“I Want to Show the Society That Females Also Can be Leaders”
A Qualitative Study of Cambodian Women in Leadership Roles
Hanna Fors
Axel Käll
Acknowledgements
There are individuals we want to particularly thank, that have been invaluable for the development of this research. Thank you Lars-Åke Svensson, Kolney Dy, Sivchoung Lim, and Alexander Eriksson, for your contributions to the research and for the warm welcome to Cambodia we received. Thanks to the seven women who choose to participate in our research, for your honesty and sharing your experiences and expertise. You are a true inspiration for all women and men around the world!
Ulrika Widding, thank you for giving us precise feedback and sharing your knowledge and guidance.
Finally, thank you to the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA) that facilitated Minor Field Study, making it possible for us to conduct our research in Cambodia.
Cambodian Women in Leadership Roles
Abstract
The research was a Minor Field Study conducted in Phnom Penh, Cambodia. The purpose of the study was to explore and analyze Cambodian women's experiences of leadership. A qualitative approach with semi-structured interviews was conducted with a targeted and snowball selection.
Seven female leaders from different organizations and from both the private and public sector were the source of our empirical findings. We discovered in our research that the participants had both intrinsic and extrinsic sources of motivation. First, women that were unsure of what motivated them, second motivation grew out of hard work and third motivation was to demonstrate female capacity. The research found that success, challenges, and the benefit of being a female leader were essential components for positive experiences. Important factors for leadership were family background, education and self-confidence/belief in herself. These factors coincided with previous research from Cambodia. The research displayed three types of barriers for Cambodian women - traditional values, higher demands, and personal factors. Most commonly the female had either a democratic or transformational leadership style, but authoritarian and situational leadership styles were also used. The result displayed that one side saw a difference between the genders in their way of leading and the other suggested that leadership is based on personal attributes.
Key words: Cambodia, Gender inequality, Leadership, Semi-structured interviews
Table of Content
Introduction & Background ...1
Purpose & Research Questions ...2
Theoretical Background ...3
Leadership Styles ...3
Women In Leadership Roles ...4
Barriers For Women To Reach Leadership Roles ...5
External Barriers ...6
Female Leadership In Cambodian Context ...8
Methodology ...9
Access Cambodia ... 9
Research Design ... 9
Selection...10
Data Collection...10
Data Processing and Analyses ...11
Research Quality ...11
Result ...13
What motivates the women of pursuing leadership? ...13
What positive experience do the women have of being in a leadership role? ...14
What factors are regarded as important for the women to be a successful leader? ...14
Do the women experience any barriers, and if so which? ...15
What leadership strategies do the women use?…..………...17
Are there any difference between male and female way of leadership? ...18
Analysis ...20
What motivates the women in pursuing leadership? ...20
What positive experience do the women have of being in a leadership role? ...20
What factors are regarded as important for the women to be a successful leader? ... 21
Do the women experience any barriers, and if so which?...21
What leadership strategies do the women use?.……….23
Are there any difference between male and female way of leadership?...23
Discussion ...25
Method Discussion ...27
Further Research ...28 References ...
Appendix 1: Interview Guide………
Appendix 2: Participant Information………..
Introduction & Background
The world faces several challenges and gender equality is one of them. In the preponderance of countries, women have voting rights and are equal by law to men. After World War II the majority of countries in Europe gave the women the right to vote and challenged stereotypical gender roles.
The feminist movement from the western world in the 19th century has made it possible that in just 70 years women have gone from few social rights, to becoming some of the most powerful people in the world (Nationalencyklopedin, n.d). In several countries, women have risen to the top of the political and corporate ladder. They have become more equally represented in leadership roles, which is an indicator of gender equality in the country (United Nations, 2019) Two examples of females who have risen to the top are Christine Lagarde, who is leading one of the largest central banks (ECB) and Angela Merkel who is the chancellor of the third-largest economy in the world, Germany (Nationalencyklopedin, n.d).
Despite the progress, women have a long way to go to be equally represented as leaders around the world. As part of the UN’s goal for a better and more sustainable future for all, goal 5 is regarding gender equality. Interim goal 5.5 is that women should have equal opportunities for leadership in all levels of decision-making (United Nations, n.d). A country that does not meet up with this goal is Cambodia. Cambodian women got the right to vote in 1958. Unlike Europe and other western countries, Cambodia has been torn apart by civil war, which has harmed the economy, progression of human rights and gender equality (Chandler, 2008).
Cambodia is a country in Southeast Asia with a population of approximately 16,2 million people.
Most of the Cambodian workforce is engaged in fishing, forestry, agriculture, and tourism. The emergence of tourism had a substantial effect on the labour market and created new job opportunities (Nationalencyklopedin, n.d). The garment industry in Cambodia was and continues to be an important source of manufacturing employment throughout the years. Many of the employees have been and are women, which has made it particularly important for the rise of females in the labour market (International Labour Organisation, 2012).
Cambodia is rich in natural resources, has a low level of unemployment and the economy is advancing at a rapid pace (World Bank, 2019). Despite this, the poverty rate is high and there are few women in leadership roles, both in the public and private sector. Because of this situation, the empowerment of women is needed to make Cambodia more gender equal. Besides the empowerment of women, the main reason for focusing on gender equality for countries such as Cambodia, is the relationship with the advancement of human rights and the reduction of poverty (Fraser, 2017). These factors are important for Cambodia due to their low level on inequality index, which is ranked 114 of 162 countries. Furthermore, 37.2% of the population lives in poverty and 21,1% are vulnerable to poverty (United Nations Development Program/UNDP, 2018). Cambodia has set a goal to reach upper-middle-income class status by 2030 (World Bank, 2019). To make this possible and to attain the upper-middle-income class status before 2030, Cambodia should use the power of gender equality and the positive ramification it has on reducing poverty. By getting women employed in the labour market and in leadership roles, there can be a significant effect on the economy and human rights (International Monetary Fund, 2018).
