FORN VÄNNEN

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VÄNNEN FORN

JOURNAL OF SWEDISH ANTIQUARIAN RESEARCH

2020/2

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In 2017, an approximately 6 cm-long, gilded copper alloy fitting in the shape of an animal was found during private metal detecting near Hør- ning, close to Randers in Jutland (fig. 1), and in accordance with Danish law submitted to the National Museum in Copenhagen. The characte- ristics of the object do not enable its original function to be precisely determined. But the fitting has a hollow, conical socket with two small rivet holes at the attachment end, and its slight curva- ture seems to indicate that it is a drinking horn terminal. However, as any ephemeral material is no longer present in the socket, it is uncertain whether the terminal is from a horn or another object type. This might include a decoration on a reliquary, a ferrule tip or – more conjecturally – terminating the antlers of the headdress of the so- called “horned dancers”, which are known from

illustrations and were probably linked to the cult of Óðinn (Price 2019). Such horns are depicted as having terminals in the shape of birds. Taking all these possibilities into consideration, however, the interpretation of the object as a fitting on a drinking horn still seems to be the most likely.

The terminal has a zoomorphic, raptor-like head with large circular eyes and a wide-open mouth (fig. 2). The creature that is represented resembles a dragon-like monster, snake or canine animal. It appears to be swallowing or spewing out another creature, which perhaps represents the animal’s tongue. This other being, or tongue, was originally held by five or six carnivore teeth, two or perhaps even three of which are now bro- ken off. This arrangement, with the teeth func- tioning as vertical bars in the beast’s mouth, formed a kind of openwork, perhaps to house the

The same but different

A note on a recently found zoomorphic drinking horn terminal

By Peter Pentz

Pentz, P., 2020. The same but different: A note on a recently found zoomorphic drinking horn terminal. Fornvännen 115. Stockholm.

This article discusses a find that is arguably one of the most important Anglo-Scan- dinavian objects to have come to light in the past decade. The artefact in question has been interpreted as a zoomorphic mount that originally adorned the pointed end of a large drinking horn. The author identifies a theme linking this prestigious artefact with three other zoomorphic drinking horn terminals: although all these terminals form an animal head, the right and left sides of each beast are not identical. An attempt is made to reveal the mnemonic agency of the drinking horns as it relates to early medieval ceremonial drinking. Without producing irrefutable answers to all questions about these enigmatic mounts, the article presents a case study in the early medieval archaeology of the mind.

Keywords: Anglo-Saxon, Viking, Animal art, Early medieval, Agency, Memory, Ceremonial drinking

Peter Pentz, The National Museum of Denmark, Frederiksholms Kanal 12, DK-1220, Copenhagen, Denmark

peter.pentz@natmus.dk

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loop of a suspension chain or cord, although no wear from such a chain can be observed. The bro- ken teeth may indicate that such an attachment existed, which was a potential weak point that may eventually have caused the loss of the horn.

Although it was found in Jutland, Denmark, the stylistic features of the fitting are clearly not Scandinavian. Instead, the decoration of the terminal points towards pre-Viking Insular art, although precise parallels are yet to be identified.

The creature bears a resemblance to the wolfhead- ed, coiled serpents represented on some Anglo- Saxon 8th century sceattas, but also to later open- mouthed Viking beast heads. A shield fitting in Ørsnes style C from Hjulby, Funen, Denmark (Henriksen 2000) (fig. 3), appears to be a highly stylised, almost schematic version of the beast on the horn fitting, and is also reminiscent of the dragon shield fitting from the princely burial at Sutton Hoo (Bruce-Mitford 1978). A 7th or 8th century date can be cautiously suggested for the horn mount from Hørning.

Unlike other zoomorphic terminals, such as chain, stirrup or strap-end terminals, the two eyes of the Hørning animal are unequal. The beast’s proper left eye is dominated by an intricate geo- metric pattern, which almost resembles a classic labyrinth or maze, but without escapes or en- trances. The animal’s proper right eye is larger but empty, and although patches of gilding are preserved, this eye was apparently always blank – as

if to indicate that it was blind? Similar oversized eyes to those found on the Hørning beast are also present on a gilded copper alloy mount that was found at Kviinge, near Kristianstad, Scania (Hel- gesson 2002; Lindqvist 1923; Strömberg 1961).

