Sport migration in a Global World: A Case study of Lithuanian Swimmers migration to the United States

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Sport migration in a Global World: A Case

study of Lithuanian Swimmers migration to

the United States

Ignas Vaicaitis

Sport Science – Sport in Society

One-year master’s program (60 Credits) 15 credits thesis

02/06/2021

Supervisor: Thomas Peterson Examiner: Jyri Backman

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ABSTRACT

Keywords: Migration, swimming, Lithuania, The United States, Collegiate sports

In this master's thesis, I studied the migration of Lithuanian swimmers to the United States. This study covered the period from 1990 when Lithuania regained its independence from the Soviet Union to 2004 when it joined the European Union and opened up to the free labor market movement.

In the 20th century, sports activity grew into a global and multi-billion-dollar industry. Currently, research into the sports migration process is becoming increasingly important in the scientific discourse of sports science. However, it is still a relatively rare occurrence. Various research and insights into this phenomenon can only be discovered in the context of professional sports such as football, basketball, hockey, rugby, and other popular sports. However, in the area of non-revenue sports, migration is a relatively unexplored area. In this way, my master's study analyzing migration in swimming will be one of the first steps in further research.

This master's study tried to fill the gap in the academic discourse by deepening and gaining data on the narrow field of Lithuanian swimmers. As swimming is not a commercially successful sport, the United States was the only destination to migrate for Lithuania swimmers.

Research by Bale (1991) showed that the one main reason for the migration of international student-athletes to American universities is academic sports scholarships, which provide free participation in sports and higher education. This study will help strengthen prior findings and unveil other factors and reasons affecting the migration of international students to U.S. universities.

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establishing relationships with coaches in America, Lithuanian swimmers opened their way to the United States.

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List of Tables

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List of Abbrevations

CASK: Central Army Sports Club ... 16

IOC: International Olympic Committee ... 6

MLB: Major Baseball League ... 11

NBA: National Basketball League ... 9

NCAA: National Collegiate Athletic Association ... 5

NHL: National Hockey League ... 11

SAT: Scholastic Assessment Test ... 7

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Master’s Thesis Structure

This master's thesis starts with an abstract, followed by the research topic introduction, literature review, theoretical justifications, research methodology, data analysis, research results, and discussion. The final step of the master's thesis is the conclusion.

Chapter 1 briefly introduces the master's thesis and introduces the reader to this research's relevance, importance, and goals. Arguments are provided as to why it is essential to conduct this research, and the research question is introduced.

Chapter 2 presents an extensive literature review examining the historical causality and implications of global sport migration. The subsequent sequence of migration literature relates to the NCAA collegiate system and the recruitment process for international athletes. In the final part, the context typical of Lithuanian sports migration is presented. In Chapter 3, at first, the reader is introduced to migration theories and their shortcomings. The following is a presentation of the world-systems theory and its applicability in this study. And finally, I present how Maguire (1999); Magee & Sugdan (2002) used world-systems theory to developed a tool for exploring and explaining the image of a migrant athlete according to one's motives.

Chapter 4 presents the methodology and data analysis of this study. Here I argue why the qualitative research method was the most appropriate for this study and why the thematic analysis method was chosen. The following is the data collection tool and its sample size. And finally, research ethics and scientific considerations are described.

Chapter 5 presents the results of this master's thesis.

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Chapter 1: Introduction

Over the last few decades, globalization has significantly impacted the sport (Botelho & Agergaard, 2011). The commercialized and internationalized sports industry flourished into a global and multi-billion-dollar industry. Much research has highlighted and studied the relationship between globalization and athletes' migration and how globalization has led to migration and athletes' participation in these complicated processes.

In the sixties of the last century, NCAA granted full athletic scholarships to foreign athletes representing American universities in NCAA collegiate conferences; since then, attracting athletes from abroad has become a systemic process that is critical to the success of the university's sports programs. Sports departments' international scouts started recruiting international athletes to come to study and compete in the United States. Since then, the number of international students in the NCAA has been steadily increasing. After international students were allowed to participate in NCAA championships, NCAA individual conferences have become more competitive than individual national championships in European countries. Researchers even claim that the final NCAA tournament is a world-class elite-level competition, second only to world championships and Olympic games (Swann et al., 2015).

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After the second world war ended, Lithuania was a part of the Soviet Union for 50 years. Lithuanian sports continued to develop under the custody of the Soviet Union's sports policy, and Lithuanian athletes represented the Union's national teams in the international arena. Only after Lithuania regained its independence in 1990, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and other international sports governing bodies allowed the country to compete again in the international sports arena as an independent country. At the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games, while still representing the Soviet Union, Lithuanian athletes won 10 gold, three silver, and two bronze medals. However, after Lithuania regained its independence, sports systems collapsed, sports funding and governance were disrupted, and sports infrastructure went bankrupt. Consequently, many Lithuanian athletes chose to migrate to Western Europe, Australia, or the United States, looking for better living and training opportunities. Men and women basketball, football, handball, volleyball players went abroad to compete in foreign professional leagues. Even individual sports athletes such as tennis players, cyclists, and swimmers looked for ways to compete and develop their talents abroad.

Lithuanian sports migration is not a thoroughly researched topic. I have found only the study (Evans & Piggott, 2016), which analyzed Lithuanian male amateur basketball player's identity and migration into the eastern part of England. This master's study hopes to fill the gaps in understanding the migration process in Lithuanian sport. Therefore, this master's thesis will aim to study the causes and circumstances that led to the migration of both Lithuanian male and female swimmers.

Statement of the Problem

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By examining Lithuanian swimmers' migration, the study presented a close view of athletes' experiences in a non-revenue individual sport.

Lithuanian sports society has transformed from a closed cycle to open to the whole world, and this phenomenon has not been studied in scientific discourse. Sports migration is influenced by governmental, cultural, and economic factors when political decisions significantly impact a sports migrant's decision to go abroad to develop a sports career. Athletes choose to migrate for various reasons, including a better competitive environment, access to better training conditions and coach services, for financial earnings, a safer living environment, and better overall living prospects.

