B A C H E L O R T H E S I S
Corporate Visual Identity
The Communicational Role of The Brand Name and The Logo
Nadihezda Silva-Rojas Stephen Roast
Luleå University of Technology Bachelor thesis
Industrial marketing
Department of Business Administration and Social Sciences Division of Industrial marketing and e-commerce
2006:102 - ISSN: 1402-1773 - ISRN: LTU-CUPP--06/102--SE
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To write our Bachelor Thesis has been a very challenging, but interesting ten weeks of hard work and co-operation. We would like to thank our supervisor, Tim Foster for all his assistance, as well as Karin Jonsson Bodin, the Information Manager of Polarbröd AB for taking the time to support our study and participate in an interview to share valuable information in our research area. We would also like to thank our families for understanding the time and effort that writing this thesis has taken.
Luleå, May 2006
Nadihezda Silva-Rojas Stephen Roast
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ABSTRACT
Branding has become a very instrumental way for organizations to communicate to the customer in today’s competitive business environment. This means of communication has strategic advantages in creating association, values and differentiation for a corporation in the long run. The purpose of this study is to provide a better understanding of how corporate visual identity is developed in organizations. Corporate visual identity, consisting of the five elements of name, logo, typography, colour and slogan, is a reputable method of generating identification for an organization and through this communication a desired image can be established. However, due to time limitations and the magnitude of this research area, this study focuses on arguably the two most recognizable elements of corporate identity and the research questions engage in how the brand name and the logo can be described. A literature review was conducted based on the two research questions, which resulted in a conceptual framework that supported the data collection. A qualitative, single case study methodology was applied for this investigation, with the primary data collected from a focused telephone interview with the Information Manager of the Swedish company Polarbröd AB. The results indicate that the brand name’s association and meaning are of significant importance and that an unfamiliar brand name can operate in a foreign market when it has the advantage of appealing to customers. The findings also showed that the logo is considered to represent communicational investment, as its image takes a very long time to build and that maintaining recognition and familiarity is essential for an established logo.
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SAMMANFATTNING
Varumärkes byggande har blivit ett väldigt instrumentalt sätt för organisationer att kommunicera med konsumenten i dagens konkurrenskraftiga affärsvärld. Detta sätt att kommunicera har strategiska fördelar när det gäller att skapa associationer, värdegrund och differentiering för ett företag på lång sikt. Syftet med denna studie är att uppnå bättre förståelse hur företags visuella identitet utvecklas i organisationen. Företags visuella identitet, bestående av fem delar av namn, logo, typografi, färg och slogan, är en ansedd metod för att generera identifikation för en organisation och genom denna kommunikation kan en önskad image etableras. Emellertid, på grund av tidsbegränsning och den stora omfattningen av forskningsområdet, kommer denna studie att fokusera på de två eventuellt mest välkända delarna av företagsidentitet och forskningsfrågorna upptar hur varumärkets namn och logon kan beskrivas. En litteraturöversikt utfördes, baserad på de två forskningsfrågorna vilket resulterade i en teoretisk referensram som assisterade vid datainsamlingen. En kvalitativ fallstudie inom metodologi användes vid undersökningen tillsammans med primär data från en telefonintervju med informationschefen vid det svenskägda företaget Polarbröd AB.
Resultaten indikerar att association och betydelse av varumärkets namn är av stor vikt och att ett okänt varunamn kan operera i en främmande marknad när den har fördelen att tilltala konsumenten. Resultaten visar också att logon är betraktad som en kommunikativ investering eftersom dess image tar lång tid att bygga upp och att bibehålla igenkännande och förtrolighet är nödvändigt för en etablerad logo.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ... 1
1.1 BACKGROUND... 1
1.2 PROBLEMDISCUSSION... 3
1.3 PURPOSEANDRESEARCHQUESTIONS ... 5
1.4 DEMARCATIONS ... 5
1.5 OUTLINEOFTHETHESIS... 5
2 LITERATURE REVIEW ... 7
2.1 THENAME... 7
2.1.1 The Brand Naming Process... 7
2.1.2 The Brand Naming Criteria... 9
2.2 THELOGO ... 11
2.3 CONCEPTUALFRAMEWORK... 18
2.3.1 Conceptualization - The Brand Name ... 19
2.3.2 Conceptualization - The Logo... 19
3 METHODOLOGY ... 21
3.1 RESEARCHPURPOSE... 21
3.2 RESEARCHAPPROACH... 22
3.3 RESEARCHSTRATEGY ... 22
3.4 DATACOLLECTIONMETHOD ... 22
3.5 SAMPLESELECTION... 23
3.6 DATAANALYSIS ... 23
3.7 QUALITYSTANDARDS ... 24
4 EMPIRICAL DATA ... 27
4.1 THEBRANDNAME... 27
4.2 THELOGO ... 30
5 DATA ANALYSIS ... 34
5.1 THEBRANDNAME... 34
5.2 THELOGO ... 36
6 FINDINGS AND IMPLICATIONS ... 40
6.1 HOWCANTHEBRANDNAMEBEDESCRIBED? ... 40
6.2 HOWCANTHELOGOBEDESCRIBED? ... 42
6.3 IMPLICATIONS... 44
6.3.1 Implications for practitioners ... 44
6.3.2 Implications for theory ... 45
6.3.3 Implications for further research ... 45
REFERENCE LIST ... 46
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APPENDICES
APPENDIXA: INTERVIEWGUIDE–ENGLISH APPENDIXB: INTERVIEWGUIDE–SWEDISH APPENDIXC: INTERVIEWREQUEST
APPENDIXD: ORIGINALPOLARBRÖDEMBLEM
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1.1 Operational model for managing corporate reputation and image ... 3
FIGURE 1.2 Outline of the thesis ... 6
FIGURE 2.1 The brand naming process ... 8
FIGURE 3.1 Methodology issues for your thesis ... 21
FIGURE 4.1 Polarbröd’s Logo ... 30
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 2.1 The brand naming criteria ... 9TABLE 2.3 Summary of Design Guidelines ... 15
TABLE 5.1 The Brand Name ... 36
TABLE 5.2 The Logo ... 39
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1. INTRODUCTION
In this first chapter, the background will present the concept of brands and branding for an organization. A problem discussion will then follow describing the importance of a brand name and logo to a corporation. Finally, the purpose and the research questions of this investigation will be identified.
