på lite kläd-sajter, ja, nä.” (I looked at some clothing sites, yes, no.)

(36) “Jag ska kanske fota en höst-header idag eftersom att jag har kommit igång med bloggen igen.” (I might shoot an autumn header today because I have started the blog again.)

(37) “Jag starstruckar-sönder nu!” (I’m very starstrucked right now!) (38) “Jag vill ha en lyxshake.” (I want a luxurious milkshake.)

(39) “Jag ville ha en stor-size eftersom min håller på att ta slut.” (I wanted a big size because mine is running out.)

4.5 Code-switching in utterances

The category of code-switching in utterances consists of utterances that are entirely or mostly produced in English and of strings of more than one English word produced in Swedish discourse. These strings of English words may occur at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of Swedish utterances,

In Misslisibell’s talk, 84 instances of this kind of CS were found. 49% of these CS consist of utterances that are entirely or mostly produced in English, see example (40), (41) and (42)

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below. 36% of code-switched utterances concern strings of English words that are produced at the end of Swedish utterances like in example (43) and (44) below. Strings of words in

English may appear at the beginning of Swedish utterances (10%) see example (45) and (46) below. Finally, only 5 % of these CS consist of strings of English words that are produced in the middle of Swedish utterances which differs from Muysken’s (1995) study where these kinds of CS seems to be the most common ones; for example in (47) below.

(40) “It’s awesome!”

(41) “Let’s go to the frukost!” (Let’s go eat breakfast!) (42) “And I’m very taggad!” (And I’m very psyched!)

(43) ”Jag har vart ute hos kaninerna…and that’s pretty much it!” (I've been out with the rabbits... and that’s pretty much it!)

(44) ”Nu så ska ja städa mitt rum because it’s a mess.” (Now I will clean my room because it’s a mess.)

(45) “Well well vad ville durå?” ( Well well what do you want?)

(46) “And you know I hate klibbiga läppglans.” (And you know I hate sticky lip gloss.)

(47) “Man kanske får va lite såhära easy-peasy on this one så man kanske får ta lite försiktigt med den.” (You might get a little easy-peasy on this one so you might have to take a little care with it.)

4.6 Brand names and product names

This section reports the findings concerning brand names and product names. The topics in Misslisibell’s videos often relates to fashion and make-up, which also can be seen in the present study, since she shows her viewers products that she has bought and used, see example (48) and (49) below. The most common topic in this investigation is related to technical devices, for example, Instagram, see example (50), Snapchat, see example (51), Comic-Con (see example (7) in Section 3.2) and computer game characters like Packman, see example (52) and Star Stable, in example (53).

(48) “Och sen så har jag dom hära Nike Air Max så det är ändå lite så hära fancy men ändå lite casual fancy.” (And then I have this Nike Air Max which still is a bit fancy but still a bit casual fancy.)

(49) “Så vi kan börja med de första produkterna och det är Nivea Refining Clear Up Stripes.” (So, we start with the first products which are Nivea Refining Clear-up Stripes.)

(50) “Lite Instagram, Lisa ska....” (Some Instagram, Lisa should....)

(51) ”Å sen så har jag pratat lite om det på Snapchat också.” (And then I have talked a bit about it on Snapchat as well.)

(52) “För det såg ut som en Packman, det var lite kul att lägga ut på bloggen.”

(Because it looked like a Packman, it was a bit fun to post on the blog.) (53) “Star stable, yeah!”

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The make-up industry in the world seems to use English when naming and describing their products; a possible reason is to reach many people since the English language is used as a Lingua Franca (Zhiganova, 2016). Interestingly, is the choice of naming the products with the English word Basic (see example (9) in Section 4.1) instead of the Swedish counterpart basvara. The reason why English product names often occur in Swedish stores could have to do with status, that it sounds more appealing using English words over Swedish ones

(Mesthrie et al., 2013). These kinds of marketing tricks function well since Swedes master the English language.