Purpose of the Study

This study aimed to investigate the motivational factors and migration experience of Lithuanian swimmers to the United States. This master's study examined why swimmers were motivated to leave their country. The study of Lithuanian swimmer migration gave more insight into the practice of non-revenue sports migration as sports migrants and the motivating factors influencing international migration. Maguire (1999); Magee & Sugdan (2002) used world-systems theory to developed a tool for exploring and explaining the image of a migrant athlete according to one's motives. Migrant athletes are categorized according to their motivational ambitions to move. However, this list of sports migrant typologies provided by the authors essentially intended to study team sports representatives. This master's study seeks to determine whether these typologies and world-systems theory is appropriate for explaining non-revenue sports athletes' migration to the United States.

Research Question

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and Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). And finally, to obtain an F-1 academic student visa from the local U.S embassy (NCSA, 2021). Furthermore, to answer this research question, it is important to investigate why not all swimmers migrated to the United States because other swimmers stayed to develop their sports careers in Lithuania. The semi-structured interview technique allowed me to ask respondents about their sporting careers in Lithuania and after leaving for the United States. The research question provided a holistic perception of how swimmers experienced sport in two countries and how their departure influenced their future careers.

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Chapter 2: Literature Review

A comprehensive literature review was conducted before the study. The literature review is a synthesis of previous literature related to the research topic and research question. The literature review systematizes the research to indicate to readers how previous research relates to the research topic (Rowe, 2014). The purpose of this literature review is to analyze existing research literature on international athlete migration. To provide a framework for this area of research using application methods and previous research findings and help develop the current research framework to the international athlete’s migration to the NCAA.

According to Agergaard (2017), the literature on global sports labor migration began to evolve from a book edited by (Bale & Maguire, 2013) on the migration of athletes in the free world. They provided detailed links between sports labor migration and talent development. Maguire (2004) argued that research on the migration of athletes and coaches does not receive much attention and lacks the progress that has been made in other areas of sociology of sport. Many years after this statement, research on this topic is still relevant and ongoing. As Foo (2015); Love & Kim (2011) claims, there is still a lack of research that delves into the causes of sports migration regarding international students in NCAA collegiate sports. These researchers emphasized not only the importance of understanding the critical structures of sports migration but also of the experience and adaptation of migrant athletes to new environments.

This chapter presents four main subgroups of literature review: sports migration overview, globalization of sport, Lithuanian sports migration background, and international migration to NCAA collegiate system.

Sport Migration Overview

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Magee & Sugden, 2002; Poli, 2014; Taylor, 2006), handball (Agergaard, 2017; Bon et al., 2016; Samuel et al., 2021), basketball (Book Jr et al., 2021; Butler & Dzikus, 2015; Cho et al., 2018; Evans & Piggott, 2016; Maguire, 2013) or running sports (Simiyu Njororai, 2012).

Numerous sports migration literature states that sports migrants are a free moving cosmopolitan group who strategically engaged in capitalizing on their sports careers. In the most popular sports like professional football and basketball all around the world, a large proportion of athletes migrate from their home country to other countries to participate in sports labor (Maguire, 2013; Maguire & Stead, 1998; Sage, 2015). The increase in the number of sports migrants worldwide is also influenced by global changes in the labor market, in particular increasingly flexible employment methods. A striking example is the case of Bosman rule in 1995 in European football. According to (Magee & Sugden, 2002; Taylor, 2006), the European Union's policy on the free labor movement has fundamentally formed migration of football, basketball, handball, and other team sports in the E.U. countries. In 1999, more than 500 foreign players competed in English football leagues. In the English Premier League, foreign players are estimated for as much as 45% of all players (Morgan, 1999; cited in Magee & Sugden, 2002). In Italy, Spain, France, and Germany, the number of foreign players increased substantially as well. In the year 2000, 33% of Italian Serie A players were foreigners, contrasted to around 40% in Spain and Germany. Also, 23% of French first division players were foreigners (Massarella, 2000; cited in Magee & Sugden, 2002). Besides, in 2008, foreign players accounted for more than 50 percent of all players in the strongest professional football leagues in six European countries - Belgium, England, Germany, Greece, Portugal, and Russia (Besson, Poli, & Ravenel, 2008; cited in (Love & Kim, 2011).

Butler & Dzikus (2015) points out-migration from the United States to Europe in men’s basketball. They state that as many as 6717 American male players played in European basketball leagues in the five years period before 2014. With only 1.2% of basketball players from the NCAA entering the National Basketball League (NBA) each year (NCAA, 2020), the rest of college basketball players who want to continue to play basketball professionally choose other countries to further their athletic careers.

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states, athletes from outside the United States accounted for 5.5% of all males and 6.9% of all female athletes in Division I in 2007-2008 (Popp et al., 2010). In some NCAA collegiate sports, the number of migrant foreign athletes is incredibly noble. For example, in 2019, according to NCAA data, 62 percent of women’s tennis teams and 63 percent of men’s tennis teams consisted of athletes from abroad (NCAA, 2019). Nevertheless, according to Ridinger & Pastore (2001), there have always been attempts to limit the number of foreign athletes in the U.S. NCAA colligate sports system. However, all attempts were ruled out by the American courts.

It’s also important to note that with the growing popularity of basketball in Europe, private basketball clubs may begin to entice young American basketball players to turn their professional paths and not participate in the NCAA educational and sports system but come to play professionally in European basketball clubs.

Lastly, this mentioned above ever-increasing number of international athletes in Europe, the United States, and worldwide, and the remarkably high concentration in certain sports or countries raises many unanswered questions for sports sociologists to explore.

Globalization of Sports

The explanation of globalization is usually associated with a new process of international labour migration. In the last few decades, globalization has been one of the leading causes of change in contemporary society. According to Maguire & Stead (1998), globalization significantly impacted labour mobility, making labour migration a dominant phenomenon worldwide. And sport, as an integral part of society, has succumbed to the effects of globalization. As the sport gained a growing commercial base, athletes and coaches began to migrate through the borders in search of better conditions for the development of their talents. Consequently, over the past fifty years, the sport has shifted into business during the process of commercialization (McAllister, 1998; Slack, 2004; Stokvis, 2000).