The Cambodian woman is guaranteed by the law the same rights as men. However, the traditional view of the woman as a caregiver, family-oriented, and subordinate to men has made it difficult for women to enter high positions in the workplace (The Asian Foundation, 2013; UNDP, 2019). This does not only influence the labour market but is displayed in a lesser proportion of women in higher education and government positions. Historically the number of women in politics has remained low, except for a few queens from the royal family. Women are underrepresented in higher
government positions at local and national levels. Only 20% of the top political positions are held by women and in middle-level positions women represent 15%. At the local levels, female leadership is 18% (Sethi, 2013). This is below the global average of 23,5% and on the same level as the South East Asian average (Choi, 2019).
Since 1990 and early 2000 women have made slow progress in becoming more represented in top political and corporate positions (Sethi, 2013). But there is still a limited number of women in leadership position in Cambodia. The achievements by women with their national and international efforts to reduce gender inequality, gives us an infrastructure to research the pathways and experiences for women to reach and maintain leadership roles (Vong, Ros, Morgan, & Theobald, 2019).
This research will contribute to more knowledge about leadership processes and gender to gain a greater understanding of how women are embodied and developed as a leader. The research was conducted through explorative interviews and analysis of Cambodian women’s experiences in leadership. Our study aims to answer the six questions listed below.
Purpose & Research Questions
The purpose of this research is to explore and analyse Cambodian women's experiences in leadership roles.
● What motivates the women of pursuing leadership?
● What positive experience do the women have of being in a leadership role?
● What factors are regarded as important for women to be a successful leader?
● Do the women experience any barriers, and if so which?
● What leadership strategies do the women use?
● Are there any differences between male and female way of leadership?
Theoretical Background
The following chapter will present the theoretical background that the analysis of the empirical data will be based upon. The chapter lays out a foundation for former research about leadership style, women in leadership roles, the rise of female leaders, motivation, barriers for women to reach leadership roles, and female leadership in Cambodia.
Leadership Styles
There are numerous definitions of the concept of leadership, Jacobsen and Thorsvik (2014) describes it as an act the leader uses to influence people's actions. Leadership can be applied in different ways and those differences are called leadership styles. This part of the chapter will describe the theoretical models: situational, democratic, transformational, and authoritarian leadership styles.
Situational Leadership
The theoretical model of situational leadership describes Northouse (2013) as a leadership style that is common among companies and organizations. The leader adapts the leadership based on different situations and applies the leadership style to each employee. The leader reviews whether the employee can work independently and how involved they are in their work, then they direct their leadership according based on the employee's needs.
Northouse (2013) describes the situational model as a leader that analyzes their employee's needs and sees what support they need. When this is done, the leader uses different strategies in their leadership that best suits the situation. These strategies are instructive, supportive, delegation and coaching. For example, if the employees are new to the workplace and have low knowledge in the area, the leader must give clear instructions and delegation to the employees. When an employee has become more competent and experienced in the work but is not motivated and low commitment to do the work, the leader must use the supportive leadership strategy. Supportive leadership includes listening and giving feedback, to help the employee find their motivation again (Northouse, 2013).
The situational leadership style places great emphasis on leaders and the ability to read and see their employee's needs. It also requires the leader to be able to adapt their leadership style and validate their employee’s response. Criticism against this leadership style is that the model does not account for cultural and demographic factors that impact an individual’s choice for leadership. There is also limited research findings for this model (Northouse, 2013).
Democratic Leadership
The characteristic of a democratic leadership style is that the members of the group take a more active role in the decision-making process. Members are encouraged to share ideas and creativity is rewarded. According to Northouse (2013) a democratic leadership style is one of the most effective ways of leading. It increases productivity, morale, and the rate of contributions from its members.
This type of leadership focuses on equality and a free flow of ideas, while the leader maintains control and offers guidance.
Transformational Leadership
The transformational leadership style has a close resemblance with a democratic leadership style, but it differs in some ways. A transformational leader sets out to create vision and change through inspiration. The leader strives to enhance motivation, morale, and performance by making the members develop a sense of self in the group and collective identity (Northouse, 2013). The transformational leader is perceived as knowledgeable and acts with confidence. Jacobsen &
Thorsvik (2014) argues that this style is considered successful in achieving organizational goals.
Moreover, to achieve a successful organization the leader must encourage and coach the employees to develop themselves. Transformational leadership style means that a good leader can be a role model and inspire the employees which is seen as a personal trait and not based on previous work experience or knowledge. This is a criticism against this leadership style because all managers are not suitable to be a leader (Northouse, 2013).
Authoritarian Leadership
The Authoritarian leadership model focuses on production and productivity and often attributes specific traits as preferable for a leader (Northouse, 2013). The employees are given limited room for their thoughts and initiatives. The leader asserts his or her dominance over the employees and controls and dictates work activities to the employees. The authoritarian leader focuses on high production and goals to ensure the direction of the business. To rapidly achieve the goals, the leader in the theoretical model tends to overlook the employee's autonomy and can interfere in their work.
This leadership style fits best in a newly educated group or in an occupation where quick decisions are made, for example, a rescue leader (Amanto, 2015). The criticism to this model is similar to that of the transformational model, being a leader is something you are naturally, you are born with these traits or not. The authoritarian leadership style has a more anti-feminist approach in that the qualities or traits a leader should embody are perceived to be more male-oriented and masculine.
This type of view on leadership has made it more difficult for females to become leaders (Northouse, 2013).
Women in Leadership Roles
The number of women in leadership roles has surged since the 19th century and accelerated the past 20 years. This advancement around the world has been studied by Jamieson (1995). The result from Jamieson’s (1995) research points out some central components of the rise of women in leadership roles. One of these components is education, with women having equal access to education as men.
Education has a positive impact on several aspects, it increases knowledge which gives women more possibilities, makes women more independent, fosters self-esteem, and develops critical thinking.
All of this may have the following effects:
● Art of public speaking, women possess the ability to master the art of public speaking to influence people. This component is achievable with adequate training and confidence.
● Think and act equally, women have the same equal right to leadership positions as men, therefore both men and women should think and act equally.
● Reconcile contradictory expectations, women are subjected to contradicted expectations and women have made this their advantage by being agile and transformative.