4.7 Slang word analysis

In video clip 1 some young people, including Misslisibell interact in conversations, and the CS seems to be repeated by each other, see example (54), (55), and (56) below. In these examples, most of the English influences is slang words (see example (54) and (56) below) which are not yet included in, for example, the Oxford English Dictionary but can be found in the online slang-dictionary www.urbandictionary.com.

(1) (J) “-Asså goals! Jag älskar dom! Dom är goals!” (-Like goals! I love them! They are goals!)

(M) “-Du är goals!” (-You are goals!)

(2) (M) “-We need fotoautomat...” (-We need a photo booth...)

(J) “-We need to go to the foto (inaudible talk).” (we need to go to the photo (inaudible talk).)

(3) (M) “-This is my squad goals.”

(B) “- Squad goals så kallad.” (So called squad goals.) (M)”-Squad goals.”

The interactions in the present study differs from Nyroos et al.’s (2017) study in more than one reason, partly since the participants in the present study interact casually in their spare time in contrast to Nyroos et al.’s (2017) study which is a test case which may make students feel more pressured to do well than in a more informal occasion. In Nyroos et al.’s (2017) study, the test-takers are expected to speak in English but code-switch into Swedish when they correct themselves during an ongoing utterance. However, in the present study, the participant speaks in Swedish and code-switch into English occasionally. In the present study, the participants do not make these kinds of self-reparations by using the Swedish conjunction eller (‘or’), on the other hand, are the participants under less pressure since they talk with friends in their spare time on the contrarily to Nyroos et al.’s (2017) study and might therefore not be in need to self-repair. Although the participants in the present study do not use the

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conjunction eller (’or’) it does not mean that they do not make any mistakes in their talking even if no support was found, but the participants make some hesitations in their talking which may be a way of make speaking-reparation (see the bold letters in example (57) below).

(57) “Det låter så fail, det låter så fail....Asså, det låter ba no! /:ÅHH:/A men det e ju ba så /:AAMM:/.” (It sounds so fail, it sound so fail…Like, it sounds just no!

/:ÅHH:/Ya but it is like so /:AAMM:/.)

4.8 Summary of observations

The CS in the present study has a broader perspective than only focusing on specific CS as such since it also includes loanwords that already are included in Swedish dictionaries, for example, the SAOL. However, many of the loanwords in the present study represent words from specific semantic fields such as technical types of equipment and words related to the Internet, for example, bloggen (see example (17) in Section 4.2), video (see example (10) in Section 4.2), filma (see example (1) in Section 2.3), mobilen (see example (11) in Section 4.2) and fashion-related words, for example, shoppade (see example (15) in Section 4.2), outfiten (see example (31) in Section 4.3), and make-up related words, for example, läppglans (see example (46) in Section 4.5), concealer (see example (13) in Section 4.2) that might recently have been seen as CS. Some of these previously mentioned loanwords may be seen as rather new loans (some technical words, e.g. bloggen (see example (17) in Section 4.2) or that English words are preferred over the corresponding Swedish ones nowadays, for example, shoppade (see example (15) in Section 4.2) over handlade/köpte and concealer (see example (13) in Section 4.2) over täckstift/täckkräm and are therefore attractive to the present study.

5. Conclusion

This study has examined the use of CS from Swedish to English. The data were video-clips made by Misslisibell, a Swedish teenager, and posted on YouTube.com. The present study aimed to investigate: (1) what kind of English words, phrases, and expressions are being used:

(2) whether the CS occurs in more semantic fields than, for example, fashion, make-up.

In the present dataset, there are 8300 utterances, and 401 of those are CS instances, which means that 4,8% of all utterances in this study are English expressions in Swedish discourse.

Of those 401 instances of CS 39% belongs to the category of loanwords, 21% to CS in

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utterances, 17% single-word switches, and lastly 4% compound-word switches, proper names and product names (19%). Compared to Sharp’s (2001) study on CS between young Swedes, the findings of the present study show that CS has increased from 2,5% (Sharp 2001, p. 61) to 4,8%, however, the present data may not be representative of a larger population since only one YouTuber were investigated. However, the CS in the present study seems to come effortlessly in Misslisibell’s talk and may be seen as a creative way of talking, particularly the compound-word switches and the single-word switches (including example (54), (55), (56) in Section 4.7). This finding might correlate to Kharkhurin and Wei’s (2015) study where billingual speakers that CS seems to be more creative when talking, but more studies are in need to state more facts concerning the creativity in Misslisibell’s CS.