This mount is also zoomorphic, most likely depicting a bird, of which only the upper beak is preserved (fig. 4). The bird’s eye on the right side is completely encircled by a billeted band in relief, whilst the other eye is bordered by a simple line. Whether the two eyes were originally of different appearance cannot be determined, and no remains of gilding or colour are visible today. The decoration follows the same scheme as the eyes:

elaborate on the right side, and sparser and simple on the left. The Kviinge mount is considerably larger than the other mounts that are mentioned here, and its flaring socket, measuring approximately 2.5 cm in diameter, would correspond with a horn of some size, so this fitting may not be a drinking horn terminal at all.

Another horn mount that has been recently found in Jutland, at Oppelstrup, close to Aalborg, also has the exaggerated eyes of the Kviinge and Hørning mounts (fig. 5). This copper alloy fitting was also gilded, and is only partially preserved. The zoomorphic creature is a dragon or snake. The mouth of the beast is wide open and its lower jaw seems to transform into another animal with a circular eye, perhaps a parallel for the Hørning “tongue animal.” As in the case of Peter Pentz

N

Taplow

Vendel

Kviinge Hørning

Hjulby Oppelstrup

Fig. 1. Map of key locations mentioned in the text.

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83 The same but different

Fig. 2. The drinking horn terminal from Hørning, Jutland. Left and right side. Length 6.3 cm. Photo: The National Museum of Denmark, Rikke Søgaard.

Fig. 3. Fitting from Hjulby, Eastern Funen. Length 5 cm.

The National Museum of Denmark. Photo: Odense Bys museer.

Fig. 4. The mount from Kviinge, Scania, left and right side. Length 15.2 cm. Lunds universitets historiska museum. Photo: Lund University Historical Museum, used by kind permission.

Fig. 5. The mount from Oppelstrup, northern Jutland, left and right side. Length 6.1 cm.

Photo: The National Museum of Denmark, Rikke Søgaard.

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the Kviinge fitting, it cannot be determined today whether the two large eyes of the dragon were originally different.

The mounts from Hørning and Kviinge clearly echo Insular manuscript art. The area around the field in which the Hørning fitting was found is incredibly rich in early medieval and Viking finds (Nielsen 2009). The field itself bears the modern name “Tyskerbakken” and adjoins a now ploughed-up mound called Tinghøj. The finds from this field also include another Insular artefact, an almost square weight, where a copper alloy fitting or hinge has been embedded in a lead tablet, the fitting having been adapted and re- worked from a larger object. The weight is decorated with champlevé enamel and millefiori, blue and white chequered plates (fig. 6). The style of the inlays suggests that the glasswork is of Irish origin. It corresponds with Judith Carroll’s Class 2a millefiori, dating to the 6th and 7th centuries in Insular contexts (Carroll 1995). However, as the fitting and weight are unstratified finds, the weight is of limited comparative value.

The fitting from Oppelstrup can be compared

with one of the horn terminals from the boat grave Valsgärde 7, dating to the 7th century. Greta Arwidsson considered the Valsgärde drinking horn (Horn I) as related to the Anglo-Saxon horns (Arwidsson 1977). The 7th century was a period in which there was certainly common ground between Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon culture and art. Drinking horns, often found in pairs, are amongst the prestigious objects in 7th century Anglo-Saxon burials. At the Taplow burial, a bar- row excavated in Buckinghamshire in 1834, three pairs of drinking horns were found (Stevens 1884). The terminals apparently depict stylised bird’s heads with curved beaks. Although most likely slightly older, the Taplow mounts are of special interest in relation to the mounts with differing eyes from Hørning, Kviinge and Oppel- strup. On one of the Taplow mounts, on the left side of the predatory bird’s head, the eye is accen- tuated with a red garnet, whilst the eye is plain and simply marked on the right side (fig. 7). It is significant that all four of the drinking horn mounts share this ocular anomaly.

Fig. 6. A square 3 x 3 cm lead weight with inlays of millefiori glass and enamel. Found on the same find spot as the Hørning drinking horn terminal. Photo:

The National Museum of Denmark, Rikke Søgaard.

Fig. 7. Drinking horn terminal from Taplow, Buckinghampshire, 6th–7th c., right and left side, length 7.6 cm.

The British Museum. Photo: Trustees of the British Museum.

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Drinking from the well of memory

The eye is a motif that is found all over the world.

The most well-known eye is probably the apotropaic eye, which is known from a number of cul- tures (Deonna 1965; Bill 2016). Spirits could be portrayed solely as eyes (Pennick Morgan 2018).