● Assume leadership positions, more females are raised believing they can be leaders, which makes it easier later in life to assume leadership (Jamieson, 1995).
To summarize Jamieson's (1995) findings women have in later years gained a solid educational background, high communication skills, don’t think less of themself, have an environment that is
more fair, act equally towards/among both genders, and possess strong motivation for leadership.
A disadvantage in Jamieson’s (1995) research for this study is that since 1995 it is mainly focusing on the development of female leaders in a western cultural context.
Northouse (2013) argues that women in leadership roles often have a democratic or a transformational leadership style. Women are said to adapt to a female leadership style, being cooperative and emotional to create advantages in the workplace. As reported by Northouse (2013) it is more difficult for women to become autocratic and task-oriented leaders because of the prejudice for women. Men, on the other hand, have a leadership style that is referred to as dominant and controlling which fits into the traditional view of leadership, masculinity, and the authoritarian leadership style.
The female way of leading has become more popular and preferred around the world. Eagly and Carli (2007) explain this progress based on the leadership style women usually adopt, democratic, or transformational. Moreover, Eagly and Carli (2007) has detected three elements of “why” there is a preference for women as leaders: (1) Women are perceived as being more encouraging and rewarding to their followers. (2) They are believed to be able to work effortlessly with both genders and (3) They consider having a balanced demeanor. However, the understanding researchers have regarding women’s leadership is built on a small sample of empirical studies. The greater part of studies on leadership has been from the perspective of men and the subjective opinions from men, by men (Fletcher, 2004).
Barriers for Women to Reach Leadership Roles Internal Barriers
Internal barriers relate to the mindset, attitudes, and life choices of women that hinders them to reach top positions in organizations.
Self-Confidence and Motivation
The result from research by Development Dimensions International (DDI) (Global Leadership Forecast, 2015) showed that females have lower self-confidence compared to men, even though they have the same abilities and qualifications. This becomes a barrier when females cut themself short in leadership equations. The result is that they miss out on valuable opportunities to climb the organizational ladder, which could benefit their career (Monson, 2013). Furthermore, Monson's (2013) theoretical assumptions are that females are hesitant to take a stance or make themselves heard. Monson (2013) argues that women is to a lesser extent than men ask for things and overlook situations for negotiations, such as salary and promotions. Summarizing Monson’s (2013) arguments and DDI’s research results we can see two main factors that hinder females, the first is that they underestimate their competence and the second is that they do not ask for what they deserve.
Work motivation is psychological powers that determine the direction of a person’s behavior in an organization, including exertion and endurance. It can explain why we chose a behavior and the associated level of effort and persistence (George & Jones, 2012). Motivation can be divided into two parts, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is our internal drive, it occurs when we perform a behavior because it is interesting, and it derives satisfaction. Intrinsic motivation is considered to be more powerful than extrinsic motivation. Examples of intrinsic motivation are challenging work, ability to choose, the opportunity for advancement, mentoring, and education.
Extrinsic motivation refers to behavior that is driven by external factors, such as acquiring social and materialistic rewards and/or those that avoid punishment (George & Jones, 2012).
Research by O’Neil & Bilimoria (2005) has shown that women who possess top management positions are those with motivation to do so. Schuh et al. (2014) investigated the differences between male and female motivation for power. The result from their research indicated that women tend to have a lower motivation for power, therefore populate fewer top management positions. Then why are women not motivated for power? One theory is that it comes from how women are raised and traditional gender expectations, thus the external context creates an internal barrier. Self-image and self-confidence are prerequisites for leadership roles and as mentioned, women are more likely to underestimating themself to a greater extent. This feeling of not being enough develops in adolescents and grows from conflicting expectations. On one hand, women are expected to perform well and succeed, but at the same time be timid and not stand out. Research has shown that women that are raised in an environment where they can be themselves increase the chance for them to be confident and take on leadership roles in adulthood. If not, women may grow up and hide their potential. (Combs & Luthans, 2007; Duguid & Thomas-Hunt, 2015)
External Barriers
External barriers refer to the structural, and social obstacles and the institutional framework that hinders women in career advancements.
Homosociality
The sociologist Lipman-Blumen (1976) defines homosociality as the inclination individuals must search and appreciate closeness with people of the same gender. The first researchers to integrate leadership and homosociality was Moss Kanter (1977, 1993) and Lipman-Blumen (1976) when they studied the tie between the male predominance in leadership roles linked to male relationships.
Lipman-Blumen (1976) implies that the reason for male predominance in leadership roles is that humans are homosocial. Males identify and conform with other males, a consequence of this is that males subconsciously and consciously exclude females. Because of the already negatively skewed representation of females in higher positions, homosociality makes it harder for females to reach top-positions in organizations (Moss Kanter, 1977, 1993).
Moss Kanter (1977, 1993) conveys that optimal leader/manager characteristics are hard to define.
However, it is critical that the manager is accepted among its colleges and fit into the social and cultural structures to obtain favorable results. In default of clear valuable characteristics of an efficient leader, organizations focus on social merits. The demand to fit in results in “conformity”.
Conformity is the development of an individual undertaking attitudes, norms, beliefs, and behaviors that matches the group. Furthermore, norms are in fact a set of rules that guide the interaction among the members of the group. This means that the group becomes more homogeneous.
Conformity and homogeneity perpetuate the cycle of producing akin leaders who share similar characteristics (as gender), managers recruit individuals to top positions that are like themself. Moss Kanter (1977, 1993) calls this process “homosocial reproduction” and the fallout of this causes females to be sidelined from top positions.
One of the roots of homosocial reproduction in organizations is accredited to the managers working conditions. The working condition is characterized by uncertainty and devotion to work for managers at top positions. Uncertainty at work contributes to the importance for managers to have faith in their colleges and knowing that they think and act in a similar manner as yourself (Moss Kanter, 1977, 1993). Moss Kanter (1977, 1993) argues that male leaders feel ambiguity toward the
way females communicate and express themself. This engenders males to socialize more frequently with other males because they speak the same language and understand each other better.