1.1 BACKGROUND
Rooney (1995) highlights the fact that brands and branding are not recent concepts; however, companies are expanding their usage to many different situations, as these strategic methods are becoming more popular. Branding, as he goes on to mention, is a means to construct long term differential advantage, as customers are unwilling to replace a familiar brand that they are comfortable with. In today’s competitive and unpredictable business environment, Calderón, Cervera and Mollá (1997) claim that brands are the best asset a firm can posses, as added-value and long-term association can be achieved by a company with its customers.
Balmer and Gray (2003), as well as Simões and Dibb (2001) even clarify that corporate brands have a many benefits to appreciate, such as communicating brand values, differentiation from competitors and increased admiration and loyalty to the company.
Prendergast, Ng and Leung (2001) comment that a brand can contain up to four implications;
attributes, benefits, values and personality. Brand management and marketing activities should be a part of strategic policies, as Grace and O’Cass (2002), furthermore Calderón et al.
(1997) highlight the importance of brand value, loyalty and appeal and profit. By creating value, image, prestige or lifestyle, Rooney (1995) explains that companies can acquire and preserve customers.
Balmer and Gray (2003) explain that there are certain aspects associated with corporate branding and to branding in general, with brands deemed as marks representing ownership, image-building procedures, symbols linked with key values, measures by which to construct individual identities and a channel by which satisfying experiences can be consumed. Davis (2002) describes how a brand is as valuable to a company as the human and financial resources, and that a brand requires continual development and fostering, in order to meet customer expectations.
Calderón et al. (1997) define how branding has become key issue for the organization and the customer. Marketing management, as they clarify, unites the firm with the customer, in terms of the market needs. According to Schreuer (2000), successful brand building depends on the association and the acquired contact of the company to the consumer. Brand development has become of great concern to many organizations, as Schreuer (2000) states that a company’s individuality is needed to be shaped in a market in order to compete in the long run. Simões and Dibb (2001) shed light on how organizations must produce exclusive features, which should be focused upon in order to stand out from competitors and to confront customer expectations for the company and their offerings. Jevons, Gabbot and de Chernatony (2005) declare that brand associations have proved to be sufficient for a brand to be understood by the positioning in the minds of customer groups, due to the influence of people, places and occasions that are considered to be linked to the brand.
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Hatch and Schultz (2003) acknowledge that previous studies have shown that a strong corporate brand has a considerable role in encouraging customer outlook of existing and new product varieties. The latest investigations reveal that brands can be applied in numerous styles, as Schroeder (2005) declares that by rethinking the branding practices and focusing on the reactions of customers will confirm the significance of branding. Branding, according to Fatt (1997), is a message that identifies competence, standard and image to consumers. He expresses that branding conveys a knowing and trust towards the customer, therefore research on people’s preferences are of great importance to present and future customers. Jevons et al.
(2005) comment on how brands link the company to the customer in many diverse ways, although the focus of each is the main attribute in the relationship between them.
The customer and not the organization verify brand value, as Calderón et al. (1997) conclude that a brand creates a far superior image and greater profit margin for a company, than just a product. By reason of the competitiveness and technological pressures of today’s market, Melewar and Saunders (1998) state that consumers purchase company products that appeal and inspire the most. Simões and Dibb (2001) mention how brands identify with the customer in both a psychologically and physically manner, with the acknowledgement that consumers currently purchase brands and not products. Wei (2002) explains that an organization requires both an identity and an image, as identity describes the evidence of who you are, but an image notably portrays your appearance and performance to others.
Simões and Dibb (2001) describe how a reliable identity is essential in order to convey a consistent image for the internal and external environments surrounding the organization, with branding entailing an influential role. Corporate identity, as discussed by Melewar and Saunders (1998), consists of an organizational structure, concentrating on publication and reporting tasks, as well as a visual structure that focuses on the company’s branding operations. Identity is, according to Gray and Balmer (1998) how an organization is perceived through the both official and informal sources of corporate communications by the organization’s internal and external surroundings. Corporate identity as they point out, basically describes the company’s unique characteristics. For corporate brand management to project a distinctive identity for the organization, Balmer and Gray (2003) highlight the need to focus and combine actual and desired company characteristics.
Brand personality as illustrated by Aaker (1997), concentrates on the human characteristics connected with a brand, which a customer can relate to on a personal level. Aaker explains how a brand personality has both a representative and self expressive nature for the customer.
According to Fatt (1997) a brand personality must never be altered, so as to attain a stable meaning to the customer. Aaker (1997) and Fatt (1997) expose how the advertising of brand personalities has an impact, as well as a long lasting impression on customers and their lifestyles. Harris and Fleming (2005) state that the developing of a brand personality is crucial in today’s business environment as most service offerings are intangible. They go on to mention how a brand personality has prominently featured in marketing operations, so as to generate a positive image to targeted customers.
Brand images, as mentioned by Porter and Claycomb (1997), influence the determinations of the company and the buying activities of the consumer. They add that a reputable and established brand image can be considered a treasured benefit, involving tactical and competitive advantages for the company. According to Gray and Balmer (1998), corporate image is based on two elements, the intended image of the organization and the structuring of a positive influence to key stakeholders. The past and the future are according to Hatch and
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Schultz (2003), important to corporate brands, as customs and traditions as well as upcoming strategic decisions, help to demonstrate the purpose of the brand. Hatch and Schultz (2003) point out that the corporate brand is based upon the images of the organization to the customer, as well as those created by the stakeholders, including employees, customers, investors, suppliers, partners, regulators, special interests and local communities. The influences on the internal and external environment, plus the market success of an organization are fundamental for describing corporate image (Melewar and Saunders, 1998).
Gray and Balmer, (1998) moreover Daffey and Abrott (2002), express that explanation of acquiring a positive image and status is due to the supervision of a company’s identity. Pina, Martinez, de Chernatony and Drury (2006) acknowledges the corporate image as a vital feature that organizations must attain, in order to accomplish customer satisfaction and loyalty to help improve sales. Management, according to Gray and Balmer (1998), have engaged the responsibility of corporate image and reputation, as a result of the modern competitive environment, instead of public relations departments and design experts as in the past. They highlight that managing corporate identity, communication, image and reputation can be found in the operational model (see figure 1.1).
FIGURE 1.1 Operational model for managing corporate reputation and image Source: Gray and Balmer (1998), p. 696.