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Global sport migration typically occurs on two primary levels, between countries on the same continent and between countries from different continents (Elliott & Maguire, 2008; Sage, 2015). The processes of globalization have led many occupations to become more mobile as the pace of migration increased. This process has also affected the field of sport, making athletes and coaches part of a market economy affected by rapid changes in the global economy. Carter (2011) argues that it is impossible to investigate the complexity of global athlete migration by narrowing the phenomenon to several causal factors. International athletes' migration is often an individual case that seeks to recognize both unique and sometimes the collective effects of multiple path processes. Furthermore, as Bon et al. (2016) states, the reasons, motives, and patterns of migration in sport are not universal. They vary depending on the sport, age, gender, nation, or even the continent. Sports migration patterns vary across various sports. The most talented baseball players from Central and Latin America complement the professional Major Baseball League (MLB) league and other minor leagues. In basketball, for example, the strongest league in the world is the NBA, which attracts the most talented players from around the world. Additionally, NCAA basketball programs also attract young talent to play basketball in the U.S. However, NBA teams can fill in only 529 spots (Basketballnoise, 2021). Consequently, American basketball players who are not drafted to the NBA will pursue professional careers in Europe, Asia, South America, and Oceania after graduating from NCAA universities. There is also a two-way migration in ice hockey. The most talented players from Eastern Europe and the Nordic countries go to the USA and Canada to the National Hockey League (NHL). And vice-versa, second-tier local north American players who don’t play in the NHL go to Russia and other professional European leagues to pursue a professional career.

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varies depending on the sport and the level of competition, e.g., amateur recreational sports, Olympic sports development, or professional sports, there is no single universal model that can confidently describe the migration processes in sports.

This ever-increasing number of international athletes in Europe, the United States, and around the world, and the remarkably high concentration in certain sports or countries, raises many unanswered questions for sports sociologists to explore.

International Migration to NCAA Collegiate System

As Vanover & DeBowes (2013) argue, no other country outside the United States has a collegiate sports structure, where the sport is an integral part of academic life. This system attracts athletes worldwide through top-class sports infrastructure, high-class education, and access to sports scholarships that cover educational and living costs. Consequently, academic research on international student-athletes and the reasons for their migration has grown as the number of them in the NCAA has increased dramatically over the past few decades (Love & Kim, 2011b; Popp et al., 2009).

Bale (1991) was one of the first scholars to study sports migration and the impact of foreign athletes on the NCAA. Using qualitative and quantitative research methods and document analysis, he was the first scholar. He determined the number of international student-athletes in U.S universities, their nationalities, what strategies coaches used to recruit them, and how successful the adaptation was in the U.S university environment. Bale (1991) states that NCAA allowed universities to provide sports scholarships to students from abroad during the fifth decade of the last century. From that period onwards, a gradual increase in the number of international student-athletes began. Since then, NCAA competitions have become world-class competitions where participants are the best American athletes and international world-class athletes and Olympians. Bale (1991) illustrates this through globalization and the three-tier American sports model. Sport is a globally practiced activity in every country. Secondly, sport in the United States is used as an ideological tool. And finally, an open colligate sports model, where everyone who eligible can compete. This model occurs when local students necessitate competing against international athletes to receive scholarships, but this is justified by ideologic vision, as winning is the end goal.

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sports competition, and lack of swim meets were the main determinants that led respondents to choose sports and studies in the United States.

Ridinger & Pastore (2001) stated that almost all post-Bale research focused on the motivation of international students to come to study in the United States, and practically no research was done on the experience and adaptation of international student-athletes. Their research filled this gap. This study by (Ridinger & Pastore, 2001) compared the adaptation and experience of international athletes-students at U.S. universities in contrast to international students who studied in the United States without competing in the NCAA. Later (Popp et al., 2009) conducted a similar qualitative study to compare the motives and motivation of international student-athletes in contrast to local American student-athletes in the NCAA. They discovered that international students rate their athletic experience at university differently from local U.S. student-athletes. The study involved student-athletes from 16 different sports and 49 foreign countries and the United States. The study results showed that U.S. athletes prioritize sports, while international students value sports and academics equally.

Love & Kim's (2011) article identified several main motivational factors that drive students from abroad to come to study and compete in the NCAA. They singled out that they were motivated by new surroundings and cultural experiences, the wish to enhance English language skills, free scholarships that cover the costs of education, better perspectives with high-class American education to help them build better well-being, and finally to get a higher education diploma and compete at the top in sports simultaneously, which was impossible in their home country.

Foo (2015) researched male soccer players' migration to the U.S. universities from Trinidad and Tobago. He states that athletes come to study and compete in sports in the U.S. because they get access to better coaching services access to world-class sports infrastructure that is not available in their home country. Also, to secure financial benefits in the future after graduating from the university in America.

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without financial support. McWha (1998) also adds that the NCAA competition level is the best in the world, as many foreign swimmers apply for sports scholarships at American universities increasingly every year. The talent drain problem exists not only in Canada but in other countries as well. Olympians from all over the world come to the United States to proceed with their swimming careers, where they are given the best possible conditions to develop.

Recruitment Process

International athletes begin their migration process from recruitment to start higher education and sports in the United States. American universities’ coaches are looking for talented athletes locally and outside of the country to achieve high athletic success in their program. The process when coaches try to invite international athletes is called international talent recruitment (Bale, 1991). Ridinger & Pastore (2001) argued that U.S. collegiate coaches started looking for talented athletes outside of America in order to achieve high results and maintain a competitive work environment. Generally speaking, the coach’s goal is to have the best athletes, regardless of their nationality. Ridinger & Pastore (2001) noted that smaller-sized and less famous universities cannot compete for the best local athletes, so they started offering scholarships to foreigners to remain competitive against their rivals. There is no single reason why American university coaches invite talented foreign athletes. The simplest explanation is that attracting international student-athletes allows coaches to choose from a more significant number of candidates to run their athletic programs.

The recruitment process for domestic and international students is an entirely different experience. During the recruitment process, athletic coaches invite local students to visit university campuses, libraries, athletic facilities and meet teachers. However, potential international student-athletes often cannot take a long-distance trip from their country to get acquainted with the university environment, so they often choose their place of study and sports without visiting it (Weston, 2006).