Moreover, males select males to manager positions because they are perceived to prioritize work before family and other aspects of life. In a manager position, the individual needs to be totally devoted to the organization. A misconception is that females are not as devoted as males, if a female openly shows interest in other important aspects of life, as children, they are seen as unpredictable (Moss Kanter, 1977, 1993).
Glass Ceiling
The invisible hurdles of attitudes and prejudice in society create a so-called “glass ceiling”. The glass ceiling appears in all organizational settings as a level that women cannot surpass. Women can advance to the top middle management but are blocked by the glass ceiling to reach higher positions.
Therefore, making the higher positions in the organizational hierarchy unreachable (Persson &
Wadensjö, 1997). As mentioned, attitudes and prejudices lay its foundation, these concepts consist of factors as gender roles stereotypes, family orientation and laws (ex. maternity leave) and social norms that contribute to the existence of the glass ceiling. Furthermore, a concept that is often connected to the glass ceiling is “the labyrinth”. It can be described as a labyrinth where women need to manage and navigate through difficult gender-based challenges in their pursuit to top management positions (Eagly, 2008). To shatter the glass ceiling and climb the organizational ladder, women can use and be part of “career-boosting” activities. Stimulating responsibilities and assignments given by superior can have a positive effect on women's careers. Professional relationships as mentors, role models and relating to other managers have a positive influence on women's career and life decisions (O’Neil & Bilimoria, 2005).
Tokenism
Studies have found that limiting stereotypes might also act as barriers for women to attain top management positions. One main factor is that women are not perceived as individuals but seen and judged by gender-based stereotypes. Women can, therefore, be forced into gender stereotypical roles that inhibit their chance for career advancement, this leads to a concept called tokenism (Moss Kanter, 1977, 1993). Tokenism is a phenomenon that occurs when a minority group constitutes 15%
or less in an organization, in the preponderance of cases it relates to either gender or ethnicity.
Women in those situations are seen as a token, they become a symbol and represent all women, they are no longer perceived as individuals (Moss Kanter, 1977, 1993). Tokenism can bring about negative consequences for women in several ways, here are the three most frequent.
(1) Women feel pressure to act in a certain way that fits into the framework of how women should act and be. It becomes an external barrier because her attributes and competencies are not noticed or accepted. (2) Excessive scrutiny, the further we get in the hierarchy, the more scarcity of women.
That means that female leaders are more subjected to scrutiny than their male colleagues. This can cause female leaders to be overly focused on details, risk-averse, and prone to micromanaging to ensure in their work surroundings that they are worthy of their position. This could lead to an ineffective leadership strategy and losing touch with the larger purpose of leadership and what motivated them pursue it in the first place. (3) Mistakes or poor performance are not acceptable, but they cannot be performed overly well either, because then they are recognized as threats to the majority group. Being a token means that you must balance conflicting expectations, at the same time you are trying to climb the organizational ladder (Moss Kanter, 1977, 1993). To conclude this section, it is worth noting that the majority of the research that has been conducted on women in leadership roles are directed to women in the western world. The women in developing countries
have mainly been left out from the research agenda. The next section will therefore present the few examples we found regarding research on female leadership in Cambodia.
Female Leadership in Cambodian Context
To grasp the experiences of the female leaders in Cambodia, we need to study the context of where the leadership is located and from a historic perspective, and this section will explain this further.
Ebihara (1968) studied female leadership at a local political level in the countryside in Cambodia. It was found that morality and traditional honor was a crucial factor for women to be elected to leadership roles by the people in the village or city. Other factors of importance in selecting females to leaders on a local level were literacy, competence, good character, relative wealth, and a willingness to be paid less than men.
With a focus on politics on the national level, Sin (1995) writes about women in politics. She found that women that have courage, determination, and loyalty to the political party were more successful in holding high positions. She attributes networking with top male leaders as a deciding factor that leads women to form mentorship and close cooperation with already established leaders. Women faced several prejudices and psychological barriers, as low confidence, and mistreatment, in the pursuit of leadership that they needed to overcome (Sin, 1995).
Like Jamieson (1995), Ngoun (2000) suggests education plays a key role for women in and the pursuit of leadership. She argues that education is a fundamental part for women’s and girls’ ability to attain leadership roles, as it circumvents socio-culture and low confidence barriers. Education for girls boosts their productivity, provides better healthcare for them and their families, and expands their community’s awareness of gender inequality. Furthermore, Ngoun (2000) states that women in Cambodia are required to be regarded as knowledgeable for their leadership to be legitimized and gain power by their surrounding and followers.
Lilja (2006) sees the family connection and family structures as essential. The women in Lilja’s (2006) research who held top positions had husbands and family that agreed on helping her with household chores. Moreover, many of the women had a family connection with individuals that already held top positions, mostly members from their own family, such as husbands, fathers, uncles and others. Lilja (2006) argues that breaking the traditional gender roles, with the husband and other family members taking equal responsibility of the household is a pivotal factor for women to assume leadership.
Recent research by Kim and Öjendal (2011) present a different approach, that female leadership does not only derive from personality, intelligence, courage, education, and networking but on the new social and societal environment. It has been two driving forces of this development, Nongovernmental organisations (NGOS) and the Cambodian government. NGO activism has contributed to a socio-economic transformation and a society that is more gender equal.
Furthermore, Cambodia's government has been responsible for putting in gender quotas in the institutional framework both on a national level and in sub-national level and have launched leadership programs for women (TI Cambodia, n.d).
Methodology
The disposition of the chapter will begin with a presentation of how we had access to Cambodia followed by the frame of the research design. The chapter will continue with an explanation of the selection, data collection, data processing and analyses. The final part shall discuss the ethical matter related to minor field study in Cambodia.
Access Cambodia
Our thesis is a “Minor Field Study” in Cambodia. Minor Field Study is a program sponsored by the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) for students to write their bachelor or master thesis in a developing country regarding one or several of the United Nation goals. Access to Cambodia can be regarded as the most important aspect of our field study with entering the field.