When creating a corporate image, Pina et al. (2006) describe how business communication channels are the key elements, as corporate identity assists to support a company’s status. Van den Bosch, De Jong, and Elving (2005) comment that corporate branding and corporate communication are practiced methods to create corporate reputation. An established reputation involves a dependable identity over many years, whereas a strong image as highlighted by Gray and Balmer (1998) can be formed with a communication system, consisting of name, logo, signage, advertising and public relations.
1.2 PROBLEM DISCUSSION
According to Van den Bosch, et al (2005), the corporate visual identity is a beginning to creating a corporate reputation and has a definite impact on a company’s performance.
Balmer and Gray (2003) describe how a corporate brand is almost impossible to copy, as corporate visual identities are patented and the central essence of the brand is intangible. A brand, as highlighted by Van den Bosch et al. (2005) is a visible feature that a customer has the ability to notice and remember. They describe that a corporate visual identity can aid a brand by supporting a company’s operations, which in turn helps to enhance trust and diminish uncertainty.
CORPORATE
IDENTITY COMPETITIVE
ADVANTAGE
CORPORATE COMMUNICATION
CORPORATE IMAGE AND CORPORATE REPUTATION Through creates
Can lead to
Feedback Feedback
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Corporate Visual Identity System (CVIS), as Melewar and Saunders (1998) point out, is a major factor surrounding corporate identity, which increases the awareness of the company’s capabilities, strengths, products, services and exclusivity. Corporate visual identity is a planned image that is a key tangible asset for a company (Van den Bosch et al. 2005).
Schroeder (2005) illustrates that brands are naturally visual, with the application of logos, product design, packaging, brand identity and brand advertising fashioned to produce unique brand images. Melewar and Saunders (1998) highlight CVIS as the focus of an organization’s proposed image, with name, symbol and/or logotype, typography, colour and slogan being the five components. Prendergast et al. (2001) describe that a brand is a name, sign, symbol or design, or a mixture of these, which expresses a distinct message and quality from the organization to the customer. Words, as described by Fatt (1997) can be employed to build images for the organization and the customer. He also states that both words and pictures have the ability to reinforce a message, with both needed so as to convey a clearer visual statement.
Grace and O’Cass (2002) reflect on the importance of the actual brand name, stating that it expresses a confidence to the consumer, as well as providing the value that can reduce risk.
Bristow, Schreider and Schuler (2002), as well as Saunders and Guoqun (1997) illuminate the importance of a corporate name, stating that the value and association with a name is more than promotional costs. A good brand name can save millions of dollars to a product’s life, as it has its own meaning, is immediately identifiable and expresses its attributes, which leads to a strong competitive advantage (Chan and Huang, 1997). According to Davies (1998), simple recognition or branding can be used in the naming of a product, although with a brand name a greater loyalty and significance is experienced by the consumer. A brand name, as stated by Jiang (2004), is a fundamental factor when communicating to the customer. He found that when knowing a products quality, the customer uses the brand name to identify the product between different brands. Gray and Balmer (1998) clarify that names are fundamentally applied to brands and classify the corporate identity. Jiang (2004), moreover Bristow et al.
(2002) suggests that the actual brand name reflects the list of qualities and traits which symbolize an organization to the consumer. Prendergast et al. (2001) explain that brand names are the foundation of distinction for an organization, and continue to add that customers buy brand names at any cost. Brand value, good or bad, is the quality and accountability associated to the brand’s name and symbol, due to the fact that a product or service is experienced by the customer (Calderón et al., 1997)
Van den Bosch et al (2005), furthermore Gray and Balmer (1998) recognize that a logo describes the identity of a corporation; it symbolizes their purpose, however, managers must ensure to communicate this in a consistent manner, as it connects the organization to the market. The logo is the key feature of a corporate graphic design system, which unlike a name, can be cleverly be adapted to the development of a company’s identity (Gray and Balmer, 1998). Van den Bosch et al. (2005) illustrate that a corporate logo or symbol can clarify a company’s features and qualities, and can also be associated with the organizations roots. They go onto mention that the uniqueness of a logo demands a special creativity, which also has to support the company’s strategy. A logo, as highlighted by Van den Bosch et al.
(2005) is a means of creating differentiation for an organization, by appealing to and attracting customers in a recognized way. The logo communicates the existence of a company, but it also has the capacity to represent a company’s image (ibid).
Corporate communication, as illustrated by Gray and Balmer (1998) is the vital component which ties corporate identity with the corporate image and reputation, as it influences the reflection to all important stakeholders of an organization. They state that the manner and the
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channels of corporate communication should be apparent at all times, as the internal and external environment of an organization is manipulated in various ways. Gray and Balmer (1998) also highlight that the customer’s mental picture creates a corporate image, as the identification of a company’s name and logo shape expectations. Personality, according to Aaker (1997), can also be linked to a brand, through name, symbol or logo, promotional methods, price and distribution. Calderón et al. (1997) argue that the brand name is the most important feature for most organizations, for competitive and economical reasoning. Wei (2002) explains how major organizations spend millions of dollars on finding the right brand name and designing logos, with the intention of attracting consumers and generating the correct corporate image. MacInnis, Shapiro and Mani (1999) describe how brand names and symbols signify effective communication tools. As stated by Fatt (1997), the name, symbol and logo are the most recognizable elements of corporate identity. He adds that the designs of these visible components are treated seriously, as first impressions affect a company’s image.
1.3 PURPOSE AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The purpose of this investigation is to provide a better understanding of how corporate visual identity is developed in organizations.
In order to achieve our stated purpose, the following research questions will be addressed:
RQ 1. How can the brand name be described?
RQ 2. How can the logo be described?
1.4 DEMARCATIONS
The corporate visual identity system as mentioned in the problem discussion consists of five elements. However, for our study we are only focusing on two of them, the name and the logo. This enabled us to attain a better understanding and a more focused analyse in our time- restricted study of a large, complex research area.
1.5 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS
The study consists of six chapters and we will briefly explain the contents of each chapter.
Chapter one begins with the background, which is followed by the problem discussion that presents the research area and the research questions. The chapter concludes with the demarcation of our study. Chapter two describes the literature and the theory which is associated to our research questions and thereafter a conceptual framework is selected to support us in our study. Chapter three illustrates the methodology and how the data was obtained for our thesis. In chapter four, the collected empirical data is presented, which is then analyzed in comparison to the conceptual framework in chapter five. Finally, chapter six highlights the findings and implications assessed in our research. The outline of the thesis is shown on the next page in figure 1.2.