Lithuanian Sports Migration Background

The Period of 1900-1940

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and its youth exercised sport by doing agricultural work (Butautas & Cepaitiene, 2006). After Lithuania declared its independence in 1918, many youths of Lithuanian descent migrated from abroad (mainly for the U.S.) to Lithuania, where they were already engaged in organized sports. The most significant contribution to the popularity of sports goes to Lithuanian-Americans who returned to their parent's homeland.

Lithuanian-Americans were responsible for introducing football, basketball, baseball, and other sports to Lithuanian society. They formed voluntary sports organizations and translated official sport rules. Lithuanian emigrants significantly contributed to the popularity of basketball, which is relevant to this day. Taking advantage of dual citizenship status, the best basketball players of Lithuanian origin were invited to their parents' homeland. They formed the Lithuanian national team's roster at the 1937 European Basketball Championship in Riga, where they became champions (Butautas & Cepaitiene, 2006).

The Period of 1940-1950

In 1945 at the end of the war, the fear of repression by the Bolsheviks was the main reason for Lithuanians to migrate to the West. After the second world war, most of the sports athletes emigrated back to the U.S. or got stuck in refugee camps in Germany. At that time, over 70,000 Lithuanians found themselves in the controlled zone of the allied states - England, the USA, and France - in Germany (Gecas, 2012). There were many basketball players among the refugees, including five European champions (Cerkeliunas, 1997; 60– 62, cited in Gecas, 2012). The achievements of Lithuanian basketball players in the European basketball championships in 1937 and 1939 undoubtedly influenced the fact that many athletes who left to the West were invited to play in German clubs. In 1948 International Committee for Political Refugees (INCORP) organized the refugee Olympics in Nurnberg, Germany, where Lithuanian refugees participated in athletics and basketball competition (Gecas, 2012).

The Period of 1945-1989

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(CASK) was the most prestigious sports organization in the Soviet Union (Baumann, 1988). CASK maintained a central position and controlled most of the best athletes. Moreover, this sports club is the central figure controlling other army sports clubs (ASKs) in each of the sixteen military districts of the Soviet Union in cities such as Leningrad, Riga, or Minsk (Baumann, 1988).

In the Soviet Union, the sport was transformed into a mass phenomenon. It was not voluntarily offered activity but compulsory to everyone. Initially, the Soviet sports structure in Lithuania was considered a foreign institution imposed by the Communist Party (Riordan, 2007), but gradually it was forcibly adopted.

Professional sports in the Soviet Union were hidden under the army sports clubs (Baumann, 1988), the secret police managed Dinamo sports society (Keys, 2003), and various individual labor union organizations (Keys, 2003). The Soviets claimed that professional sports had been abolished in their country since the 1930s (Edelman, 1990). The so-called professional sports movement was not clearly separated from physical culture or sports for all. This has led to active public participation in sporting activities. However, like all public life fields, the sport was closed to outside participation and competition. Helsinki Olympics in 1952 was the first time when Soviet athletes participated on the world stage (Parks, 2007).

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During the Soviet era, Lithuanian sports teams did not try to attract foreign athletes from other Soviet republics, as did Kazakh sports teams, where only about 30% of sports teams' members were local athletes (Butautas & Cepaitiene, 2006). There were several reasons for this. First of all, Lithuanian sports teams, even by the Lithuanian Center Committee's local authorities, were considered national teams (Butautas & Cepaitiene, 2006). Another reason, it was cheaper to develop local athletes than to invite the best players from other Soviet republics.

The Period of Perestroika

Perestroika is defined as the acceptance of economic, political, and social change in the Soviet union’s society (Duke, 1990). The Perestroika period brought many changes, volatility, and even chaos into the Soviet sports system. In 1989, Soviet Lithuanian sports found themselves in the face of a crisis (Senn, 1990). Lithuanian sport has been affected not only by the political transformation of the system but also by economic problems. Lithuanian sports teams faced financial problems paying athletes and competing in the soviet sports tournaments. However, Perestroika gave athletes hope to migrate to Western Europe in 1989 to search for better training and living conditions. In the autumn of 1989, five basketball players were the first athletes to migrate to the West. Sarunas Marciulionis was the first athlete from the Soviet Union who went to play professional basketball in the NBA (Senn, 1990). Arturas Karnisovas left for NCAA collegiate sport; he joined Seton Hall University. Valdemaras Chomicius and Arvydas Sabonis went to. Play basketball in Spain, and Rimas Kurtinaitis went to Germany (Senn, 1990). After the successful departure of basketball players to play sports abroad, their example has reached other male and female sports athletes: footballers, handball players, ice hockey players, and even swimmers.

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Chapter 3: Theoretical Justification

Shortcomings of Migration Theories

For half a century, in Lithuania, migration took place only within the Soviet Union territory, and external migration crossing the "iron border" did not exist. Globalization and the restoration of Lithuania's independence have affected the changes in the country's migration processes. Since the restoration of Lithuania's independence in 1990, more than half a million people left the country, and an average of 30,000 people emigrated from the country every year (Sipaviciene & Stankuniene, 2013).

Researchers of migration practices pay a lot of attention to research on outbound migration, while people's motivation to stay and work in their country receives less attention. To answer the main question of this study, it is necessary to define migration to understand and explain why some athletes chose migration out of the country after Lithuania restored its independence while others stayed to perform sports in their home country.

A highly skilled elite athletes' migration poses new possible challenges to the state and society and raises many unanswered questions for the scientific community as migration is a complex, multifaceted, and rapidly changing social phenomenon that is difficult to describe and measure. The concept of migration is used in various scientific disciplines: sociology, anthropology, demography, geography, criminology, law (O’Reilly, 2013), and sports science (Agergaard, 2018).

After examining the definitions of migration by different authors Hughes et al., (2019); Castles (2011); Kielyte & Kancs, (2002); I noticed that the authors emphasize that migration is relocating a person from his place of residence to another location, crossing state borders. Migration can be local and global, long-term and short-term, voluntary and forced, legal or illegal, based on family reunification, job search, academic pursuit, or in other words, to change the political, social, economic, or cultural environment.