The different appearance of the eyes on the mounts might simply show a kind of a yin and yang complementary aspect, with one side representing day and sunlight, and the other night and dark- ness. Such a lunar-solar interpretation can be ela- borated further, and many complementary fun- damental elements considered, such as an apotropaic eye versus an evil eye. Another interpretation of the duality, which would have been comprehensible in both 7th century Scandinavia and Anglo-Saxon England, is that of one seeing and one blind eye.

One seeing and one blind eye is often associated with Óðinn (Hedeager 2015; Lassen 2003).

In an article by Price and Mortimer on the Sut- ton Hoo helmet, the authors state that the two eyebrows of the helmet are of differing appearance, and by identifying a variety of Scandina- vian finds from the 6th to 10th centuries with a similar difference, they argue that this imagery was intended to present the wearer of the helmet as a personification of Óðinn (Price & Mortimer 2014). Likewise, references to Óðinn can be observed on a number of small human figures or heads, on which the eyes have been re-worked or scratched (Helmbrecht 2008).

Óðinn exchanged an eye for a drink from the well of Mimir (frequently translated as “memory” or “he who remembers”) at the foot of the world tree, Yggdrasil, and as he drank he gained wisdom and all the future became clear to him.

Mimir was full of wisdom because he drank from the well every morning using the drinking and blowing horn Gjalrhorn. The ultimate conclu- sion from the text of Völuspá is that the drinking vessel itself is the eye of Óðinn (Meulengracht Sørensen & Steinsland 2001). So the drinking horn connects memory, wisdom and the one- eyedness of Óðinn.

Although we only have the post-Viking Age saga descriptions of drinking minni – drinking to the memory – of the deceased (Düwel 1985), there is enough archaeological evidence from Scandi-

navia and the Anglo-Saxon world to suggest that drinking and feasting played a major role at funerals, and that drinking was an integral part of the mnemonic record for those left behind (Ekengren 2005; Hofmann 2016; Lee 2007;

Hermann 2014; Rødsrud 2016; Lönnroth 2018).

The most illustrative of the sagas describing the minnis-skålcan be found in Heimskringla’s record of King Sweyn Forkbeard’s erfi – funeral feast – for his father Harald:

On the first day of the feast, before king Svein stepped into the high seat of his father, he drunk in memory of him…and this memory drink had to be drunk by all that were at the feast. Then the Jomsvikings were served with the biggest horns and the strongest drink that was there. And when the memory drink was drunk up, then all men had to drink to Christ’s memory (Lee 2007).

Another link between memory and drinking is found in the Hyndluljóð of the Flateyjarbók, which was written down in the 14th century. In this, Freya demands that the giantess Hyndla gives Ottar the “Ale of memory” so that he can remem- ber what he has been told about his heritage and royal genealogy: “Ber þu minnis aul …sua hann aull mune“, Give him the Memory Ale…so he remembers everything (Hyndluljóð St. 45).

In his article on the prestige artefacts of the early 7th century AD from the burial chamber of Mound 1 at Sutton Hoo, Suffolk, Howard Wil- liams interprets the many representations of eyes or eye-like forms as essential in the selection of artefacts for the burial, in order to commemorate the deceased as all-seeing (Williams 2011). So, whether the beast’s eyes on the Hørning mount involve an Odinic reference or not, and bearing in mind that the Ynglinga saga states that Óðinn was capable of shape shifting into precisely the animals or beings that are most frequently represented in Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian 7–8th century art – birds, fish and dragons (worm:

ormr) – drinking and eyes were essential elements in the remembrance of ancestors.

The same but different 85

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Fig. 8. Drinking horn mount from Taplow, Buckinghamshire, 6th–7th c., left and right side. The British Museum. Photo: Trustees of the British Museum.

More than eyes…

However, when the Hørning mount is examined, it becomes clear that the inequality is not only confined to the eyes. The decoration of the eye area and other surrounding ornamentation are very different on the two sides. Even the two eyes of the snake that is being swallowed are uneven.

This is perhaps unsurprising, given the similar dissimilarity in the decoration of the mounts from Kviinge and Oppelstrup. The other drinking horn mount from Taplow also has one decorated and one undecorated side (fig. 8). So more than just eyes could have been involved. Was it a case of one being with two different sides or else perhaps two beings sharing one body?