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FIGURE 1.2 Outline of the thesis
CHAPTER 4 Empirical
Data CHAPTER 2
Literature Review
CHAPTER 3 Methodology
CHAPTER 5 Data Analysis
CHAPTER 6 Findings and Implications CHAPTER 1
Introduction
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2 LITERATURE REVIEW
The purpose of this chapter is to establish a theoretical outline. Firstly, the presentation of the brand name is described, which is followed by how the logo is described in order to establish corporate visual identity. Finally, a conceptual framework is presented at the end of this chapter.
2.1 THE NAME
Regarding the first research question of describing the brand name, we begin with a theory which describes the brand naming process. Thereafter, we highlight three theories that focus on the brand naming criteria.
2.1.1 The Brand Naming Process
According to Kohli and LaBahn (1997) the selection of a brand name is crucial, due to attracting of customers and the effect it can have on profits. Organizations, as mentioned by Kohli and LaBahn (1997) have recognized that a meticulous and structured brand name can provide great benefits, including advantages that enhance the competitive side of a company, however, they illustrate that creating a brand name is a very demanding assignment. The authors explain that very few investigations have been conducted to describe the process for creating brand names and with the help of three previous studies mentioned in their study, McNeal and Zeren (1981), Shipley, Hooley and Wallace (1988) and Shipley and Howard (1993), Kohli and LaBahn (1997) have constructed a five- step brand naming process.
Step One: Specifying the objectives of branding
Specifying the objectives of branding is the first step of the brand naming process, which should mainly focus on the proposed positioning, which includes reflecting on the image, competition and target market.
Here, it is highlighted that branding can be seen to have a greater relevance to consumer- goods companies, as the name and advertising is believed to larger impact to the customer.
Step Two: Creation of Candidate Brand Names
It is understood that around 46 names are formed during every naming project, through reliable methods such as creative thinking and brainstorming. Outside agencies, for example, advertising and marketing research firms are also a popular means to creating a name. While employees, customers and computer software are considered less frequent alternatives for supplying ideas for names Moreover, the authors comment on the possibility of acquiring an existing name from another company.
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As stated in the first stage, name association is very significant to the product in terms of intended personality and positioning, so the projected image and appeal is very important.
However, memorable, recognizable and easy to remember are also illustrated as key factors for the suggested name. It is at this time of the process that trademark registration becomes a serious issue.
Step Four: Choice of a Brand Name
Once again the considered branding objectives play a principal role for the final choice of the brand name. So a thorough approach to the purpose and characteristics of the intended brand name must be applied at this stage.
Step Five: Trademark Registration
The proposed names are then graded and submitted for a trademark search. Nevertheless, trademark registrations should not limit the creating and selecting of a desirable brand name.
Four to five suggested names are considered necessary for trademark selection at this last stage of the process, in order to assure a final registered brand name.
Figure 2.1 illustrates the five-step brand naming process according to Kohli and LaBahn (1997).
FIGURE 2.1 The brand naming process Source: Kohli and LaBahn (1997), 69.
Specifying the Objectives of Branding
Creation of Candidate Brand Names
Evaluation of Candidate Brand names
Choice of a Brand Name
Trademark Registration
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2.1.2 The Brand Naming Criteria
Chan and Huang (1997) describe branding as a means to identify a product or service. They go on to clarify the importance of the brand name for promotional operations and the relationship towards the customer. Chan and Huang (1997) emphasize that branding research concentrate on the criteria and conditions for creating successful brand names. The authors state that the criteria needed for choosing a top-quality brand name differs from researcher to researcher, and highlight in their study that Collins (1977) mentioned six conditions, McNeal and Zeren (1981) named 13 features, McCarthy and Perreault (1987) proposed 12 factors, while Kotler and Armstrong (1997) recommended five aspects for the choosing of a successful brand name. Chan and Huang (1997) have investigated and compared each of the suggested criteria and recognized that there is inconsistency and similarities between them.
The aforementioned criteria, except for Collins, are revealed as follows:
TABLE 2.1 The brand naming criteria
McNeal and Zeren’s McCarthy and Perreault’s Kotler and Armstrong´s
1 descriptive of product benefits;
2 memorable;
3 fit with company Image and other products’ image;
4 trademark available;
5 promotable and advertisable;
6 uniqueness versus competition;
7 length;
8 ease of pronunciation;
9 Positive connotations to potential users;
10 suited to package;
11 modern or contemporary;
12 understandable:
13 persuasive.
1 short and simple;
2 easy to spell and read;
3 easy to recognize and remember;
4 pleasing when read or heard – and easy to pronounce;
5 pronounceable in only one way;
6 pronounceable in all languages (for goods to be exported)
7 always timely (does not get out of date);
8 adaptable to packaging or labelling needs;
9 legally available for use (not in use by another firm);
10 not offensive, obscene, or negative;
11 suggestive of product benefits;
12 Adaptable to any advertising medium.
1 suggest something about the product’s benefits and qualities.
2 easy to pronounce, recognize, and remember.
3 distinctive.
4 translate easily into foreign languages.
5 capable of registration and legal protection.
Source: Adapted from Chan and Huang (1997), p. 228.
Taking their results into consideration, Chan and Huang (1997) constructed a three component criteria (marketing, legal and linguistic) that they consider essential for the development of a good brand name. This criteria is as follows:
The Marketing Component
The aim is to be able to promote products and services in a desirable manner to the targeted audience. Therefore the focus must be placed on capably endorsing the advantages and
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attributes of the product, plus the fact that these operations must also align with the image of the company.
The Legal Component
A brand name must be legally registered, as well as protected, so as not to be modified and replicated by competitors.
The Linguistic Component
The language and pronunciation are considered to be the core and fundamental ingredients in branding, in particular for exporting motives. The brand name should be positive, pleasant to read and hear, as well as modern and familiar, but also timely in order to be understandable, memorable and easily recognized so as to increase awareness. Plus, the length of a brand name is also important factor to analyze. This affects the syllables, words and phrases which can be applied to the marketing activities and also the legal protection of a brand name.
Turley and Moore (1995) illustrate that a brand is a way of identifying the goods and services of a company. They add that the primary concern for a company is the brand name selection.
The authors claim that due to the diversity of services and service deliveries, brand name strategies will be varied. A brand name, as stated by Turley and Moore (1995) can be vocal or verbal and entail words, numbers and letters. They explain the five classifications of a service brand name.