Even though, Sharp’s (2001) study used a different dataset and slightly different aims compared to the present study, the findings in the present study concerning word classes corresponding with the result in Sharp’s (2001) research; nouns represent half of all the produced CS, in second place, comes adjectives that describe almost 30%. Most nouns relate to fashion words (e.g., size, see example (39) in Section 4.4), make-up words (e.g., concealer, see example (13) in Section 4.2) and technological related words, for example, video (see example (10) in Section 4.2), blog (see example (17) below) and mobil (see example (11) in Section 4.2). According to Stålhammar (2010), innovations in the entertainment industry have increased with such a speed that the corresponding English words start to get used in Swedish before an equivalent Swedish word are created. Not least through the Internet, where many young people come in contact with new words and expressions in English and continue to use them even in Swedish.

Mesthrie et al.’s (2013) theory indicate that instances of CS often relates to identity,

communicative consequences, and stylistic purposes. However, Misslisibell produces some CS in utterances, which often seems to correlates to stylistic instances, see example (47) in Section 4.5.

English has high status in Sweden, and by CS into English people might show that

demonstration of mastery is secondary to displaying membership in a particular community in this case. Stålhammar (2010) claims that loanwords have a positive impact on the Swedish language; it does not only fulfil empty spaces and provide the Swedish language with options they also inspire to make new creations. With all that this implies, Misslisibell’s new word

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compounding such as chill-kläder (see example (3) in Section 2.3), and starstruckar-sönder (see example (37) in Section 4.4) can be seen as having a positive influence on the Swedish language by making it more living and thriving. Misslisibell’s compound-word switches could correlate to some answers in Zhiganova’s (2016) findings were some of the respondents to the questionnaire find CS to be creative and that English has a better flow. Furthermore, the results in the present study shows that the English loanwords (e.g., fräsch, see example (18) in section 4.2), the single-word switches (e.g., joina, see example (26) in Section 4.3), the

compound-word switches (e.g., lyxshake, see example (38) in Section 4.4) achieve a Swedish morphology which supports studies (Sharp 2001) previously conducted.

The findings in the present study show that English influence occurs in more semantic fields than only fashion and make-up related ones, for example, chill-kläder (see example (3) in Section 2.3), sneakers-klackar (see example (4) in Section 2.3), primer (see example (12) in Section 4.2), and concealer (see example (13) in Section 4.2). English influence in the present study are words that also belongs to the technology industry and social media such as

uppdatera (see example (20) in Section 4.2), mobil (see example (11) in Section 4.2), video (see example (10) in Section 4.2), bloggen (see example (17) in Section 4.2), Snapchat (see example (51) in Section 4.6), Instagram (see example (50) in Section 4.6), and YouTube (see example (28) in Section 4.3.

The choice to include video clip 1, where several young people talk to each other in the study, is a conscious choice to see if the code changes are different to the other three more

monologic video clips, although there is an awareness that the findings could have been affected by the two types of speech included. The findings in the present study show that it seems that the CS does not occur more in video clip 1 than in the other three video clips.

However, the young people in video clip 1 seems to repeat each other’s CS (see example (54), (55), and (56) in Section 4.7) and the CS gives the impression of being of more informal kind and may be classified as slang words and are therefore not yet in English dictionaries, for example, the Oxford English Dictionary, but was found in the slang-online dictionary www.urbandictionary.com.

It is much more challenging to categorise CS than I first expected it to be. Languages are, after all, more complicated than they appear on the surface. It is not always clear when to expect something to be a loanword or when to expect something to be CS. The speaker has

Let’s go to the frukost: – A case study of a teenage influencer’s use of English in a Swedish-language YouTube channel.