Drinking played a significant role in the estab- lishment and maintenance of social networks in early medieval Scandinavia and England. The often-cited section from the Beowulf poem, in which the hero arrives in hall of the Danish King Hrothgar, testifies to this. Beowulf is offered a drink, served by the queen, Hrothgar’s wife Wealhtheow. This act confirmed and secured peace between Hrothgar and Beowulf (Hof- mann 2016) – two warlords but with “one body”.

They were two different individuals, but were now tied together; the same, but different. After having confirmed their mutual peaceful inten- tions, more drinking is followed by Beowulf’s promise and oath to kill the monster Grendel.

This fits in with Scandinavian drinking rituals.

After this came the toast bragarfull, which was accompanied by the ritualised boasting of the warriors that were present (Old Norse Heitstreng- ingand Old English Beotword).

The above-mentioned section on Sweyn Fork- beard’s memorial feast and the drinking to his father Harald Bluetooth is recorded in several different sources, which are not contemporary but in 13th medieval Norse. The descriptions are almost identical and have in common that their environment is Christian and their concerns are clerical, although Fagrskinna very precisely state that the ceremony was heathen and the toasts were proposed to “Þórr or another of the heathen gods” (Fagrskinna, p. 55).

Pursuing this very broadly Odinic interpretation of the drinking horn mount and its double or twin iconography, Óðinn’s two ravens should also be mentioned, although bearing well in mind that these two birds, as embodied beings, are only found in the preserved Norse literature and not the Anglo-Saxon sources. In Stephen Mitchell’s paper on the meaning and function of the twins Huginn and Muninn, he examines twins and dyads, and their use in the Norse world (Mitchell, in print). The most commonly accept- ed interpretation of respectively Huginn and Muninn, is that of memory and mind. The actu- al functions of the pair of ravens are as eyes in the sky for Óðinn, but Huginn and Muninn are not regarded as identical or one and the same. They

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are the same type of animal, a raven, but different. Referring to Óðinn’s own remark in the Eddaic poem, Grímnismál:

I fear for Huginn lest he not return, yet I fear more for Muninn

Mitchell concludes that Óðinn’s prime concern, the loss of Muninn – memory – “hints at the rela- tive superiority of memory over thought”. He continues by emphasising the role of the ravens in Óðinn’s information-gathering activities, including their roles for the dead (Mitchell, in print).

Iconographic sources for Óðinn and his twin ravens are limited or, at best, only suggestive.

One representation that is frequently referred to is a small helmet plate from grave 1 at Vendel (Stolpe 1912; Mitchell, 2018). A mounted warrior accompanied by two birds is riding and hold- ing a spear. This spear has been interpreted as Gungner and the horseman is therefore its divine owner, Óðinn (fig. 9). The two birds could either be beasts of battle or, more likely, the two ravens.

If this is the case, it is worth noting that the two birds are of different appearance. This has led some scholars to conclude that they are not the ravens at all (Osborn 2015). However, the birds are still depicted as being of the same kind, probably ravens, and yet different.

Fig. 9. Helmet plate from Vendel, grave 1, the motif interpreted as Óðinn followed by his ravens. The two ravens have different appearance – coincidental, artis- tic licence or intentional? After Oscar Montelius, Om lifvet i Sverige under hednatiden(Stockholm 1905).

Conclusion

It has long been acknowledged that animals in Scandinavian pre-Viking and Anglo-Saxon art, such as the Hørning beast, were not just depicted out of an interest in the natural world. Each creature was imbued with meanings and functioned as a symbol which would have been understood at the time, although this is not always easily accessible on the basis of modern knowledge (Bint- ley & Williams 2015; Dickinson 2002; Hedeager 2011; Pluskowski 2010).

In Benjamin Tilghman’s fascinating paper, he identifies parallels for the enigmatic nature of Anglo-Saxon art amongst the written riddles of Anglo-Saxon literature (Tilghman 2014). Word challenges and riddles apparently occupied the minds of both the Scandinavians and the Anglo- Saxons in the Early Middle Ages. Tilghman pro- poses that the alternative ontological systems of contemporary poets and philosophers may help us to reinterpret artefacts. In such a reconstruc- tion of early medieval ontologies, these riddles, which give voices to man-made objects, can pro- vide clues to their nature. The 10th century Anglo- Saxon Exeter Book, Codex Exoniensis, as well as other texts, contains more than 90 riddles, and in one of these — riddle 14 — the drinking and blowing horn speaks (Cavell 2014):