Descriptive brands: this type of brand name describes a major attribute connected with the service, which can be perceived as advantageous to the communication to the customer.
Person-based brands: names of owners, partners or important individuals feature in this form of brand name category. These names are often unique, but may require great marketing efforts to position the service to the customer.
Associative brands: the nature of this kind of branding focuses on fabricated words, or words that usually have no meaning, which creates an identity and has an impact to the consumer through planned promotional activities. This category of brand names is considered the most legally protected.
Geographic brand names: this approach can be employed in many ways, so as to connect with the customer and create competitive advantage. Local or regional names are used to generate familiarity to the audience. A patriotic feel is experienced by the customer as the using of country names in the actual brand name. Distant geographic names can also be employed to project an interesting and exiting image.
Alpha-numeric brand names: this strategy combines the use of letters and numbers, in order to associate and portray the service in the best way possible to the consumer. These names are normally exclusive and easy to officially protect.
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Kohli and Thakor (1997) explain how brand names have become the most important assets for numerous organizations. They continue to describe that branding in a source for competing in a market, which has the ability to influence consumers. The authors express that any image can be generated for any brand name and that marketing activities can help to support brands. Kohli and Thakor (1997), as well as Kohli, Harich and Leuthesser (2004) point out the five particular categories of names specified by the Patent and Trademark Office and employed by the courts to settle trademark rights and infringement cases. Each category, as mentioned in both articles presents different conditions regarding trademark protection and marketing application and they affirm that the level of trademark protection increases as we progress in the given order below. For example, generic names can not be registered whilst coined names are expected to receive the best protection. The five brand name categories are:
Generic: this type of name is the general word used for the product and can not be employed as brand names.
Descriptive: this kind of name supports marketing activities, as it helps to describe the offering, thus creating an image.
Suggestive: this class of name reminds customers of the product’s attributes and also generates an image which can be applied in promotional efforts.
Arbitrary: this style of name is the use of a common term that evidently has no association with the product variety, resulting in considerable advertising in order to appeal to consumers.
Coined: this method of name application involves the using of a fictional word, which is not linked to any offering or product selection, also entails a great deal of marketing so as to create an image.
2.2 THE LOGO
Henderson and Cote (1998) declare that logos are essential communicational assets, which organizations promote at large costs to generate identification, image and connotation. They state that a logo can be perceived as a company’s signature. Henderson and Cote (1998) explain that companies regularly modernize their logos in order to sustain a reputable image, which must represent an organization’s objectives and traditions. According to Henderson and Cote (1998) logos must have these dependant variables in order to asses the response dimension; recognition, affect, meaning and subjective familiarity.
Recognition
As pictures are more evident than words, company logos should be recognized immediately by all means of advertising. This is due to communication to the audience by an organization has its time restrictions. In addition, previous studies have shown that remembering a logo can increase the recognition of a company name. Furthermore, if logo identification is accomplished, protecting the sign from encroachment becomes much easier.
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Logo recognition consists of two elements. Firstly, correct recognition is how the customer remembers a logo. This focuses mainly on design aspect of a logo, which in turn can lead to false recognition – where consumers think that they have observed the logo, when they apparently have not. Secondly, recall must be achieved in order for the customer to be reminded of the brand or company in question.
Affect
Investigations have revealed that associations are made between a logo and a product or company, therefore positive affect responses are essential for the success of a logo and the reflected corporation. The degree of affect depends on whether it is positive or negative, how powerful the influence is and how strongly the logo is linked to the product or company.
Positive influences of a logo can be achieved by first impressions, as well as evolving in time due to greater coverage. However, it must be stated that the general perception of a logo is extremely hard to repress and transform.
Meaning
The objective of logos is to communicate the same misinterpreted, desirable message to the targeted audience. The actual nucleus of the logos meaning as confirmed in semiotic studies, can be assessed for reactions, as codable stimuli comes into focus. This entails the higher the codable stimuli is for a market, the easier it is for a logo to be understood and remembered.
Consequently, the design and attraction are two key attributes for logos in order to enhance communications.
Subjective Familiarity
This reasoning accounts from the connection made by the logo to the consumer, even if it is seen for the first time. Familiarity of a logo can be accomplished from the design to the using of established symbols, resulting in a stronger competitive position, due to a greater positive influence, as well as a superior meaning and image. Familiarity is also known to convey faster responses, which is an important issue for company logos.
Henderson and Cote (1998) also reveal that independent variables are needed to asses the design dimensions of a logo. By combining recognized logo strategy literature and design characteristics highlighted by Dondis (1973), Henderson and Cote (1998) identified the important features for logos and categorized them into six types, natural, harmony, elaborate, parallel, proportion and repetition.
Natural
Natural describes the extent of familiar objects in a representative and organic nature.
Representative illustrates the realism in a design, enhancing familiar meaning and correct recognition. However, a design can be refined to its distinctive characteristic, causing abstraction, which in turn can be judged to be complicated to understand and recognize.
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Natural shapes, consisting of irregular curves are perceived to be of an organic character.
These designs are proposed to imply more meaning, instead of geometric designs that tend to appear less natural and more abstract.
Harmony
Harmony coordinates features, by uniting symmetry and balance to signify a very good design.
Balance suggests that there is a centre and structure to a design and this appearance can be related to symmetry. If a design is considered imbalanced, this is known to be more distressing to viewers.
Symmetric designs generate a positive affect, as well as quicker responses and symmetry is acknowledged as “pattern goodness”, as identical images are found on both sides of a design.
Elaborate
Elaborate is recognized to capture the concept and the essence of a design, which involves complexity, activeness and depth.
Complexity can occur in numerous different design features and in the overall design itself, including the arrangement and the number of components in a logo. A simple logo is believed to be easier to recollect, while complexity should have a created relationship with affect.
Active designs project a sensation of motion or flow and are generally conceived as being more interesting. This flow helps to bring the logo to life; furthermore active designs are related to symmetry, balance and complexity.
Depth is linked to complexity and representative, which is considered to influence recognition and provides the design with perspective or three-dimensional image.
Parallel
Parallel designs possess lines or elements that basically correspond to each other; however, this feature is not associated to any dependant variables.
Proportion
Proportion describes the connection between the horizontal and vertical dimensions, with some proportions just believed to be more appealing than others when applied to logo designs.
Repetition
Repetition implies the features which are similar or identical in sections of a design to one another.