This process started seven months before arriving at Phnom Penh airport when we decided that we wanted to write about women in leadership roles in Cambodia. We approached our contact-person in August 2019 and got approval that we could conduct our field study in Cambodia. Furthermore, our contact-person and the organization he represented, The Swedish Public Employment Agency, would assist us in finding potential candidates for the study and other aspects of living in Cambodia.
We were in contact with them throughout the seven months, answering our question about Cambodia. This made us as prepared as possible for the arrival. Before traveling to Cambodia, we read about the country's cultural context, learning social codes and norms that would have a great impact on our ability to organize and manage our interviews in professional manners.
The next step in the process was entering Cambodia and getting introduced to our contact-person and other people on the field that would assist us in our research. They had extensive knowledge about Cambodia society, our participants and more, which they shared with us. After that, we got acquainted with locals in Phnom Penh to be familiarized with customs and norms to be ready for future interviews. To learn about the social context in advance and socializing with locals before conducting the interviews was a pivotal factor to be able to conduct valid research.
Research Design
To analyze women in leadership roles in Cambodia we used a contextual approach, where gender is something created by social interactions. We observed more attention to the leaders overlapping social identities like gender, class, social-cultural, and organizational settings to further our understanding (Fletcher, 2004). The research aims to acquire subjective views from several individuals related to the purpose. A socially constructive approach, with the belief that there is not a single reality, has therefore been chosen (Denscombe, 2011). The idea is that the world consists of numerous realities, each different from each other, created and reshaped by the inhabitants (Denscombe, 2011). With qualitative research, the study embraces the individuals’ perspective, which can lead to new knowledge (Bryman, 2011). This was a vital approach for our research because of the different conceptions of realities that have been expressed by the participants.
Furthermore, the study has an analytical structure to obtain a deeper understanding of the case and for interpretation of the data. The study has an exploratory purpose and aspires to immerse in an uncharted field by collecting data from Cambodian women in leadership roles. The study has a narrow scope with a low number of participants, this and the method applied means that it is intensive research rather than extensive. With this scope, the research can deepen the data collection and the analyzing, which made it more relevant for this study. (Bryman, 2011)
Selection
The selection method that was used was targeted selection and snowball selection. Targeted selection means that the individuals that were interviewed were chosen, with help from our contact- person due to their relevance to the purpose, we interviewed women who worked in leadership roles (Bryman, 2011). Furthermore, we used snowball selection, also called chain selection. This method entails that we get assistance from the people that already were a part of our study to find more people with relevant background for our research. Our goal was to gain a broader understanding of the experience of female leaders, and therefore a selection of seven female participants was made, five from the public and two from the private sector and all were positioned high up in their organizational hierarchy. In the public sector, the participants came from three different agencies within the government. We or our contact-person contacted these women through email or phone call and asked if they were interested in being interviewed. Some of the participants were contacted directly by our contact-person to set up the interview.
Data Collection
To study the experiences of women in leadership roles, a semi-structured interview method did apply. The semi-structured interview aims to find knowledge and obtain subjective experiences.
Interviews can also be used to gain a greater understanding of the social interactions from the participant's perspective (Bryman, 2011). A semi-structured interview method was applied. That means the interviews did follow a pre-made interview guide (Appendix 1) with questions for multiple themes. The method gives opportunities for the interviewer to ask follow-up questions on answers related to the purpose of the study. A semi-structured interview makes it easier for the interviewer to follow a logical order. Because the research group consists of two researchers, a more standardized interview makes it more uniform (Bryman, 2011). The foundation of the interview guide was based on the aim of the study, research questions and the literature. It is a cultural difference, in the form of languages, norms and values that the interviewer needs to be equipped with. It means that the researchers need to make time for preparation and participation before conducting the interviews (Bryman, 2011). Our preparation involved meetings with our contact person and the local people in Cambodia to get to know the culture and the norms. We met the participants in one-to-one interview at a place they were familiar with. If the participants had difficulty with the English language, we used an interpreter. To be able to analyze the interviews in a comprehensive way, we asked permission to record them and we took notes during the interview, all except two agreed to being recorded.
The researchers conducted a pilot interview before commencing the study in its entirety. The pilot interview was with an individual from outside of the selection group. This was done to test the relevance of the questions and the flow of the interview guide. The pilot interview was helpful in several ways. First, the researchers got a better understanding of the language and accent differences that could assist in clarifications in the interviews. Secondly, we reformulated the interview guide to have a clear thread throughout the interview. Thirdly, we could determine the duration of the interviews more accurately (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2014).
The data collected from semi-structured interviews did take place in Phnom Penh in the spring of 2020 with the help from our contact-person from The Swedish Public Employment Agency, who works in Cambodia. Also, two other contact-people from the National Employment Agency, helped us get introduced to women in leadership roles. One of our contact-people acted as an interpreter when the English-speaking skill of the participant was not sufficient. For one of the interviews we used an interpreter.
Data Processing and Analyses
We took notes on all interviews, recorded five and transcribed all. Bryman (2011) believes that transcription helps the researcher to do a more accurate analysis of the material, so when all the data collection was accomplished the researchers began the transcription process. That entailed listening carefully and repeatedly on each interview until we could listen without making any changes in the transcript. When we were able to listen to the interviews without correction in the transcription process, we listened through all of them one last time to review the veracity. The transcription of each interview was given a number, from 1 to 7. When the data processing was completed, we started the analysis of the transcripts.
Thematic analysis was used to analyze the material, which Bryman (2011) means is the most common approach to qualitative data. The analysis was divided into two steps. Step 1, Content analysis-/thematic analysis was used to deduce conclusions and examine patterns in communication from the contents of interviews (Bryman, 2011). We read through each transcript numerous times until we got a feeling for the entirety, sentences and phrases that had a connection with the research purpose and our research questions were singled out, and they were called meaning-bearing devices.
Subsequently, we coded the meaning-bearing devices into themes that reflected the essential meaning of the interviews in relation to each research question.