87 The same but different

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I was a warrior’s weapon. Now a bold young retainer covers me with gold and

silver, twisted coils of wire. Sometimes men kiss me, sometimes I call close

comrades to battle with my voice, sometimes a horse bears me over the bounds, sometimes a sea-steed draws me over the depths, brightly decorated, sometimes one of the girls fills my bosom, ring- adorned; sometimes I must lie on boards, hard, headless, despoiled, sometimes I hang decorated with ornaments, appealing on the wall, where men drink, comely army- attire. Sometimes battle-warriors

carry me on a horse, when I must swallow, treasure-stained, breath from a certain one’s breast; sometimes I proudly call with cries warriors to their wine; sometimes I have to reclaim stolen goods from enemies with my voice, put to flight fiendish foes. Reveal what I am called.

In Old English:

Ic wæs wæpenwiga. Nu mec wlonc þeceð geong hagostealdmon golde ond sylfore, woum wirbogum. Hwilum weras cyssað, hwilum ic to hilde hleoþre bonne wilgehleþan, hwilum wycg byreþ mec ofer mearce, hwilum merehengest fereð ofer flodas frætwum beorhtne, hwilum mægða sum minne gefylleð bosm beaghroden; hwilum ic bordum sceal, heard, heafodleas, behlyþed licgan,

hwilum hongige hyrstum frætwed, wlitig on wage, þær weras drincað, freolic fyrdsceorp. Hwilum folcwigan on wicge wegað, þonne ic winde sceal sincfag swelgan of sumes bosme;

hwilum ic gereordum rincas laðige wlonce to wine; hwilum wraþum sceal stefne minre forstolen hreddan,

flyman feondsceaþan. Frige hwæt ic hatte.

Even though the enigma was written down by a Christian cleric, it was written in a societal context that was associated with the aristocratic warrior lifestyle. The riddle’s alternating description of the drinking horn as an object and an agent is fascinating: the horn was once a weapon itself for

the ox, but now it serves as a means for the warriors. The description includes all the martial val- ues of aristocratic living, such as battle and batt- ling, treasure, women filling the horn, drinking, horse riding and even ships (designated by the well-known Norse kenning sea-steed for ship).

The horn is central to the retainers’ alcohol-re- lated bonding. In the poem Beowulf, the drink is offered by the queen, not a maiden, but else- where in the poem it is told, that Hrothgar’s daughter, Freawaru, also served the warriors.

However, while this description might allow us to understand the drinking horn terminal in its own contemporary ontology, it still does not explain the irregularity of the two sides of the zoomorphic drinking horn terminals, as is char- acteristic of the Hørning mount. Drinking horns are occasionally found in pairs. One might think that the double-faced mounts were a kind of re- placement for two horns, but as the Taplow mounts are double this cannot be the case. Neither can the abnormality be considered just an act against the laws of nature, it must be a careful cal- culated anomaly. The Hørning mount therefore remains mysterious. It presents many questions, some of which might be answered by the “same but different” iconography. It is not even certain what this prestigious object is or what it was intended to be. Its origins are obscure, and if it is Irish or Anglo-Saxon, how and when did it arrive in Denmark? In addition, providing that the interpretation of a drinking horn terminal is cor- rect, was it imported as a complete, usable drinking horn or just as a curious piece of metal?

Deliberate ambiguities and multivalent meaning are apparent in early medieval art, and there are abundant hidden and double meanings in Anglo-Saxon symbolic culture (Dickinson 2002;

Leigh 1984; Nugent & Williams 2012).The limited quantities of early medieval and Viking drinking horn fittings does not allow for any sta- tistically significant conclusions to be made. At present, it seems as if the duality of the terminals was not a widespread phenomenon and this dicho- tomy did not survive into the Christian Middle Ages. Each of the zoomorphic drinking horn mounts described above is not one, but two beings. Or is it the same being with two different faces – the same but different?

88

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Acknowledgment

This study was made possible by generous fund- ing from Krogagerfonden. I would also like to thank my colleague Peter Vang Petersen for valuable discussions about the Hørning mount. Peter Vang Petersen and Ernst Stidsing (Museum Øst- jylland) will present a different view of the mount later this year in Skalk. In addition, I would also like to thank Neil Price, Uppsala University, for his valuable comments.

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