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When considering selection guidelines, the three types of strategic purposes for logos, as mentioned by Henderson and Cote (1998) are high recognition logos, low investment logos and high image logos. They also describe the features associated to poorly designed logos.
High recognition Logos
The aim for this strategy is to have a high correct recognition, low false recognition and a high affect. These logos should be high in naturalness and harmony, reasonably high in elaborateness, repeated elements and used with large quantities of advertising to encourage company recall.
However, there are only small amount of logos, according to Henderson and Cote (1998) that attain all the recommended qualities for this type of strategy. Although they do stress that it is realistic for a logo to posses the three given characteristics. Nevertheless, Henderson and Cote (1998) describe how high correct recognition (correct recognition and affect) can be accomplished in logos in two ways, firstly by creating a design that includes higher than average levels of naturalness, harmony and elaborateness, or secondly by using an exceptionally natural design effect.
Low Investment Logos
This tactic for logos involves the using of false recognition and positive affect. These logos should be low in naturalness, high in harmony, rather high in elaborateness, have parallel lines and a good proportion.
High Image Logos
This logo approach entails using a high positive affect. These logos should be fairly high in elaborateness and naturalness and high in harmony.
Poorly Designed Logos
Poorly designed logos are normally low on correct recognition, affect and meaning, as well as low in naturalness, harmony and elaborateness.
The logo selection/modification process, as described by Henderson and Cote (1998) must start by researching company vision and image. The authors then proceed to illustrate the how the company’s financial ability has a role in designing the company logo. They clarify that logo type and logo symbol are other details that should also be considered. Henderson and Cote (1998) highlight that the next step is for managers to describe these objectives and constraints to the designers and then to finally select a logo after evaluating the received proposals supported by the selection guidelines, as well as the desired response and design dimensions.
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Table 2-2 illustrates the summary of design guidelines according to Henderson and Cote (1998).
TABLE 2.2 Summary of Design Guidelines
Goals Design Guidelines
Correct Recognition
False
Recognition Affect
Familiar
Meaning Natural Harmony Elaborate Parallel Proportion . Repetition
High- Recognition
Logos
Highly
Desirable Undesirable Desirable Desirable High Moderately High
Moderately High
Include Some
Low- Investment
Logos
Not Applicable
Highly Desirable
Highly Desirable
Useful a but not Necessary
Moderate High Moderate High
Moderate High
Close to Golden Section
High- Image Logos
Irrelevant Irrelevant Highly Desirable
Useful a but not Necessary
Moderate
High High High
Poorly Designed
Logos
Fails to Achieve
Fails to Achieve
Fails to Achieve
Fails to
Achieve Very Low Low Overly Low or Overly
High
Source: Henderson and Cote (1998), p. 25.
The guidelines presented by Henderson and Cote (1998) are considered to be fairly flexible, due to the scope of choice surrounding the real meaning of the logo and logo type. They explain how a certain symbol can differ in various design approaches. Henderson and Cote (1998) state that this flexibility is necessary, as managers accept that a particular kind of logo is most suitable for their product or product range, so the modification of a logo is generally deemed a better alternative than designing a new one.
According to Henderson and Cote (1998) correct recognition designed logos differs from false recognition logos and they dispute that the factor surrounding the selection of which to employ is a matter of company resources. A small firm can attain recognition through profound publicity so as to create a false recognition effect, whereas a company with sufficient resources prefers its logo to be correctly recognized and differentiated from competitors through a broad range of promotion. The lack of naturalness, a high harmonious effect or the using of numerous parallel lines contributes to projecting false recognition, as the logo design is believed to be unclear and confusing (ibid).
Henderson and Cote (1998) explain that the best means for achieving a greater affectively pleasing logo is to use rather elaborate, but also quite simple designs. This, as highlighted by the authors, helps to generate a positive reflection, as well as sustaining customer interest, since the use of regular promotional activities is employed by many companies. Natural logos improve affect as they are considered to contain more meaning and more enjoyable to observe. Furthermore, according to Gestalt psychology harmonious designs have the ability to enhance affect, due to symmetry and balance (ibid).
As stated by Henderson and Cote (1998), the dimensions meaning and subjective familiarity are linked, as positive associations are significantly connected to meaning. They mention that familiar meaning can be taken full advantage of by using a distinctive, but straightforward object logo design, which also has a natural and proportioned manner. Moreover, a design with a familiar meaning nature can increase correct recognition (ibid).
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Henderson and Cote (1998) reveal that their research concentrated on symbols and their graphical features, rather than letters or words. They also add that no company named logos were investigated.
According to Kohli, Suri and Thakor (2002), branding helps a company to use its identity to generate an individual image and they mention how the brand name is of great importance, but due to language barriers in the international marketplace, logos are increasingly becoming a major visual means of recognition for an organization. The authors highlight that the role of the logo is to provide identification for a company through its design and can be employed in combination with the name so as to increase recognition speed, as well as also being used as a incentive for the recollection of a brand name. A second reasoning of a logo’s function made by Kohli et al. (2002) is that a logo can replace a name in marketing efforts that are time or space restricted to support brand recognition and provide customers with a positive association and willingness to purchase. They also explain how previous studies acknowledge that graphical images can be quicker and easier to process, as they provide audiences with visual cues.
Kohli et al (2002) state that there are two features of logo design, these are content and style.
Content concentrates on the worded and graphical elements illustrated in a logo, where the style of a logo focuses on how these elements are formed. Earlier investigations, as exposed by the authors declare that logos are recollected quicker when a product category is integrated into the design, while the style of the logo did not. However, they are quick to accept that these findings do not entail that style elements should be ignored, as past studies have also proved that factors and preferences surrounding the style elements are objective and are believed to have the capability to make a difference to customer awareness of a logo.
According to Kohli et al. (2002) design aspects of logos should be based on appropriate and definite marketing goals.
Kohli et al. (2002) speculate if there is really is a need to change or modify a logo as a consistent message and association is the primary purpose of a company logo. Although they do point out several issues to consider the changing or the updating of a logo, for example, a change in company name, to highlight a new objective, design modernization and also by keeping the appeal, as well as interest to viewers alive. The authors stress that in order to establish if a logo is in need of modification, it is essential that they are evaluated over time and also by individuals of various competences, as opinions and assessments are conducted differently by people as a company evolves.
According to Kohli et al. (2002) logo design is recognized as an art rather than a science and taking the aforementioned information into consideration, they have created the following six guidelines for logos.