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work because they could not get one in their places of birth. These ideas became the basis for concepts analysing migration from an economic base. Lee (1966) defines that migration as a movement in which people move from their country of origin to another country.

Migration occurred during all human life periods but developed as a socially important and constant event only during the industrialization and urbanization stage (Hirschman & Mogford, 2009; Hughes et al., 2019). As Castles (2011); Hughes et al., (2019); Kielyte & Kancs, (2002); O’Reilly (2013); King (2012) argue, there is no particular universal theory in the scientific discourse of migration that could describe migration's multifaceted phenomenon. Castles (2011) explains that a single migration theory common to all types of migratory mobility is impossible and not worth creating. Such a universal theory would be too broad and with many exceptions. He proposes a much more productive path, where migration research is linked into a more generalized understanding of modern society and links it to social change theories across many social science disciplines.

Analyzing the causes of emigration seems simple at first glance. People move to places where they can earn more money and feel secure. But when researchers study what causes people in specific countries to migrate, there is no clear explanation. Furthermore, for example, why do people leave countries with good living standards and move to other places? According to Mikhaylov, (2014), this is influenced by globalization and free choice to the movement (Sen, 1999; cited in de Haas, 2021).

Consequently, it is challenging to analyze individual decisions to emigrate based only on migration theories of economic reason. If economical migration theories and structural forces explained everything, all people would migrate where they can earn more money, but know for sure that this is not the case. Some people need clear reasons to leave, while others need casual circumstances. Therefore, this study will carry on based on world-systems theory.

World Systems Theory

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post-industrial state. Wallerstein (1999) argues that economic and social inequalities related to work are the product of this one global system.

The relationship between the two regions is essential, with central states engaging in capital-intensive production and peripheral states with a large workforce. According to Wallerstein's theory of regionalization of countries according to its role in the global division of labour, Lithuania could be classified as a semi peripheral zone due to low wages but a large amount of inexpensive but skilled athletic labour. In 1995, the minimum wage in Lithuania was $ 25, and in 1999 it was still relatively low at $ 107.5 (EUROSTAT, 2021).

Globalization is a process of economic, political, technological, and cultural integration characterized by free trade, free flow of capital, and demand for labour from cheaper foreign markets (Al-Rodhan & Stoudmann, 2006). U.S. private companies and organizations are global leaders and perform an essential part in globalization. NCAA collegiate sports competitions are a world-class athletic stage. Athletic results define the success of NCAA universities, and athletes' talent (i.e., workers) is an integral part of that. In other words, the globalization of sport is helping universities to attract best athletes from the periphery (all around the world) to the center (the U.S). This relationship has been shaped by uneven exchanges between powerful state with weak ones in peripheral areas (Wallerstein, 1974).

This study concentrates on the migration of high-performance athletes from Lithuania to America, applying the principles of world system theory. NCAA university sports programs in the United States benefit from an influx of international athletes from peripheral and semi peripheral countries. Poli, (2014) argues that sports migration creates systemic inequality among nations at the center and periphery and that these unequal relationships are the basis for use as an analytical framework. Consequently, this study's primary goal to better understand the factors influencing high-performance swimmers' migration flows in a particular country rather than individual migration decisions of high-performance athletes.

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of society. The exact circumstances can lead some athletes to move while others to stay in their home country.

Nevertheless, world-systems theory has been applied in previous sports research contexts (Chepyator-Thomson et al., 2016; Magee & Sugden, 2002; Parrish et al., 2020; Poli, 2008).

This study will use the world system theory, as it allows to conduct a study of migration factors, which will help to understand why some swimmers left to perform sports and study in the United States after the declaration of independence, while others stayed in Lithuania. Secondly, it will examine factors in how athletes have been recruited by U.S universities and how they managed to move to the United States to perform sports.

Typologies of Athletes' Migration

The first theoretical model of sports migration highlighted the motivations of individual athletes. Maguire (1996) developed a synchronic typology of sports migration, which Magee & Sugden (2002) extended by applying world-systems theory to the study of football migration. The authors argued that global economics, politics, and culture intertwine and influence the migration of athletes from the periphery to the center. Maguire (1996) explored various sports and developed a typology of sports migrants consisting of five categories. A "Mercenary" is highly motivated by financial reward, and it is the reason for relocating. Migrant athletes of this type are motivated by short-term benefits and return to their country after a temporary emigration. A "Settler" is a migrant athlete who stays in that country after finishing a sports career. "Nomadic Cosmopolitan" is an athlete who wants to explore a new culture and society. "Pioneer" is an athlete who migrates due to the development of sports. "Returnee" is an athlete who voluntarily returns to his home country at any stage of his sports career.

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career abroad. Second, the athlete who migrated to a particular club or country. Third, the athlete moves to a country or club where he has a greater chance of winning.

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Chapter 4: Methodology

Research Design

This master's thesis aims to thoroughly explore and describe the experiences and incentives of research participants. To this end, I utilize a qualitative case study method to gather detailed data on the personal experiences of Lithuanian swimmers who have moved to the United States and those Lithuanian swimmers who have remained in their place of residence. The focus was on obtaining data that would provide depth and knowledge about the migration of Lithuanian swimmers, rather than focusing on the number of interviews conducted. Faegin, Orum, & Sjoberg (1991) mentions: "The case study seeks to capture people as they experience their natural, everyday circumstances, it can offer a researcher empirical and theoretical gains in understanding larger social complexes of actors, actions and motives."

Qualitative methodology in migration research can be advantageous and appropriate due to the nature of migration itself. Migration is such a multidimensional phenomenon that some aspects of it can only be revealed through qualitative access. For example, how a decision to migrate or to remain in the home country is made, what factors shape intentions to migrate or stay, what it means to be a migrant, etc.

Case Study

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Sample

The research sample consisted of twelve Lithuanian elite high-performance swimmers. Seven out of twelve participants were female and five males. Eight participants migrated to the United States, while four remained to develop their swimming talents in Lithuania. All study participants were swimmers – no divers, water polo players, or synchronized swimmers participated in this study.