Step 2, to analyze our data, we created a document matrix where we put the participant answer and the themes under each research question. Then we analyzed the content related to each research question to elaborate the themes from the participant’s answer. In this way, it was easier to discover themes, similarities, and differences in the data (Bryman, 2011). After this we named these themes to "types of answers" that were described and thereafter analyzed in relation to previous research.
Through the analysis process, we had our purpose and research questions as a starting point to extract information in the transcript that had a connection. Moreover, we used our theoretical background as a foundation, that made it possible for us to attain information that could answer our research questions. In the thematic analysis, we created types of answers that had a linear connection with the purpose of our study. For example, we asked the interviewed women if they have met any resistance as a leader because gender, one of the interviewed women answered that she thought the hardest thing was to balance family and work. After transcribing and analyzing the data we found that more women had similar experiences. We attributed this to have something to do with the social norms, traditions and values. Therefore, we created a theme that was called
“traditional values”, which was in turn related to the research question Do the women experience any barriers, and if so which?
Research Quality
The researcher has the full responsibility to ensure that research has a high degree of quality throughout the process. Bryman (2011) endorses two concepts, trustworthiness, and authenticity.
Trustworthiness and Authenticity
Trustworthiness consists of four elements. Credibility, which is the consistency between the researcher's observations and the theoretical ideas that he or she develops, linking the study's findings with reality. Moreover, credibility is the most important element in trustworthiness. To ensure credibility we used theoretical triangulation. Theoretical triangulation involves using several theoretical angles to analyze the data. The theoretical angles are based on the study’s theoretical
background, as leadership, gender, barriers, and the Cambodian context. Transferability is to what extent the study’s findings can be generalized to other social environments. As qualitative researches we are not obliged to prove that our findings apply to other social environment, instead, we maintain the evidence that results could be applied to a population outside of the study, this is called theoretical generalization (Bryman, 2011). It is relevant for our study to ensure a high degree of transferability and with theoretical generalization we are one step closer. We will provide the evidence, a detailed description of our research process and findings, to ensure transferability.
Dependability is to what extent our study could be replicated by other researchers and the results be consistent (Bryman, 2011). To reach a high degree of dependability we provide the readers with a detailed depiction of the methodology section. Furthermore, other students and teachers will peer review the study. Confirmability refers to the study’s objectivity, that our findings have a direct link to the responses from the participants without any interruptions from our personal biases and motivations (Bryman, 2011). To establish confirmability, we will be thorough and transparent in our analysis of the data and coding process.
In a qualitative study, we need to ensure authenticity throughout the research. Authenticity is based on five criteria and the one we considered during the process is called fair image, the other four will not be discussed because they are beyond the scope of this research. The criteria focus on the image that the researchers provide is fair and realistic of the participants (Bryman, 2011). To get a fair image of women in leadership roles we were patient and listened carefully on what they had to say, asked follow-up questions to be sure we understood, and in certain situations we used an interpreter.
After the interview, we listened and transcribed the interviews in detail to be sure we fully understood.
Ethical Principles
Ethical principles were taken into account from the start to the end (Bryman, 2011). The research did follow the ethical principles in conducting research in social science set out by the Swedish Research Council (Vetenskapsrådet, 2011). The informational requirement means that the researcher informs the interviewee of the purpose of the study. Also, the research group is the only ones that have access to the raw material and the interviews are deleted after transcription. The second is consent requirement and means the researcher will point out that the interview is fully voluntary, and they can choose to participate, and the participant does not need to answer all questions. To follow these two requirements, all the participants received the interview information before the interviews. We also gave the participants written information (Appendix 2). Information about the purpose of our study and how we planned to ensure their integrity. Utilization requirement means that the researcher only can use the material for research purposes. Recorded materials from the interviews and the transcribed data have been carefully handled and will be deleted after the research is completed. The last principle is the confidentiality requirement that is about keeping the participants anonymized (Vetenskapsrådet, 2011). This research did follow these criteria by keeping the women’s names, roles, and other personal information anonymous.
Result
The following chapter will present the findings of the thesis. The result will be presented by each research question, in following order; what motivates the women of pursuing leadership, what positive experiences do the women have of being in a leadership role, what factors are regarded as important for the women to be a successful leader, do the women experience any barriers, and if so which, what leadership strategies do the women use and are there any differences between male and female way of leadership?
What motivates the women of pursuing leadership?
We could identify three different types of answers in our data on what motivates the women to becoming a leader. First, the women that we're unsure of what motivated them to become leaders.
Second, there were answers about that motivation grew out of their hard work. Third, there were answers about females that were motivated to become leaders to demonstrate female capacity.
The first type of answers was that the participants were unsure about what made them become a leader, here the participant found it difficult to answer what motivated them becoming a leader and couldn't give a clear reason why they chose that path. The women meant that there was not a clear goal to become a leader, instead, they just wanted to do a good job. Participant 7
expressed: “In fact, I never wanted or thought of becoming a leader. I only knew that I had to do my best for everything, big or small”. The participants who were unsure about what motivated them to become leaders meant that the leadership position was not the main focus, instead, the vital factor was finding a good job that was the secure, participant 1 explained: “I just wanted to have a good job, it didn't play much role in what I worked in”. The characteristics of these answers were that the participants didn’t have a clear ambition of leadership. It seems, based on their answers that one thing leads to another and their path to a leadership position was gradually created.
The second type of answers was the participant that became motivated by their hard work. The women found their motivation in hard work and wanted to have a successful career. One of the informants meant that it is possible to succeed even though you have a background with difficult conditions, the solution was hard work. The participant’s mother had no education and wanted her to stay at home. She also said that she did not have another female leader to look up to. Despite the surroundings, she got an education, worked hard, and was motivated to succeed after graduation.
Two more participants explained that their hard work motivated them, which in turn made other leaders and followers notice them and they got promoted. Participant 2 said: “(…) my hard work and high motivation led me here.”. The essence in this type of answers was that their decision to work hard in all situation leads them to leadership positions.
The third type of answer was the participant that was motivated to become leaders to demonstrate female capacity, they wanted to show that Cambodian females can be leaders. Several of the women had a background of working in places where there were only male leaders, and some of the women also reported about a childhood where there were no women who were leaders. The interviewed women wanted to challenge the stereotypical image that females are not supposed to be leaders. This created a motivation to be different and show that women can be leaders in the Cambodian society. Participant 2 explained: “After graduation, I realized that I wanted to prove to the people that the woman can also do the same things as the man, that women also can be leaders”. Two other participants were also motivated to be a leader to show everyone that females can be leaders. Participant 4 said: “It comes from my inside, I just want to be different from the other people, I wanted to show my family that everyone can be a leader, even females, a lady or whatever.”
What positive experience do the women have of being in a leadership role?
Most of the interviewed women expressed that they had a positive experience of being a leader, but it was seen that the women had different types of positive experiences. In our data we could identify three different types of answers regarding the positive experiences of being a leader. The first type of answer is about work and success, the second type of answer is the benefits of being a female leader, and the third is about the challenges.
Several of the interviewed women expressed that work and success was a source for their positive experiences. Their positive experiences of being in a leadership role came from their work as a leader and the feeling of success. Success for the participant was about being seen, respected, reputable and getting positive feedback for the work they have done as a (female) leader. Some of the participants mean that the road to becoming a female leader is burdensome but being in a leadership position as a female is regarded as successful. Participant 4 said: “When we become a leader, socially we have more responsibility. The road to the leader position it's a really hard time, but when you are in a leadership position it's very successful”. The common factor in this type of answers were that their admirable work as a leader lead to success. Which created positive experiences.
The second type of answers are similar to the above but regards the type of positive experience the participants talked about in terms of the benefits of being a female leader. Therefore, these types of answers dealt more with positives experiences related to gender and being a woman. Some argued, for example, that their gender has created positive experiences as a leader because they felt that the followers and other leaders appreciated a female leader more in some situations. Several of the women said that females are more effective, flexible, and better at working in teams.
Participant 1 said: “I don't think a man can do everything by himself, often if they can’t they don't ask for help, I think many women finish faster than males and can ask for help better.” Some of the participants expressed that they were better communicators than males, that women are better in understanding people and that the women as a leader take time to listen to the employees and get to know them more personally because they make time for it. In this sense, expressions regarding these types of positive experiences related to both their own opinions of how being a female leader since this gave them positive feedback from others, but also that they themselves believe that they in different ways are better than men and that this is in itself a cherished positive experience.
The third type of answer was the participant that meant that positive experience comes from challenges in their work. Several of the participants expressed that it can be difficult being in a leadership position as a female, that they meet more challenges than their male counterpart. The participants saw the challenges as something positive, for them, it was an opportunity to grow and become a better leader. Participant 2 expressed: “Challenges are opportunities, I am welcoming those challenges and see them as opportunities.”. The main characteristics of the women's answers was that they did not see challenges as something negative but instead as driving force for their development.
What factors are regarded as important for the women to be a successful leader?
The participants were asked what they thought was the most important factors for women to succeed as a leader in Cambodia. Two types of answers were established from the data. The first type of answer was participants that thought family background & education were important factors to succeed as a leader. The second type of answer was that confidence is important for women to succeed.
The first type of answer was the participants that thought that family background & education is considered an important factor for women to be a successful leader. One important aspect of becoming a successful leader deals with how some of the women described the significance of the family background since this was a key issue to have the ability to receive an education. Besides the
importance of having a proper education, meaning education from university and preferably a master or Doctor of Philosophy. The participants also talked about the importance of the family background in terms of money and power. Having money and power makes it easier to first attain education from university and second, to advance in an organizational setting. All except one of the participants did have family members that held top positions. Some of the participants said that a family background with money and power make it easier to become a leader, for example,
Participant 4 said: “A family background with power makes it easier. That one that doesn't have a family background with power needs to work much harder.” One other participant explained that the family background is a reason why fewer females could achieve leadership roles because of the lack of education, she stated:
If the family does not have enough money, they decided that the boy/male should go to the university, the girls should be home taking care of the household. Then the girl cannot study at a higher level, it's different there is no equality between the genders. (Participant 5) Family background was regarded as a prerequisite for education in most cases. Besides that, some of the participants mean that higher education helped them gain knowledge. Some of the
participants expressed that education is the single biggest factor for their leadership. All the participants hold a minimum of one master’s degree, two had two master’s degrees, and two had a Doctor of Philosophy.
The second type of answer was the participant that considered confidence as important for women to be successful leaders. Several participants mentioned confidence as an important factor to succeed, and they expressed that as a woman you must believe in yourself and have the confidence to succeed and become a leader. One participant discussed confidence and goal-setting:
I think that the woman herself should have confidence in knowing what she truly wants, where she wants to go or be, and how to reach that. The mindset and commitment to achieve her goals are also very important. (participant 7)
Several of the participants expressed that experience is an important factor to gain confidence. You must have lifelong learning and practice. The more you learn and experience the more confidence you grow. Most of the participants said that they must work hard, always learn new things, and grow in their role as a leader and gain confidence. Some of the participants explained that males are considered to be a natural leader by society, instead, women need to work for it. Women need to work hard and gain experience to boost their confidence, and they need to have great confidence in themselves to become a leader as a female. Participant 6 expressed: “A lot of men are leaders because of their nature and the women have to build that confidence as well.
Do the women experience any barriers, and if so which?
All interviewed women had experienced barriers in their leadership role. We identified three types of barriers in our data. The first one is traditional values, the second is higher demands, and the third is personal factors.
The first type of answer and the most apparent barrier was traditional values related to gender, that entails the difficulties for the women to balance family and work, and the demanding responsibility she has over the family. A woman with a newly started company explained that she doesn’t see herself as a good mother if she is not home with the children, participant 4: “Like today we had to get up early for a meeting, every week and you know you have to keep your daughter away. Sometimes you don't have time to be a good mother in the family.” Another said she is facing challenges every day because of the traditional values:
It's not very easy to get this position as a woman and I meet challenges, and problems and resistance every day, one of the hardest things is to balance family and work-life as a woman, women need to pay more attention to the family. Men do not have the same problem they can focus more on work and less on the family. (Participant 2)
The traditional values also make the leaders, often men and followers, not to trust that a woman can lead. Because of the traditional values, the women need to prove that they are fit for leading, trustworthy, and have a focus on the work, a woman narrated:
It is not easy to win people's confidence and build trust. It’s hard to be a woman and a leader when it is mostly men underneath, sometimes in our culture, people think that women should do the housework. This makes it harder because for people in a leadership role because men do not believe we can do it and it's not easy to show that we can do it.
(Participant 1)
Men and women still cannot see and trust women as a leader because of the traditional view on females as someone that should be taking care of the household. Participant 1 said: “Today women can get higher education and get good work, but people still see the women as someone that should stay home and do the housework.” For Participant 2 it is harder to give an assignment to women because she knows that she also has housework to do and said: "When you give a work assignment to women and men, it is more difficult for women because they also have to do the housework.". To do more work and take care of the household creates no time for personal life. Participant 3 said that women are missing out on opportunities to network and therefore lose the chance to build business relationships. Because of the traditional values, she explained that Cambodia society has limitations for women to go out at night than some others (like men), they are missing out on opportunities. The difficulties of not be able to go out at night set limitation on women’s opportunities to meet possible customers, business partners or participate in business events.
Women only have the day to do business publicly while men can meet and do business late.
Further, the physical appearance as women and the age does not fit into the traditional view of a leader, half of the participants express that it creates a barrier, especially among older men.
Participant 1 says: “I often get comments like ‘you do not look like a leader’, or ‘you are so young, you just graduated how can I trust you?”. Two other participants blame prejudices and stereotypes about women as a leader and those females do not have the capacity to be a leader, participant 5: “They think that women can’t do anything, they think that women have a small brain. Men don't say that, but they are thinking it, maybe the women aren't that smart enough or clever, it is very hard.” The traditional values are the foundation of the stereotypes that the women are facing, that they are not made for leading, participant 7 expressed:
For the external factors, I think that women are still stereotyped as weaker compared to men and some individuals would associate leadership to masculinity. Moreover, as
women are still underrepresented in a leadership position, that could be discouraging for women. (Participant 7)
Most of the participants expressed that they also experience higher demands, the second type of answer. The participant said that they need more education and that they must work more and harder to attain a leadership position. Participant 1 said: “Women and men are not given equal opportunities. If a woman wants to become a leader, she must have very high education, it's not the same for men”. It's also higher demands for females to get financing, participants 3 said:
“There is a lot of problems because of the finances, it’s harder for women.”
Participant 2 said, one barrier is that women need to be perfect in everything: “For females, it is more complicated, it becomes harder, and they need to be perfect in all fields.”. But it is not always taken positively if women succeed, a participant explained a double edge sword, that if you fail, it is because you are a women and if you succeed it is because you don’t care about your family. You have higher demands to perform well but you are not entitled to your success. One participant explained:
People do not give that much value to a female leader. If a female leader succeeds, people say that she takes pride in herself and does not care about the family. When she fails, people say that all females cannot lead for a long time. (Participant 2)
In the third type of answers, personal factors the participants expressed that lack of motivation, self-confidence and belief in herself can become barriers for women to reach leadership.
Participant 2 said: “The most important thing is that a woman to believe in herself, she must have the knowledge and education to be a leader and believe in herself”. To not have a belief in herself creates a barrier. One other participant expressed another type of barrier, the lack of leading women as mentors and role models. More female mentors and role models could make more females see themselves as possible leaders: “Women are still underrepresented in a leadership position, this could be discouraging for the women”. (Participant 6). The essence of this barrier was that the lack of belief in herself and motivation staggered the process of becoming a leader. A woman expressed that the personal factors are crucial for a female to become a leader, she said:
I think that the personal factors which concern the ability, work experience, qualification, personality, and commitment of the women themselves would be very important
determinants of whether women can become leaders. (Participant 7)
What leadership strategies do the women use?
The participant used different leadership strategies, the women thought that it was difficult to put down in words of what kind of leader they were, but we could identify three different types of leadership strategies in our data. The first type of answer was that the participant thought they use a team building and guidance strategy. The second type of answer was that the participant used a strict and result focused strategy, and the third type of answer was that the participant thought that they had a motivation and visionary leadership strategy.
In the first type of answer, the participants talked about a team-building and guidance leadership strategy. Several of the participants explained that teamwork and guiding their employees is important for them to succeed. The participants mean that the most important factor for a leader is that the person can get people to work together and to work as a team. One participant
explained:
Being a leader is not easy, being a leader is a person that must deal with many people, different behavior, different mindset, everything is different. So, a leader is not doing things alone, you can't succeed without a team. You have to make the team work together.
(Participant 4)
Some of the participants believe that it can sometimes be difficult to get all individuals to work together. Once you have achieved creating a team, the work becomes more effective and successful.
It is not only vital to get the group together, it is as vital for the leader to realize that you are a part of the team, working and striving towards the same goal, not a separate entity. Participant 1 explained: “My leadership is about pulling everyone together, I cannot use my power alone, I respect others.” The participants also talked about the importance of coordinating their employees.
By setting clear goals and helping and pushing their employees along the way, they develop their employees but also create a better team spirit. Participant 6 said: “I’m a good coordinator, to make teamwork together is to let them know their role and their responsibility related to the work. I commit to the leadership by being authentic, trustworthy, kind, and persistent.”
Several of the participants also talked about being a guiding leader, like a teacher that wants to teach the employer's as much as she can. For example, participant 5 said: “As a leader, I teach people, I train people from the beginning to finish”. According to the interviewed women it is affecting the team-work in a positive way, because they are building a relationship with each of the employers, learning from each other and sharing experiences. To build the relationship many of the participants said that they had to be flexible in their leadership style, that they must adapt their leadership style to each person.
In the second type of answer, some of the participants talked about a strict and result-focused leadership strategy. The participants explained that their leadership was about creating structure and clarity by being strict and clear. They wanted to build trust with their employees and wanted them to trust the leader. They were clear in pointing out that if they want something in work to be