Choose the image carefully, because it has a profound impact
Creating a strong image is considered to take a great deal of time to assemble and even longer time to discard, so the communication activities of a company, to which a logo is essentially part of, as well as name and slogan, must be well-planned and reflect their intentions and objectives.
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Look at the big picture, and ensure consistency over time and between various elements
In order to create a clearer and more defined picture in the minds of the customer, a consistent message of important elements supporting brand must be employed to enable a successful brand identity and a stronger brand image. The logo is a valuable means of helping this recognition process.
Be careful about what you can and cannot change
It is emphasized that alterations to a logo should be kept to a minimal and that if it is necessary to change a logo, this adjustment can be justified by a branding strategy transformation or due to a modification requirements.
Don’t go with the flavour of the month
The temptation to imitate successful logos is acknowledged as a risk, since marketing strategies and positioning tend to differ from organization to organization. Following the latest trends for logo designs is generally regarded as unattractive and causes uncertainty in the minds of the consumers, thus leading to problems with a company’s distinctiveness in the marketplace and also even with the possibility of conflicting trademark issues.
Be systematic and objective
The designing of logos should compliment the branding strategy and the chosen criteria must therefore be reflected in the selected communicational and promotional efforts, as each logo is unique. Every feature associated with logo design is of immense significance and influences the efficiency and value associating the brand to the customer.
Test logos in the marketplace
Logos should be investigated and assessed by both inexperienced and educated individuals in order for the value of a logo to be completely analyzed. The key to designing a logo that is successfully recognized in the medium to long run by the targeted audience is by testing a logo’s effect through extensive exposure and then reviewing the results.
MacInnis, Shapiro and Mani (1999) highlight the essential function of brand symbols as a means of communication and help to classify brands in their markets by association and positioning. Brand symbols, which are characterized by the authors in their study as signs that reveal both the brand name and its product category, can be employed to pursue marketing activities. They further add that the brand name differentiates the company from the competition and the product category acknowledges the product/service in which the brand competes.
According to MacInnis et al. (1999) there are four dimensions surrounding brand symbols.
The first two are the name and the product category, in regard that these can be pictures and words, just pictures or just words to describe its message to customers. The third dimension focuses on the physical interaction vs. the physical separate of the brand symbol. As stated by
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the authors, physical interaction describes the combining of both the name and product category in a brand symbol, while physical separate brand symbols have name and product category detached from each other. They continue by proclaiming that the fourth element involves the use of brand names that communicate product benefits vs. names that do not, which is of great importance to a company’s promotional activities.
In order to provide a better perspective of the four dimensions of brand symbols, MacInnis, et al. (1999) have also contemplated how the customer processes information regarding the recognition and recall, so as to remember a brand symbol. They claim that the influences of cued recall and recognition to a brand symbol can occur through both incidental and focused memory conditions.
Cued Recall
Cued recall can also be defined as the relational processing, which identifies the connection between two stimuli (the brand and the product category) and how the information is processed, navigated and learned. This method is more favourable to high benefit brand names, due to the image associated to the name and product category and compliments the physical interaction aspects of brand names and product categories, as well as employing the communicating of product benefits in brand symbols. The links found between the product category and the names function as a reminder to the customer and they are essentially the main concern for the identifying of the brand when cued recall is attained.
Recognition
Recognition concentrates on the distinctiveness of the to-be-remembered stimuli, which focuses on the unique specifications of a certain item to increase the accessibility of remembering and can in addition be explained as item-specific processing. This technique supports brand symbols that illustrate pictorial and/or verbal brand names and product categories, as recognition helps the customer to classify and respond to brand symbols through familiarity. Exposure of the brand symbol and the consumer’s capacity to distinguish the name and product category amongst a multitude of other brands are the key factors to successful recognition.
2.3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
As stated by Miles and Huberman (1994), a conceptual framework illustrates, either graphically or in narrative form, the most important factors and their influences to be investigated. Furthermore, the authors suggest that constructing a conceptual framework is easier if research questions have been presented, as is the case in this study. With the purpose of answering the two research questions in chapter one, we will clarify the literature to support our data collection. The selected theories for our conceptual framework were deemed most appropriate for our study. Initially we will present the literature concerning our first research question, how can the brand name be described and then finally the theories regarding our second research question, how the logo can be described.
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2.3.1 Conceptualization - The Brand Name
Chan and Huang (1997) present a brand naming criteria, which consists of three components.
We will employ this theory to our investigation due to the fact that the authors have designed a model by analyzing four previous consistently tested brand naming theories. Chan and Huang’s (1997) criteria are illustrated as below:
The marketing component
• suggestive of product benefits;
• promotable and persuasive;
• suited to package
• fit with company image and other products’ image.
The legal component
• legally registered and available for use (not in use by another firm);
• unique in competition
The linguistic component
• The phonetic requirements o easy to pronounce;
o pleasing when read or heard;
o pronounceable in only one way and in all languages for goods to be exported.
• The morphological requirements:
o short and simple.
• The semantic requirements:
o positive, not offensive, obscene, or negative;
o modern or contemporary, always timely;
o understandable and memorable.
2.3.2 Conceptualization - The Logo
Kohli, Suri and Thakor (2002) state the importance of logos in international business, as they are a means to communicate to an audience regarding brand identity and brand image. They also mention how a logo can support a brand name and also help to increase recognition, as content, as well as style are contributing factors to logo design and eventual modifications.
The study by Kohli et al. (2002) also reviews previous literature in this area, including certain aspects of Henderson and Cote (1998). We will use this theory in our investigation as it presents a complimentary and more recent insight into logos. The following points are the recommended guidelines for logos as described by the authors.
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• Choose the image carefully, as it has a profound impact o represents communicational investment
o takes time to build o takes even longer to shed
• Look at the big picture, and ensure consistency over time between the various elements
o clear brand identity
o desired communication: meaning, affect o strong brand image
• Be careful about what you can and cannot change o maintain recognition
o maintain familiarity
o minimal design modifications: content for new strategy, style for updating
• Don’t go with the flavour of the month o undesirable
o indistinctiveness: positioning, strategy o trademark issues
• Be systematic and objective o follow branding strategy
o develop unique criteria: establish design components o specific marketing communicational goals
• Test logos in the market place
o evaluate exposure and review results
o appreciate all levels of input: complimentary, adds value o attain medium to long run success
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3 METHODOLOGY
In this chapter we will present the methodology that includes the methods employed to answer the research questions. The chapter starts with the research purpose, which is followed by the research approach and research strategy. The data collection process will then be explained and next the applied sample selection is highlighted. The illustration of the data analysis is subsequently discussed and finally the quality standards are presented.