Yin (1994), argues that 3–6 participants are the most appropriate size to apply in case studies, while Tetnowski (2015) explained that the proper sample size is one that reaches the theoretical saturation that occurs when topics and categories are fully developed and not new data appears. Rule & John (2011) argues that the correct sample size occurs when proper saturation is achieved and a comprehensive analysis emerges from the collected data. Therefore, it would be challenging to conduct a comprehensive study with less than six respondents. Oppositely, it would be difficult for a researcher to manage a study with more than 12 participants.

I followed a homogenous purposeful sampling method to identify participants with the given required characteristics. It is a method in which individuals in a particular environment are selected deliberately to obtain important information from them that cannot be reached in any other way (Feagin et al., 1991). The list of respondents included people who are the only possible sources of information because they are experts in the field or witnesses of certain events.

Two benefits I see with utilizing this sampling method:

1) I believe that twelve respondents sample size is best served by this sampling method. 2) As mentioned above, the shared characteristics of the participants are of particular interest to the study.

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Table 1

Breakdown of athletes interviewed for the study.

Name Age Sport Country of Development Male 1 49 Swimming USA

Male 2 46 Swimming USA Female 1 39 Swimming USA Female 2 44 Swimming USA Female 3 38 Swimming USA Female 4 39 Swimming USA Female 5 38 Swimming USA Female 6 38 Swimming USA Male 3 40 Swimming Lithuanian Male 4 40 Swimming Lithuanian Male 5 46 Swimming Lithuanian Female 7 36 Swimming Lithuanian

Data Collection

Prior to the study, each participant was contacted by phone, Facebook Messenger app, or e-mail. As soon as participants showed interest in joining the study, a convenient time and date were agreed upon with each participant. Just before the interview, I also sent information via e-mail. This letter presented a study, explained voluntary participation and promised complete confidentiality.

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FaceTime app. My cell phone was also used to record the interview process to guarantee no error in the data recording and storing.

Semi-structured qualitative interviews with study participants were conducted this year during the months of April and May. In-depth video interviews with study participants extended from 37 to 52 minutes. All interviews, regardless of the medium used, were audiotaped, and stored only at my personal computer. Once all the interviews were collected, I transcribed them and translated into English where is necessary. Interviews were conducted in Lithuanian, the native language of the study participants. In this language the participants indicate they are comfortable with; this is done to make sure they could fully express themselves and grasp the questions being asked. Thoughts, emotions, and language expressed by respondents during the interviews were not corrected or modified.

I carried out further interviews over Skype and Zoom with the participants two weeks later. The purpose is two-fold. First, the effort will be undertaken to correctly understand and present the information obtained in the first interview. The second is to request additional elaboration on specific points of interest in my transcribed notes that I deem noteworthy.

The data gathered through the semi-structured interview method will serve to reveal the assessment of athletes' migration, the reasons, and attitudes towards global and local sports. An examination of theoretical insights will complement the interview analysis. Only interview data and no other forms of data, such as policy documents or observation, were used to achieve the purpose of the study. The study aimed to identify the respondents' experiences, identify what motivated them, and encourage them to migrate from their viewpoint.

Challenges Conducting a Qualitative Interview via Online

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Communication disruption is an uncontrollable force that the researcher cannot influence. Therefore, it is essential to discuss the possibility of internet connection interference and the possible repetition of questions or answers before starting the interview.

Data Analysis

The semi-structured interview data was analyzed utilizing the thematic analysis method, which helps to distinguish the opinions of the interviewees, its and behavioral reasons, their similarities and differences on the theme of athlete migration. This analysis method provides an opportunity to receive answers to the research question. I chose the thematic analysis for several fundamental reasons. First, this method helps to detect certain regularities or topics in the available material, indicates clear steps in the analysis, and can be applied to various theoretical paradigms (Braun et al., 2016). Using a thematic method, the researcher can identify the themes that crop up repeatedly within the data by reviewing the data. Consequently, thematic analysis can help find out about people's experiences, views, and opinions (Braun et al., 2016). I will search the transcripts for categorical ideas and themes present in the participants' experiences and opinions, after which I will conduct an interpretation of these themes.

Transcription

Immediately after each interview was completed, the necessary parts of each conversation were transcribed by myself. Thirty-two pages of data were transcribed and used in this study. I was trying to convey the verbal content of the conversation as accurately as possible, indicating pauses, voice tone changes, and nonverbal reactions as frustration or irony. This transcription style helps to reveal and interpret the experiences of the study participants, not only through the content of oral interviews but also through non-verbal reactions (Azevedo et al., 2017).

Member Checking

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is returned to respondents to check accuracy with their own experience. Member checking is frequently discussed as one of the best validation methods (Birt et al., 2016).

Ethical Considerations

This master's study complied with the ethical requirements for social science research. Participants who meet the criteria defined in this master's thesis were invited to participate in the study. Former student-athletes who emigrated to study and improve in sports in the USA, and former swimmers, who remained to develop a swimming career in Lithuania. The ethical aspects of this study are focused on the confidentiality of each respondent. When the selected candidate athletes showed interest in participating in the study, they were pre-arranged interview dates and specific times. Consent to participate in the study was obtained before the study and at the beginning of each interview. Each respondent understood that this study is voluntary, and the participant has the opportunity to opt out and terminate their participation at any time. Respondents may not have answered the questions I asked, which would make them feel uncomfortable. Participants were asked for their permission to audio record the interview. According to Tolich (2004), case studies run the risk of inadvertently disclosing participants' identities without their consent if preventive measures are not taken; that is why the respondents' identities were changed and coded. Confidentiality was ensured by removing respondents' credentials (names, locations, educational institutions, and years of study), thus achieving more objective data from the respondents and providing their protection. Furthermore, to ensure additional confidentiality of study participants, publicly available excerpts from interviews depersonalize all names of locations, cities, and universities, coaches' names, all of which could allow information to be linked to a specific person. Efforts are made to present the obtained data as widely as possible to ensure objectivity and clearly distinguish where actual empirical data are obtained and where the researcher's interpretation is. The collected research material is saved following the principle of ethics. Therefore, the records and research notes will be stored on the researcher's computer with password security. In this study, respondents did not take any risk to their mental or physical health.

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related to swimming have always interested me. However, I don’t think my experience in swimming has influenced the results of this work.

Scientific Considerations

The findings of this master's thesis are essential to several groups of interest. First and foremost, swimmers will consider whether it's worth going abroad to study and perform sports. They will be able to take advantage of research data and make informed decisions that are best for their future careers. Secondly, researchers, sports federation officers, and sports policymakers will be able to understand better the reasons for non-revenue sports athletes' migration and the motivation of athletes to pursue a sports career abroad. And finally, the general public will learn more about the relatively little-studied phenomenon of sports migration.

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Chapter 5: Results

Reasons for Migration

The chapter bellow will discuss the findings of this master's thesis. The interview questions were structured to answer the research question. RQ: why did Lithuanian

swimmers decide to migrate to the United States after Lithuania regained independence?

In the scientific literature on sports migration and based on the world systems theory, athletes from the periphery are attracted to migrate to the centers of capitalism, especially the United States and Western European countries. An analysis of the data collected from the study revealed that the experience of the study's sample was exceptional compared to other studies of sports migration in the previous scientific literature. Previous research has mainly looked at athletes’ sample consisting of different sports (Love & Kim, 2011) or team sports athletes (Agergaard, 2008; Maguire & Stead, 1998). The chosen sample size allowed me to understand and explain the reasons why Lithuanian swimmers migrated to the USA. Participants' answers were translated from Lithuanian and presented verbatim, using accurate quotes. Not all respondents had the same motives and experience, but there are also similarities in the situation.

Regarding swimmers' decision to migrate, the analysis of the collected research data revealed five main themes: 1). Recruitment process, 2.) In the U.S. sports system, universities provide suitable conditions for studying and advancing sports, 3.) political and policy causes for migration, 4.) economic reasons, and 5.) personal motivation for migration. A detailed discussion of the research results is provided in this chapter below.

Recruitment Process

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scholarship" (Male, 4). Although a few study respondents had a concrete proposal to leave Lithuania, they remained in Lithuania only because they failed to pass the required SAT or TOEFL scores. Their presence in Lithuania was likened to circumstances, but not to a personal desire to stay in Lithuania to continue a sports career here.

All respondents indicated that they were inclined to migrate from Lithuania if they had no family issues, received the offer to move with a full scholarship, and if they could deliver all requirements set by the invited institution. This position of the respondents allowed to link the two groups of respondents into one. Like those left to the United States, Swimmers who remained in Lithuania agreed that conditions to excel swimming development and have better future prospects would be if one migrates to the United States.

The recruitment process directly influenced and made possible the migration of swimmers to take place. In order to go and compete in sports and study in the U.S., they needed the help of intermediaries or direct contact with the coaches of the U.S. university swimming teams. However, one respondent went to compete and train in the United States not as a student-athlete but as a professional swimmer.

Male 1:

“During the Barcelona Olympics, I met an employee of the U.S. Swimming Federation. He was of Lithuanian origin and spoke fluently Lithuanian. We talked, I told him that there were no conditions in Lithuania to swim, so he was the mediator who helped me to leave... I was recruited by a swimming club [respondent names the state where he was located], they sent an invitation letter to the Lithuanian Swimming Federation.... …no e-mail...or even fax... I got an invitation via FedEx or something. Everything else is history. I bought a ticket and traveled to the U.S. knowing only one English word, "hello" ... I represented the club in commercial tournaments in various states, I won numerous competitions and earned money, and thus supported myself financially, so the benefits were not only for me but also for the swimming club."

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Other respondent's experience migrating to the U.S. was relatively similar to the previous one because of the similar period and circumstances. He gained necessary contacts during the training camp prior to the Olympic games. But his transition from club level in the U.S. to university was possible, because he never took part in commercial tournaments and never gained financial benefits.

Male 2:

“When we went to training camp in the U.S. before the games [Olympic], university and club coaches showed interest in recruiting us right away. After the games [Olympic], I was like eighteen years old, and I received an invitation to come to swim at one of the swimming clubs. That’s how I went. I lived with a local family they kept supporting me financially. I learned English, passed the necessary exams, and I was preparing myself to go to university to obtain a full scholarship and to be able to swim and study.”

When asked if it was challenging or stressful process to get into the university, the respondent replied.

Male 2:

“Now when I think about it, it was not a difficult decision, but then there was a situation of either proceeding to university or going back home to Lithuania. Which was not an option to me. As far as I remember, I chose maybe from three or four universities that offered the best conditions with a full scholarship. I wanted to go to California, but they didn't seem to give me a full scholarship. So, I finally chose to go to [names a university] where I both studied and participated in swimming for four years.”

Another female respondent also went to the U.S. in the early '90s when the internet not existed. She was a very young age, and she knew nothing about the country she was going to. The phone connection was the only possible way to communicate over the Atlantic. Personal computers, email, video, and audio connections did not exist at that time. She was the first recorded example who migrated because she had a network connection with one of the previous respondents who went to the U.S. before her. She received an unexpected phone call with the proposal to come to swim at the same swimming club. Female 2:

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the SAT because I still struggled with my English. Most of the points from SAT came from knowing the mathematics. The English part of the exam was relatively poor... no surprise. Anyway, I chose [university] because it was around the corner from where I was located. I wasn't pleased to relocate somewhere else. The state I live in is sunny all year round. They offered me a full scholarship, I knew a few girls from the university swim team, so the choice was easy for me.”

Similarly, to Female 2, another respondent went to the U.S. in the late '90s, and her recruiting process with university coach went through telephone. She recalls that the central point for her desire to move to the U.S. was because of networking with the swimmer who was attending U.S. university at that time. She met [male,2] during the Lithuanian swimming championship in the summer season when he returned home for the summer holidays. He promised to introduce her to his university head coach for a potential spot on the swimming team. "Everything I did, I introduced her to the head coach and gave my recommendation, then everything was in her hands. A few more swimmers asked me for advice and contacts, but as far as I know, they failed to go" (Male 2). Female 1 was the first swimmer that I interviewed who went to study and compete in sports directly into the university. She described her personal experience:

Female 1:

“As far as I can remember, I was already in the 11th grade, during the summer, I was competing in the Lithuanian Swimming Championship. And there I met [male 2] ... he visually looked so different, very different from all the other swimmers. He told me that he was doing sports and studying in the U.S., I was impressed so much and wanted to get out too ... We kept in touch with [Male 2], he brought me together with his university team coach, who called me on a simple landline phone that's how it all started.”

The answers of many respondents reflected difficulties in preparing for and taking the SAT and TOEFL exams. Especially for swimmers who went to universities directly from Lithuania. They lacked exam preparing textbooks and other materials on how to prepare and succeed for these exams. Failure to pass these exams at an early step prevented further stages of the recruitment process.

Female 1:

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process or is it over for me… Later, I was told that the head coach of the swimming team was fired, and all the rest was settled with the assistant coach. A few months later, with a few phone calls here and there, they offered me a full scholarship, and I accepted [laughs].”

The following three respondents went to study in the USA in the first part of the '00s. Their departure process was already significantly different from that of previous swimmers. The Internet in Lithuania was already used as a means of communication and information gathering, so it was easier for them to gather information about the country they were going to and find out more about university programs. The SAT and TOEFL textbooks were available to them. Without being aware of each other's efforts, all three respondents mentioned that they decided to try to study in the U.S. because they saw a successful [Female 1] case. This success story led both of them to look for ways to go to study in the United States. Female respondents 3, 5, and 6 were competitors against each other in Lithuania. However, they all three attempted to study in the U.S. without knowing about each other's efforts. Female 3 respondent stood out because she was the first to tell that she had no outside help or connections. In a way, she was not recruited, but she found a spot on a team by presenting herself by communicating directly with the coaches. Female 3:

“I knew that [Female 1] went to study in the U.S... Her story was quite prominent among the swimming community. At that time, I was maybe in the 11th high school class. To be honest, my path was either to study in the U.S. and continue swimming or quit sports and go to study at the university in Lithuania. So, when I finished grade 11, I started preparing myself for my path towards going to the U.S. I had a very clear strategy and plan, and I stick to it. I prepared responsibly for the SAT and TOEFL exams. I had textbooks, so I was aware of what things will be in exams. Simultaneously I searched online for the contacts of university coaches and wrote letters to them about myself, presented my swimming results and the like. I did everything from a to z by myself... I got three full athletic scholarship offers, and in the end, I chose the best overall program, which was academically and competitive on the sports side.”

Female 5 stood out because she was highly influenced to go to the U.S. by her Lithuanian coach, who did almost all the work contacting U.S. coaches and looking for contacts with them. Secondly, she got not enough points from the TOEFL exam but was still admitted to the university program.

Female 5:

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He knew a few coaches in America who eventually somehow helped me to gain a place in the swim team. Two universities offered me a full scholarship, and one university provided me 80% scholarship ... I don't remember preparing for SAT or TOEFL exams. I think I took them without any additional preparation. The interesting part that I was admitted to the university even with an insufficient TOEFL score. When I went to the states, I had to retake the exam twice ... I guess it was a common thing because three other girls were in the same "shoes" as I did.”

U.S Sports System

The composition of the U.S. sports development system is different compared to the rest of the world. Even before becoming commercialized, sport always played an essential role in American social life, both through active participation in sports and following as spectators. The most distinctive part of the American sports system is its close connection with academic institutions, such as schools and universities (Van Bottenburg, 2019). University coaches are searching for foreign student-athletes to make their programs more competitive in the closed domestic market. Some universities find it difficult to attract the best local student-athletes who choose the most prestigious top tear programs in a highly competitive environment, so other universities try to find competitive athletes from abroad. Female 5, who studied at a university in Lithuania for half a year, noted that Lithuania does not have a university sports system.

Meanwhile, in Europe and other parts of the world, the development of athletes is not linked to academic institutions. Athletes' development is a duty of a sports school or sports club. These institutions, clubs, or sports schools relate to national and international sports governing bodies, which organize all-level local and international competitions for different age groups (Van Bottenburg, 2011).

Outside the U.S., there are no more countries that offer a similar university sports system. After graduating from high school, athletes have to choose between pursuing the path of a professional athlete or pursuing higher education at universities in their home countries where there are no athletic conditions and scholarships. In many European countries, including Lithuania, higher education is free for the best students. However, athletes are often not the most advanced students to get this benefit of free education. And even if they qualify for free education, they are not having other benefits as it is possible in the Unites States.

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contrast, the second direction explores the reasons that led international athletes to go to American universities. Respondents mentioned four main topics of advantages of the American sports system compared to one in Lithuania: financial support, sports facilities, competitive environment, and education. All but one of the respondents (Male, 1) pointed out that the compatibility of sports with education was one of the most important factors why they considered to migrate from Lithuania.

Male 2:

“At the time when I was swimming, there was not much information about the American universities education and sports system. We had no clue about it. I didn't know anything about it while living in Lithuania. But in the run-up to the Olympics, we went to a training camp in [names a state]. We trained and competed with teams from several universities. When we noticed how American swimmers compete in sports and study... You know, universities are held responsible for everything there. They provide free education, free apparel, and swimming equipment. They act in a way like professional teams, and they manage the whole process. This entire experience in the U.S at that time was like eye-popping to us. We all wanted this kind of condition for every one of us, we were Olympians, but we had 100 times worse conditions back home, no money, no decent swimming pools, no equipment, and I could not get into any Lithuanian University, because we trained for six hours a day, we had no conditions for this.”

Another respondent took a similar approach and argued for the benefits of the American system, which allowed her to continue competing in sports and studying at the same time. Female 6:

“Back home, I studied at an excellent school, and my level of education was very high. After graduating from gymnasium, I could go to a good university in Lithuania or Europe, but I would have to finish my sports career in that case. Exiting to America allowed me to fulfill two of my desires, get a good education and continue to perform sports. I have been swimming since the age of seven, and I was not ready to finish sports, but if I had stayed in Lithuania or left to study in Europe, I would not have been able to combine education and sports. In this case, the non-revenue sports system in the U.S is better than in Lithuania. Because at home You have two distinct possibilities. Either after high school, you complete swimming and go to study and work, or you swim professionally but don’t have the opportunity to combine studies and sports.”

Sport migration in a Global World: A Case study of Lithuanian Swimmers migration to the United States