FIGURE 3.1 Methodology issues for your thesis Source: Adapted from Foster. (1998). p. 81
3.1 RESEARCH PURPOSE
Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2003) state that studies can be categorized by a purpose or an employed strategy and Yin (2003) declares that research can be characterized as exploratory, descriptive and explanatory. Saunders et al. (2003) add that it is possible to have more than one purpose and strategy for research intentions and that the purpose may change during the course of an investigation.
Exploratory investigations, according to Saunders et al. (2003) are processes employed to discover what is happening, to search for new meanings and to investigate the answers so as to be able to understand a problem. The authors declare that the benefits of exploratory research are its flexibility and adaptability to change, not that this method lacks a sense of direction, but to be capable of taking new information into consideration in order to gradually narrow the focus of the study. They mention how descriptive studies disclose an exact summary of people, events or circumstances, which can be employed before or after an element of an exploratory study. Saunders et al (2003) highlight the importance of being very specific in the research area preceding data collection, as well as being proficient to evaluate and draw conclusions from a descriptive study. They illustrate that explanatory studies acknowledge the informal interactions between factors. The focus of this research method is to investigate a situation or a problem ant to explain the influence of the issues involved (ibid).
Literature has been found regarding the describing of brand names and logos, so we have explained this phenomenon primarily in a descriptive manner. Our study is also exploratory as we tried to formulate and define the problems within the area of research, by reflecting on the communicational tools of the brand name and logo. However, the study is barely of an explanatory nature, since we only begin to explain the understanding of how the brand name and logo are developed within corporate visual identity from the conclusions drawn in our study, so as to present information for further development and knowledge.
Validity and Reliability Research
approach
Research strategy
Data analysis Sample
selection Data
Collection Research
purpose
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3.2 RESEARCH APPROACH
This study will use a qualitative approach, as Denscombe (2003) states, to gain a better and profound understanding within the problem area. Descombe (2003) highlights that qualitative research mainly focuses on description and employs words as the unit of analysis and in addition, these investigations have a tendency to be associated with small-scale studies, a holistic perspective, researcher participation and an evolving research design. According to Denscombe (2003), a qualitative research is better related to social phenomena, which our study warranted, so as to proficiently describe how corporate visual identity is developed in organizations when addressing the aspects surrounding their name and logo.
3.3 RESEARCH STRATEGY
The strategy we decided to be most appropriate for our research was a case study. Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2003) state that a case study is a valuable way to explore existing theory, which can enable a researcher to challenge these theories and/or present foundations for new hypotheses. This strategy, as stated by Saunders et al (2003), allows the researcher to apply multiple sources of evidence, in order to gain a strong perspective surrounding the area of research and its development. Yin (2003) highlights that case studies have a profound association with, “how” questions, not involving the need to control the chain of events, and are based on contemporary events. In this study the use of “how” research questions were applied, it was not necessary to control the chain of events and the research area is a relevant topic for today’s business environment. These proved to be relevant factors in permitting us to attain a deeper insight of a company and the two specified elements of their corporate visual identity.
3.4 DATA COLLECTION METHOD
Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2003) reveal that an interview is a method that helps to gather valid and reliable data for research questions and objectives. They add that an interview should be consistent with the research questions and objectives, as well as the purpose of the research and the chosen research strategy. Furthermore, Yin (2003) states that interviews are an essential source for case study research information, which allows researchers to focus on the case study topic. In light of the aforementioned discussion, we have chosen interviews as our primary data collection method.
According to Saunders et al (2003) telephone interviews may be regard as beneficial when considering access to respondents, speed of data collection and lower costs. Due to the fact of access, distance and speed of data collection we personally conducted a telephone interview and to insure that all the information gained was recollected, the interview was both documented and recorded.
Yin (2003) reveals that focused interviews can be open-ended and a degree of dialogue may occur, however, the researcher generally follows an interview protocol. The interview is usually quite short and often confirms particular aspects that are already known by the
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researcher (ibid). Our study applied the method of focused interviews, since the employing of an interview guide will support our conceptual framework and also gave us the opportunity to discuss the featured topic with the respondent.
Yin (2003) mentions that the use of multiple sources of evidence, referred to as triangulation, allows the researcher to obtain numerous evaluations of the same phenomena, which increases the validity of an investigation. We complimented the information gained at the interview with documentation and observations.
3.5 SAMPLE SELECTION
The purpose of this section is to illustrate how we selected the case for our focused interview, so as to describe two components of an organization’s corporate visual identity, the brand name and the logo.
We started by contemplating on companies which have an established name and logo in northern Sweden. Due to the dilemma of accessibility, we then focused on local companies to investigate so as to be able to answer our research questions by observing their websites. We then sent an e-mail to the Information Manager of Polarbröd, Karin Jonsson Bodin, requesting an interview with the appropriate person regarding their brand name and logo. Karin Jonsson Bodin personally agreed to assist us in our research, however, she insisted that we send a document in advance, pointing out the main topics to be featured in the interview, in order for her to be able to collect the necessary information to support our study. In addition to being able to gather the necessary information, we considered the respondent to be appropriate for our study, because Karin Jonsson Bodin as stated on Polarbröd’s homepage, is part of the third generation of the family business and as well as being Information Manager, she is also an Executive Director of the Polarbröd group.
3.6 DATA ANALYSIS
Yin (2003) emphasizes that data analysis entails examining, categorizing, tabulating or otherwise recombining the collected data. Every case study should endeavour to attain a general analytic strategy to identify the main concerns of what to analyze and why. Relying on theoretical prepositions is the most favoured strategy that focuses on research questions which are based on the results of and compared to previous studies (ibid). Our investigation will use this strategy presented by Yin (2003), as we have developed the research on past studies and results. Therefore, the data analysis used in this study relies on theoretical propositions, and according to Yin (2003), this entails comparing the information collected and the literature presented, enabling the researcher to draw the necessary conclusions in a research.
Miles and Huberman (1994) highlight that describing qualitative data concentrates on data in the form of words and the processing of these words is an aspect of the analysis procedure.
Miles and Huberman (1994) also clarify the Three Concurrent Flows of Activity:
