The relationship between fans and sport clubs during the COVID-19 pandemic

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The relationship between fans and sport clubs during the COVID-19 pandemic

Samuel Sandsten

Business and Economics, master's level 2021

Luleå University of Technology

Department of Social Sciences, Technology and Arts

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May 25^th 2021 Tutor: Lars Bäckström

The relationship between fans and sport clubs during the COVID-19 pandemic

Thesis Project

Samuel Sandsten

Civilekonom 2021

Luleå University of Technology

Institution of Business Administration, Technology and Social Sciences

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Abstract

The relationships between sport clubs and their fans are something special. However, because of the pandemic these kinds of relationships have been put to the test. Since March 2020 restrictions have prevented fans from entering the arenas in order to watch the games of their favorite teams, some fans have not been able to follow their favorite team at all because some teams have not been allowed to play at all. The purpose of this study was to increase the understanding of relationships between sport clubs and their fans during the COVID-19 pandemic. In order to investigate the marketing activities of the sport clubs case studies were made with three different clubs which were interviewed. Regarding the attitudes of the fans an online survey was made and sent out to different fans, which a total of 111 chose to answer. This means that the study was of both qualitative and quantitative character.

This resulted in three research questions:

- How can the relationship between fans and sport clubs be characterized during the COVID-19 pandemic?

- How can the marketing activities of sport clubs to establish, maintain and enhance the relationships to the fans during the COVID-19 pandemic be described?

- How can the attitudes of the fans towards sports clubs be described during the COVID-19 pandemic?

Commitment and trust were found to be crucial in order to create long lasting and mutually beneficial relationships and these factors had a big impact in the shaping of this study as main factors in the theoretical framework which affect the level of loyalty. The fans themselves were also possible to categorize into five different categories, which were the “temporary”, the “local”, the “devoted”, the “fanatical” and lastly the “dysfunctional”. Their level of attachment to the clubs are different depending on which type of fan they are, which then affect the commitment and trust towards the club.

The results further show that the clubs have focused on social media usage in order to stay in contact with their fans, although they have done so in a bit of different ways. The analysis of the survey to the fans indicates that 17.1 percent out of the participants have stopped

following a team or sport regularly because of the pandemic. However, it also shows a lot of loyal fans which are eager to get back to the arenas in order to support their team and watch live sports again. The commitment and trust as well as the loyalty of the majority has remained unaffected, at least in the fans own opinion.

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Sammanfattning

Relationerna mellan sportklubbar och deras fans är något speciellt. På grund av pandemin har dessa relationer satts på test. Sedan Mars 2020 har restriktioner förhindrat fans från att besöka arenorna för att se deras favoritlags matcher, vissa fans har inte ens kunnat följa sitt favoritlag alls på grund av att vissa lag inte har fått bedriva sin verksamhet. Syftet med denna studie var att öka förståelsen för relationerna mellan sportklubbar och deras fans under COVID-19 pandemin. För att kunna undersöka sportklubbarnas marknadsföringsaktiviteter gjordes fallstudier med tre olika klubbar som blev intervjuade. Vad gäller attityderna hos fansen gjordes en enkät online som skickades ut till olika fans, som totalt 111 stycken valde att svara på. Detta betyder att studien var av både kvalitativ såväl som kvantitativ karaktär.

Detta resulterade i tre forskningsfrågor:

- Hur kan relationen mellan fans och sportklubbar bli karaktäriserad under COVID-19 Pandemin?

- Hur kan marknadsföringsaktiviteterna hos sportklubbarna för att skapa, upprätthålla och förbättra relationerna med fansen under COVID-19 pandemin beskrivas?

- Hur kan fansens attityder till sportklubbarna beskrivas under COVID-19 pandemin?

Engagemang och tillit hittades vara avgörande för att skapa långvariga såväl som ömsesidigt fördelaktiga relationer, och dessa faktorer hade en stor inverkan på utformningen av denna studie som huvudfaktorer i det teoretiska ramverket som påverkar nivån av lojalitet. Fansen själva kunde kategoriseras in i fem olika kategorier, som var de ”tillfälliga”, de ”lokala”, de

”hängivna”, de ”fanatiska” och till sist de ”dysfunktionella”. Deras nivå av anknytning är olika beroende på vilket typ av fan de är, vilket sedan påverkar engagemanget och tilliten till klubbarna.

Resultaten visar också att klubbarna har fokuserat på användandet av sociala medier för att behålla kontakten med sina fans, även om de har gjort det på lite olika sätt. Analysen av enkäten till fansen indikerar att 17.1 procent av respondenterna har slutat följa ett lag eller en sport regelbundet sedan starten av pandemin. Trots det visar svaren även flertalet lojala fans som är ivriga att komma tillbaka till arenorna för att stötta sina favoritlag och titta på livesport igen. Engagemanget och tilliten såväl som lojaliteten har för majoriteten varit oförändrad, åtminstone enligt fansens egen uppfattning.

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List of Figures

Figure 1: The commitment-trust theory of relationship marketing ... 15

Figure 2: The theory of planned behavior ... 18

Figure 3: Theoretical framework ... 20

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1.Introduction

In this chapter a background description is presented in order to support the research questions. The purpose of the study, as well as delimitations will also be presented.

1.1 Background

The economic importance of sports cannot be underestimated. The economic effects of stadiums encompass both national and regional wealth, but also the welfare of the fans (Noll

& Zimbalist 1997). In spectator sports, the facilities are often believed to have a positive influence on the levels of attendance (Hill & Green, 2000; Dale et al., 2005). Cayolla &

Loureiro (2014) states that sport is a cornerstone in society, in regard of the economic and political aspect. They continue to claim that sport is good for people and that it makes them better citizens, as well as create pride in the community and that it is hard to claim otherwise.

Lastly, they mention that a positive image comes from sport due to the previously stated facts, and that it creates jobs and value for the consumers (Cayolla & Loureiro, 2014). Because of the pandemic, all athletes have been forced to play in front of empty stadiums, or not playing at all. And the fans are obliged to watch the sports they love from the safety of their home.

Wann, Hunter, Ryan & Wright (2001) stated that the importance for fans being able to support their team and help them win is very important. Fans likely to even step over the line are those who feel a strong psychological connection to a team, which also means that they are willing to even do something illegal (Wann, Hunter, Ryan & Wright, 2001). The famous footballer Sir Matt Busby said, “Football is nothing without fans”. The stadiums many times act as a strong core brand association. These kinds of associations characterize the different products which a brand has, it is also the place where the consumers, in this case the fans, have the strongest association (Keller, Heckler, Houston 1998). As an example, another famous footballer named Sir Bobby Charlton gave Old Trafford the nickname “Theatre of dreams”. The Theatre of dreams is the arena of one of the biggest football clubs in the world, Manchester United. The meaning of the nickname is simply that it is a place where dreams become true.

Professional athletes are in many ways considered to be role models, especially for young people striving to achieve their own dream. Lim & Pranata (2020) investigated the effects of the pandemic on psychological, physical and behavioral consequences to all individuals.

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Pedersen, Ruihley & Li (2021) explored the effects on the sports industry which the pandemic has caused. Ross, Wear & Naraine (2020) researched the effect of closing stadiums and found that the environmental impact of this has probably been that the nature has gotten a chance to breath. But they also found that the feeling of belonging and affinity which the fans feel towards the club and each other can be affected. Athletes are not only in the spotlight for their actions on the field, but also equally or more from what they do outside the field. One major example in 2020 is the actions of Marcus Rashford, professional footballer of earlier

mentioned Manchester United. He was awarded the Member of the order of the British empire (MBE) for his charitable work off the pitch. He used his social platform in order to set up a food poverty campaign.

Sports are a kind of social gathering that brings fans together and they all support their team through success and in harder times (Harris & Ogbonna, 2008; Bristol & Bashaw, 1999). In the early days of the pandemic, all sports where put on hold, and the players put in quarantine like the rest of the population. During this time, Lim & Pranata (2020) claims that the

importance of sports in society was noticeable. The pandemic has forced people to alter routines, and the situation we have been in has psychological, physical and behavioral consequences to all individuals, as well as elite athletes (Lim & Pranata 2020).

In order to build long lasting relationships between the fans and the clubs, the clubs have to use relationship marketing successfully. According to Abeza, O´Reily & Braunstein-Minkove (2020) relationship marketing have caused ache for scholars over the years, because trying to define it in a way which is generally accepted for all has been difficult. The area is complex and can therefore cause confusion. Several definitions have been used over the years (Abeza, O´Reily & Braunstein-Minkove, 2020). One definition of relationship marketing is described by Grönroos (1994), it is a good description which is applicable to this study. “Marketing is to establish, maintain, and enhance relationships with customers and other partners, at a profit, so that the objectives of the parties involved are met. This is achieved by a mutual exchange and fulfillment of promises” (Grönroos, 1994).

Morgan & Hunt (1994) theorized that successful relationship marketing requires commitment and trust within the relationship, and they used these as variables in their model the

commitment-trust theory. Gounaris (2005) also had commitment and trust as variables in his study on what makes customers build long-lasting relationships as well as invest in it. Jaffe

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(2007) explains that a relationship between an organization and consumer is to be seen as a partnership. Grönroos (1994) as well as Elvestål & Tengberg (2011) both agree that a

relationship has to be a mutually beneficial exchange between the parties involved, where all objectives for either part are met. Christy, Oliver & Penn, (1996) also says that a relation exists because the parties involved believe they will benefit from it. The attitudes of the fans are something which is important and can be understood with the help of the Theory of Planned Behavior by Azjen (1991). The theory of planned behavior by Azjen (1991) is a theory which will aid in measuring and analyzing the attitudes of the fans. An attitude refers to which degree a person has either a positive or negative appraisal or evaluation of

something specific (Azjen, 1991).

Elvestål & Tengberg (2011) found that in order to build relationships with fans, the feeling of belonging is important. There has to be a mutually beneficial relationship where the fans are proud to be just that, to support their club and attend games regularly, buy supporter materials and simply cheer their team to victory. They also discovered that all clubs are trying to build relationships with their fans, even if they are not doing so in the context of knowing that they are using relationship marketing to do that. In their study, the football club IF Elfsborg said that they are trying to be, and act where the people are, for an example visit schools and different companies. Elvestål & Tengberg (2011) also talk about the general importance of a stadium, that the new arena of IF Elfsborg at the time had contributed to the club’s recent success. This is also something Greenwell, Fink & Pastore (2002) researched, that managers who wish to increase the level of attendance on games should put effort in service elements.

One of these elements are the facilities, the accessibility of the stadium, the aesthetics of it and of course, how comfortable one is when watching the game.

Post the year 2000, a shift has been made regarding the focus of marketers. The focus now lies on service dominance, with relationship marketing concepts as a major aspect (Agariya &

Singh, 2011). As stated earlier by Jaffe (2007) the relationship is to be seen as a partnership.

This means that the consumer is no longer in control and that it rather is a time where neither part of the relationship is in control because of the fact that it is to be seen as a partnership.

Customer relationship management (CRM) is a central ingredient in the modern way of marketing. It is to create and develop profitable relationships with customers by delivering far

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Parment, 2013). The authors also state that the difference between CRM and relationship marketing is that CRM are the tools which are being used in order to support and enable relationship marketing.

1.2 Problem discussion

The main theoretical area of this study is relationship marketing. In the search for previous literature hardly anything was found regarding the effects on the relationship between the fans and sport clubs during the COVID-19 pandemic. What was found was instead how the

pandemic affects the general population and how their daily routines have had to change like Lim & Pranata (2020) discussed. Although, it was also found by Keller, Heckler & Houston (1998) that the stadiums act as a strong core brand association for the fans and Ross, Wear &

Naraine (2020) investigated the effects of closing stadiums. But theory on the relationship between sport clubs and their fans during the pandemic has not been found.

Sheth & Parvatiyar (2011) discusses fundamental features in relationship marketing, the COVID-19 pandemic makes it more difficult to establish, maintain and enhance relationships with the fans, which is what Grönroos (1994) said relationship marketing is all about. He also stated that producing a mutually beneficial arrangement for both parties is important. Since the fans are following the games with the help of streaming services, which are much cheaper in the context of being able to watch more games for less money, compared to going to the stadium for every game. This means that it can be a challenge to get all fans back to the stadiums once the pandemic is over, the sport clubs will most likely have to make the game experience so good that it makes up for the more expensive way of watching the game. The sense of loyalty, commitment and familiarity towards each other as fans, as well as the sport clubs will be important in order to fill the stadiums again. Morgan & Hunt (1994) as well as Doney & Canon (1997) finds the level of trust in a relationship to be crucial to be successful and last a long time. The level of trust is hard to measure, however it is something that might be affected during the pandemic. As stated in the background an attitude refers to which degree a person has either a positive or negative appraisal or evaluation of something specific (Azjen, 1991). The attitudes of the fans are important to know because it makes it easier to try and predict different kinds of outcomes (Azjen, 1991). Especially since these are unusual times, the attitudes of the fans are important of the sport clubs to be aware of.

Sport clubs have to identify the relationship between themselves and their fans as a

partnership like Jaffe (2007) said, as well as that it has to be mutually beneficial like Elvestål

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& Tengberg (2011) also mentions. This is something which can be affected by the pandemic.

Because the perceived value which the fans believe they get from the relationship might decrease since the experience will probably be different when the games cannot be watched live. This is also affected due to the fact that consumers nowadays, and in this case the fans, interact with each other more compared to before (Mangold & Faulds, 2009). This is

something which the pandemic also affects because the common meeting ground for the fans is gone.

The restrictions prevent the fans from meeting each other during the games in the arenas.

Therefore, it is hard for the clubs to create a feeling of belonging during the pandemic. The clubs cannot either act as well as show up where the people are. This is something which is not allowed these days, additionally, a lot of people are working or studying from home.

During the pandemic, all of the positive contributions of facilities and staff like Elvestål &

Tengberg as well as Greenwell, Fink & Pastore (2002) are ripped away. This is something that Ross, Wear & Naraine (2020) examined, the effects of closing stadiums due to the COVID-19 virus pandemic and because of the pandemic and the restrictions the fans do not meet each other to the same extent as they are used to. This could affect the interest of watching the games.

Since the fans have had to follow their team from home through Tv or streaming services, will they become comfortable doing that and realize it is cheaper than going to the actual games? Because of this the fans have not been able to enter the stadiums when their favorite team plays, therefore it is likely that the relationship will be affected, the question is how?

The clubs will probably have to alter their way of working in order to maintain the

relationship with the fans, here as well, the question is how will they do it? This is an unusual situation, and therefore there is a gap of information on the affects the pandemic has on the relationship between fans and sport clubs.

1.3 Purpose

The purpose of this study is to increase the understanding of relationships between sports clubs and their fans during the COVID-19 pandemic.

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The research questions will be:

- How can the relationship between fans and sport clubs be characterized during the COVID-19 pandemic?

- How can the marketing activities of sport clubs to establish, maintain and enhance the relationships to the fans during the COVID-19 pandemic be described?

- How can the attitudes of the fans towards sports clubs be described during the COVID-19 pandemic?

1.4 Delimitations of the study

The players point of view is something that will not be taken into consideration in this study.

Their perspective on how their image and relationship with the fans might have

changed/evolved will not be explored. The relationship with the sponsors and their kind of relationship is also left out.

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2.Literature review

In this chapter previous literature regarding relationship marketing will be presented. The chapter consists of a literature review with relationship marketing as the main focus.

2.1 Relationship marketing

As stated in the introduction, relationship marketing has been hard to define over the years and many definitions have been used (Abeza, O´Reilly & Braunstein-Minkove, 2020).

Grönroos (1994) stated that Marketing is to establish, maintain, and enhance relationships with customers and other partners, at a profit, so that the objectives of the parties involved are met. This is achieved by a mutual exchange and fulfillment of promises. Morgan & Hunt (1994) are also on the same wavelength regarding relationship marketing and defines it as the marketing activities which are used to create, develop and maintain a successful relationship exchange. However, despite different definitions Abeza, Finch, O´Reilly, MacIntosh &

Nadeau (2019) said that there are common features of the phenomenon which can be seen as broad themes. And the different categories gathered in the various definitions are the

following:

- Creating: Attracting, establishing & getting - Maintenance: Sustaining & keeping

- Development: Enhancing & strengthening - Interactive: co-operative, exchange & mutually - emotional content: Trust, promises & commitment - long term: Lasting, retaining & permanent

- output: Reward, profitable & efficiency

Agariya & Singh (2011) claims that from the definitions, with their explicatory words and constructs, the seven most cited are trust, experience, loyalty, satisfaction, communication, service quality and commitment. As an example, trust is an essential variable in the theory of Morgan & Hunt (1994). However, all of these are important in order to have a successful relationship and they are mentioned and discussed elsewhere as well. Sheth & Parvatiyar (2011) argues that the definitions most often have three fundamental features, which are purpose, process and parties. Whereas process is believed as enhancement, establishment, and maintenance of the relationships. The meaning of purpose in RM is to produce mutual benefit for the parties involved in the relationship. However, different parties are naturally involved in RM when it comes to relational exchanges, and the scope of the relationship differ

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depending on what kind of characters which are engaged in the relationship. The relationship in this study consists of the sport clubs themselves, and the fans.

The results from Doney and Canon (1997) indicates that the development of a long-term relationship depends on how the buying part perceives the level of trust to the selling part.

The study shows that the buying part finds trust to be essential and a necessary condition in order to develop a long-lasting relationship. When the level of trust is high, the probability of future purchases and investments in the relationship increases (Doney & Canon, 1997). What can be seen from previous research is that trust in the other party of the relationship is

essential for a long lasting and mutually beneficial relationship. Elvestål & Tengberg (2011) investigated how Swedish football clubs attract spectators to the stadium with the help of relationship marketing. They also found that the feeling of participation, trust and common values between the sport clubs and fans are important features.

2.2 Schools of thought in relationship marketing

As mentioned earlier in the background Abeza, O´Reilly & Braunstein-Minkove (2020) discusses four different schools of thought which can best show the current situation in RM, these schools of thought are:

- The Nordic school of service management

- The industrial marketing and purchasing school for a network approach to industrial (or Business to Business) marketing

- The Anglo-Australian approach to the investigation of the nature of relationships in marketing

- The North American school, focused on CRM

The Nordic school exists because of believed shortcomings by some people in the

transactional approach to marketing. The emphasis in the Nordic school of thought is that in order to have effective marketing and delivery of services, the entire organization needs to be involved in the management of relationships with the customers (Abeza, O´Reilly &

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Braunstein-Minkove, 2020). Furthermore, the Nordic school emphasizes topics such as dialogue, interaction and the process of interaction (Palmer, Lindgreen & Vanhamme, 2005).

The industrial marketing and purchasing school have similarities with the Nordic school.

However, a strong emphasis lies on organizational relationships in Business to Business (B2B) markets, transformation of relationships in order to gain a competitive advantage and networks (Abeza, O´Reilly & Braunstein-Minkove, 2020). Abeza, O´Reilly & Braunstein- Minkove (2020) says that according to the industrial marketing and purchasing group,

relationships are formed with the help of resource ties, activity links, actor bonds and multiple relationships between buyers and suppliers, as well as other firms which become networks.

The research of the community in this particular school of thought focuses on relational channels in networks and what kind of impact information technology has on the development of relationships these situations.

The Anglo-Australian school of thought has its main focus on research in the area of service marketing, the market types such as referral, recruiters, influence, suppliers/alliance and internal markets are being focused on (Ganguli, Eshghi & Bechwati, 2009).

According to Ganguli, Eshghi & Bechwati (2009) The Anglo-Australian school is criticized because of lack in detail in the previously stated types of market. Scholars in this area study the customer lifetime value, service delivery quality as well as relationship quality, and lastly internal marketing.

The North American school of thought has customer service as its main focus in the management of relationships, they emphasize on one-to-one buyer-seller relationships, collaboration and interaction as well as value addition (Ganguli, Eshghi & Bechwati, 2009).

Grönroos (1997) claims that the North American school introduced technology-based concepts of customer relationship management and direct marketing. However, the North American school has according to Abeza, O´Reilly & Braunstein-Minkove (2020) received criticism for promoting a traditionalistic view of relationship marketing.

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2.3 Relationship between fans and club

Harris & Ogbonna (2008) found that several different studies have explored different kinds of fans in sport and categorized them. Different categories of fans which they found are the hardcore fans, also known as “serious sports fans”. Secondly there are the “deep fans” and thirdly when it comes to fans in football, which are called “the lads” (Harris & Ogbonna, 2008).

Hunt, Bristol & Bashaw (1999) have a conceptual classification of sports fans where they are categorized as either temporary, devoted, local, dysfunctional or fanatical fans. Scholars often praise the view that the generation of loyalty between customers and firm is essential in order for an organization to be successful. For the sport clubs, it is important to distinguish between the different kinds of fans and how to reach them, some need more attention and energy than others. Cayolla & Loureiro (2014) examined the relationship between fans and club brand.

They explored why football fans are willing to do some kind of sacrifices in order to maintain their relationship with their preferred club brand. It is a challenge when fans cannot attend the games, Horky (2020) looked into the importance of real spectators and live audience for different sports. He mentions that all sport is global, and that even some have benefited from the pandemic, particularly all kinds of E-sports.

Hunt, Bristol & Bashaw (1999) says that the source of their five classifications of fans is the motivation, as well as the shown behavior from the different types of fans. If the motivational source is of situational context, which means it is bound by time and space, the motivational source of the fan is more temporary. This situational context can be related to the “local” and

“temporary” classification of the fans. They continue to discuss the counterpart to situational, which is enduring and can be related to the other three classifications, fanatical, devoted and dysfunctional. Enduring means that the source of motivation is not bound by context, and it is more likely that the fans perceives the sports object as an important part of his, or her self- concept (Hunt, Bristol & Bashaw, 1999).

The devoted, dysfunctional and fanatical fans differ from each other in terms of their level of attachment towards the sports consumptive object. Below a short description and explanation of all the classifications of fans will be given as Hunt, Bristol & Bashaw (1999) describes them.

- The temporary fan: Is constrained by time, once the phenomenon of interest is over, the fan no longer has motivation to exhibit behavior which relates to the sports object.

Instead, the fan returns to the previously, and more normal behavioral patterns.

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Therefore, a temporary fan is a fan only for a brief period of time which can last for a few hours, or up to a few years. This means it can be a single hyped-up game, or for a few years whilst the team have been producing good results and are playing well or simply whilst a friend is representing the team.

- The local fan: Is constrained by the geographical location. The fan has its source of motivation for being a fan in the identification of a geographic area. It could be where the person was born or live. However, in this modern era it is easy for a local fan to stay connected with a team even if the person moves to another city. It will just be hard to attend the games live at the stadium.

- The devoted fan: Breaks the constraints of time and place. It is likely to assume that the devoted fan probably started as either a temporary or local fan, but the attachment towards a team, league or sport increased, which made the person a devoted fan. They remain a devoted fan even if the short-term temporary event which caught the

attention has ended, or the geographical location has shifted. The team, or a player is strongly linked to one owns self-concept. It is the level of attachment which

distinguishes this classification from the local and temporary.

- The fanatical fan: Similarly, to the devoted fan, the fanatical fan is not bound by time, nor distance like the temporary and local ones are. Being a fan is a very important part of this classifications self-identification. The level of attachment to a team or player is high. However, there is one part in the fanatical fans life which is more important for the self-identification, which could be work, family or religion. The big difference between devoted and fanatical is the behavior, the behavior of a fanatical fan is beyond the normal but still accepted by others. For an example a devoted fan may show up for the games, whilst a fanatical fan will show up painted in the colors of the team.

- The dysfunctional fan: Being a fan is the primary part of the self-identification for this classification of fans. The results of the team are vital for the self-identification and effects the very existence of a dysfunctional fan, this is because the level of

attachment is so high. In this case the fan-like and accepted behavior is not the thing

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Instead of simply supporting the team they engage in behavior which affect the event itself in a negative way. They can even find themselves in situations of violence or other disruptive situations because they justify their own actions on the fact that they are fans, and therefore the behavior is acceptable. This classification can be called hooligans.

As previously stated, the fans can be differentiated by their degree of attachment to a team, which means to what extent they are loyal. The dimension of fan loyalty connects to the inner relatedness of the fans and can be separated into “true” loyalty & spurious loyalty (Bauer, Exler & Stokburger-Sauer, 2008). By transferring the loyalty concept to fan behavior, Bauer, Exler & Stokburger-Sauer (2008) says that behavioral loyalty represents past behavior, as well as behavioral intentions. The past behavior consists of positive word-of-mouth which have been said, but also past purchasing behavior. They continue to discuss that activities which relates to past loyal behavior in team sports are:

- Attending the games of their favorite sport club live at the stadium - Watching the games on the television

- Purchasing club merchandise

- Consuming different media related to the club

- Wearing clothes of the favorite club as well as trying to convince other to support them.

Regarding the intentions, it represents the positive and persistent future behavior of the fans.

The behavioral intentions correspond with the activities mentioned above about past loyal behavior, but now in the context of the intentions of future visits to the stadiums, intended purchases and likewise (Bauer, Exler & Stokburger-Sauer, 2008).

Wann, Hunter, Ryan & Wright (2001) also discusses the fans which are willing to step over the line and break the law in order to make their team win. It might be the earlier mentioned hardcore fans, also known as “serious sports fans”, or the dysfuntional fans who can be associated with that kind of behavior. Elvestål & Tengberg (2011) discusses the reason why consumers initiate relationships with organizations, they mention that the answer is hard to define, but that many times the consumers feel that the satisfaction and experience of the relationship means more than the cost of it. In this case it is the full game experience for the fans when they are watching the games and being part of something bigger with other fans which might have common values and beliefs (Elvestål & Tengberg, 2011).

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Christy, Oliver & Penn, (1996) explains that relationships between a consumer and an organization also increases the probability of future transactions between the parties. The parties are assumed to willingly wanting to initiate and stay in this kind of relationship, due to the fact that both parties are of the belief that they will benefit from it in some way.

2.3.1 Spurious & True loyalty

Bauer, Exler & Stokburger-Sauer (2008) discusses that spurious loyalty relates to those fans which do not possess a strong positive attitude, but regardless watches games regularly.

However, measuring the level of attendance does not give any insight regarding the

behavioral pattern nor the attitudes of the fans towards the team. The games could be attended because a season-ticket was won, or it could be attended because of a strong personal

attachment to the team (Bauer, Exler & Stokburger-Sauer, 2008). This means that spurious loyalty is more fluent and depending more on things like offers from the club or being dragged to the game with a friend all the time, so the friend is not lonely at the games.

However, true loyalty is when you watch the games because of the attachment to the team, and therefore you buy merchandise of the club and consume media which relates to the club.

2.4 Affective & Calculative commitment

Gounaris (2005) studied what kind of factors that affect a customer’s tendency to be loyal to one supplier over a long period of time. The study had its focus on business-to-business relationships and how commitment and trust affect the customers desire to invest, as well as wanting to stay and create a long-lasting relationship. This led to the division of the concept commitment into two different parts:

- Affective commitment - Calculative commitment

Gounaris (2005) states that the parting of this concept into two parts is essential, due to the fact that their effects on the relationship are not the same.

2.4.1 Affective commitment

In the literature, affective commitment is described as the underlying function which creates an emotional bond between the customer and supplier in a transactional context. Fullerton (2003) says that when customers are fond of the supplier, the psychological effects of affective commitment can be experienced. Wetzels, de Ruyter & Van Birgelen (1998) believes that affective commitment is the most important feature in order to maintain relationships, and as a consequence generate future profits. It is founded on the fact that the

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customer likes the supplier, and because of that enjoys the partnership, which leads to commitment and a flourishing relationship (Gounaris, 2005).

2.4.2 Calculative commitment

Calculative commitment has its foundation in exchange costs, few suppliers and dependency (Fullerton, 2003). Calculative commitment contributes to customer loyalty, like affective commitment do. However, Fullerton (2003) claims that the effects are not as big. This is also supported by Van Goolen & Campo (2008) as well as Evanschitzky, Iver, Plassman, Niessing

& Meffert (2006), whom all claim that calculative commitment is not enough in order to create a long-lasting and loyal relationship. This means that a company has to focus on creating relationships which are founded on more than economical aspects. Gounaris (2005) found that despite high levels of calculative commitment, it does not contribute to create a higher level of commitment in the relationship, which means that the customers will not commit nor invest in it. This is because of the fact that the customer only stays with the supplier due to the fact that there are no better options (Gounaris, 2005).

2.5 The commitment-trust theory

It was theorized by Morgan & Hunt (1994). They argued that what should be essential in order to understand relationship marketing is whatever which distinguishes effective and productive relational exchanges, compared to the ineffective and unproductive. They continue to argue that despite many contextual factors which contribute to either success or failure in marketing efforts, relationship commitment and trust is essential in order to be successful in relationship marketing. These two factors are key due to the fact that they encourage

marketers to cooperate with exchange partners because it will help them preserve relationship investments. Secondly it encourages marketers to see the big picture and stay in long term relationships with their partners, instead of being tempted by short term solutions. Lastly it also sees potentially high-risk actions as wise, because that there is trust in the relationship that their partner will not act opportunistically. This means that when both commitment and trust exist, the outcomes which are produced promotes efficiency, effectiveness and

productivity (Morgan & Hunt, 1994). This results in the KMV-model (Key Mediating Variable) of relationship marketing. The model for the commitment-trust theory is presented on the next page.

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Figure 1: The commitment-trust theory of relationship marketing.

Adopted from Morgan & Hunt (1994).

Figure 1 is showing relationship commitment and trust as mediating variables in the center for one party of the relationship, with five outlying affecting factors, which affect the

commitment and trust and lead to the five different outcomes.

Morgan & Hunt (1994) defines relationship commitment as a relationship where the exchange partner is of the belief that the relationship with the other partner is of such importance that maximum efforts are being put in order to maintain it. The belief in the relationship is so strong that the committed party is doing its best to make sure it lasts indefinitely. Trust is existing when one party of the relationship has confidence in the reliability and integrity of an exchange partner (Morgan & Hunt, 1994). Researchers have argued that consumers often believe marketing efforts are intrusive and that they fail to show neither of commitment nor trust (Harris & Ogbonna, 2008). However, Harris & Ogbonna (2008) also claim that studies have found that some customers develop strong emotional relationships with firms, often on their own and regardless of the relationship-building efforts of the firm in question.

Functional Conflict Relationship

Termination Cost

Acquiescence

Relationship Commitment Relationship

Benefits

Propensity to Leave

Shared Values

+ +

+

+ +

Cooperation

+ +

+ _Trust +

Communication

Opportunistic Behaviour

- -

+

-

Uncertainty

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Morgan & Hunt (1994) claims that based on the result from the study, companies can benefit of long-lasting competitive advantages, if the relationship is being nurtured properly. By doing so, commitment and trust will be shaped with the help of following four strategies within the relationship:

- Supply the partner with possibilities and advantages which are superior those being offered by competitors.

- Sustain a high standard of corporate values and align with likeminded corporations.

- Share valuable information, as well as expectations, evaluation of performance and information of the market.

- Avoid benefiting of the relationship at the expense of the other partner.

Strategy 1: This strategy is about providing the customer with advantages and opportunities with the help of products, processes and technologies which together creates value to the relationship. Companies which do this successfully can benefit from the customers commitment, and therefore their will to establish, maintain and develop the relationship (Morgan & Hunt, 1994).

Strategy 2: Zhang, Wan, Jia & Gu (2009) studied how common values affects the relationship between the public and private sector. The study shows that a positive connection between common values and a successful cooperation between the parties involved. The relationship is strengthened by shared values.

Strategy 3: Mohr, Fisher & Nevin (1996) studied two-way communication and how it affects the relationship between two corporate partners. They developed a model which shows whether different strategies of management affect the relationship as well as the

communication between the parties. They state that more communication leads to a higher level of commitment.

Strategy 4: According to Morgan & Hunts (1994) fourth strategy companies should avoid opportunistic behavior. Further on they mean that if one of the parties involved in the relationship perceives the other as opportunistic, the level of trust decreases, which later on leads to lesser commitment. They also claim that opportunistic behavior is a factor which can explain failure within relationship marketing.

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2.6 Theory of planned behavior

The theory of planned behavior is a theory designed to explain, as well as predict the human behavior in specific situations (Ajzen, 1991). Azjen (1991) continues to state that the theory of planned behavior is an extension of the theory of reasoned action. Similarly, to reasoned action, one of the central factors in theory of planned behavior is the individual’s own intention to perform a specific kind of behavior. It is assumed that the intentions capture the motivational factors which influence a specific behavior. It is indications of:

- How hard someone is willing to try and how much of an effort that will be put into performing the given behavior (Azjen, 1991).

As a conclusion of this, it can be assumed that the stronger the intention is to engage in a specific behavior, the performance should be more likely to foresee and predict. However, it is of utter importance that the individual can decide on its own whether to perform, or not to perform the desired behavior (Azjen, 1991). On the next page the model for the theory of planned behavior is shown and explained further.

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Figure 2: The theory of planned behavior.

Adopted from Azjen (1991).

Figure 1 shows the theory of planned behavior and how the different parts in the model are connected. Attitudes towards a behavior, the subjective norm and perceived behavioral control all affect each other, as well as lead to intention, which then leads to a behavior. Even though some of the behaviors may fall into the requirement that the person can decide on its own, the performance of most people is affected to some degree by different motivational factors, these could be availability of requisite opportunities and resources, those could be money, time, cooperation of others and skills (Azjen, 1991). Azjen continues to state that collectively, the factors above represent the actual control people have over the behavior.

Provided that a person has the required resources, as well as opportunities and intent to perform the behavior, the person should succeed in doing so.

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The importance of actual behavioral control is of course important. However, perceived behavioral control is of greater psychological interest compared to actual control, also how it affects the intentions and actions of a person (Azjen, 1991). Azjen (1991) claims that

perceived behavioral control is vital in the theory of planned behavior, and that it is the part which differs from the theory of reasoned action.

The theory of planned behavior traces attitudes of beliefs regarding a specific behavior. Azjen (1991) states that attitudes develop from the beliefs which people have about the object of the attitude. He continues to claim that the beliefs are formed by association with particular attributes, and that in the case of attitudes, each belief links the behavior to a certain outcome, or another attribute, such as the price in which performing the behavior would be. We

automatically acquire an attitude towards the behavior, this can be explained because the attributes which are linked to a behavior are already valued either positively or negatively (Azjen, 1991). A person’s attitude is directly proportional to the summative belief index below.

The “A” shows the attitude, the “b” shows the strength of each salient belief and is combined in a multiplicative fashion with the subjective evaluation of the belief´s attribute, which is “e”.

The resulting products are summed over the “n” salient beliefs. The attitudes informational foundation can be explored by eliciting salient beliefs regarding the attitude towards the object and then assess the subjective probabilities, as well as values which are connected to the different beliefs (Azjen, 1991). Azjen (1991) continues to discuss that the general expectancy-value model of attitude has been tested thoroughly over the years in different studies. In a typical study, a standardized global measure of attitude is obtained, most often by means of an evaluative semantic differential. The measurement is later on correlated with an estimate of the same attitude with the salient beliefs as the base.

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2.7 Theoretical framework

The model below is based on the literature part of this study, with the commitment-trust theory by Morgan & Hunt (1994) as a cornerstone. This is because it is a model which has been used a lot over the years when it comes to relationship marketing. However, it has been slightly altered to suit this study in a better way. Commitment is divided into both affective &

calculative like Gounaris (2005) found that it can be divided into. Commitment and trust both lead to loyalty, which also can be divided, into both true and spurious loyalty (Bauer, Exler &

Stokburger-Sauer, 2008). Which then lead to a long-lasting relationship if handled and

nurtured properly. Below the model which represent the theoretical framework of this study is shown.

Figure 3: Theoretical framework

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As previously stated, the model has been modified, commitment and trust are important aspects in order to characterize the relationships, and if the levels of commitment and trust are high, it leads to loyalty. Morgan & Hunt (1994) defines relationship commitment as a

relationship where the exchange partner is of the belief that the relationship with the other partner is of such importance that maximum efforts are being put in order to maintain it. The belief in the relationship is so strong that the committed party is doing its best to make sure it lasts indefinitely. Trust is existing when one party of the relationship has confidence in the reliability and integrity of an exchange partner (Morgan & Hunt, 1994). Commitment has divided into both affective- and calculative commitment like Gounaris (2005) divided it into.

Loyalty has also been put into the model between commitment & trust and a long-lasting relationship. This is because it has been found in the literature review that loyalty is essential in order to establish and maintain long-lasting relationships. According to Bauer, Exler &

Stokburger-Sauer, (2008) loyalty can also be divided into two different parts, spurious and true. Although loyalty leads to long-lasting relationships, it is important to keep in mind some fans might be spuriously loyal, which means that the relationship in fact might not be a long- lasting one. Additionally, “mutually beneficial” has been put in the same box as advantages and opportunities, this is because Jaffe (2007) said that nowadays neither part of the

relationship is in control, but rather that it should be seen as a partnership, and that the parties involved should all benefit from it in some way. Otherwise, the four strategies for achieving commitment and trust are the same as the commitment-trust theory by Morgan & Hunt (1994).

Regarding what type of fan a person is, the level of commitment & trust towards the club will be different. There is the temporary fan, the local fan, the devoted, the fanatical and the dysfunctional. The temporary fan was someone who is constrained by time, the interest does not last forever. The local fan is constrained by the geographical location, the source of motivation for supporting the team comes from identification with a specific geographical area, for example where the person grew up. The devoted fan breaks the previous constraints of time and space, although it is likely that the devoted fan started as either a temporary or local fan. The level of attachment distinguishes the devoted fan from temporary and local.

The fanatical fan is also like the devoted fan not bound by time or space. For the fanatical fan being a fan is very important for the self-identification, the level of attachment is even higher

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that person’s life which is more important for the self-identification. The devoted fan might show up at the games, while the fanatical show up, dress up and screams the entire game.

Lastly, for the dysfunctional fan being a fan is the primary part of the self-identification. The level of attachment is so high that when the team wins the person is happy, and when the team loses the person is sad or angry. These kinds of fans can also be called hooligans and are those who might affect the surrounding of a game in a negative way.

The attitudes of the fans on the strategies “shared values”, “advantages & opportunities”,

“communication” and “avoiding opportunistic behavior” is something which affect the level of commitment and trust towards the club. High levels of commitment and trust leads to loyalty and therefore to a long lasting and mutually beneficial relationship. The clubs are working in certain ways in order to achieve high levels of commitment and trust in order to get loyal fans, and therefore also get long lasting relationships. While the clubs are doing their work, the fans themselves have their opinions on how the clubs are working.

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3. Methodology

In this chapter the way in which the study has been made will be presented. The chapter consists of the purpose, approach, strategy, analysis, the search for literature as well as how the data was gathered, the validity and reliability and lastly the ethical aspects of the study.

3.1 Research purpose

Researchers can use three different types of purposes, explorative, descriptive and explanatory (Malhotra, 2010). An exploratory purpose means to create insight and understanding and suits well when the area is unexplored. Explanatory is most often of qualitative character because the purpose is to study causal connections. Further on a

descriptive study aims to explain the market or different functions and has its focus on “how”

these particular things work (Malhotra, 2010). This was a descriptive study which investigated how the relationship between the fans and sport clubs can be characterized during the pandemic. However, it also investigated the marketing activities of the sport clubs during the pandemic, in order to establish, maintain and enhance the relationships and how the attitudes of the fans towards the sport clubs could be described. The purpose was to increase the understanding of relationships between sports clubs and their fans during the COVID-19 pandemic.

3.2 Research approach

The research approach of this study was both qualitative and quantitative. According to Bryman & Bell (2013) the author of a research study has to choose between three different research approaches, these were:

- Qualitative - Quantitative - A mix of both

These approaches differ when it comes to the role which the theory has, as well as the studies view on knowledge and ontological standpoint. A short explanation is that a qualitative research focuses more on words, and a quantitative study has its focus more on measuring different phenomenon’s (Bryman & Bell, 2013). This study was a mix of both qualitative and quantitative approach. This deemed appropriate because the interviews with the sport clubs had its focus on how the relationship between them and the fans could be characterized during the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as how the marketing activities of the sport clubs in order to establish, maintain and enhance the relationships during the pandemic could be described.

These interviews led to the qualitative approach. My opinion was also that a quantitative

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approach was necessary in order to be able to describe the attitudes of the fans towards sport clubs during the pandemic. This was done with a survey which was sent out to the fans.

This study had a deductive point of view, this is because existing theory was applied in the study, and then analyzed against specific situations. The focus was on getting a deeper understanding about a specific situation, and therefore a deductive point of view was

applicable to the study (Patel & Davidsson, 2011). The purpose of the study was not to create new theory where the background of existing theory is lacking, therefore an inductive point of view was not used. There was a third option, called abduction. It is when both point of views are being used in a way that both the theory and empirical findings correlate with each other.

First an inductive point of view and after a deductive. Data sampling which aims to identify concepts, explore a phenomenon and explain patterns uses an abductive point of view (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2012).

3.3 Research strategy

According to Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill (2012) a research strategy can be defined as a plan on how scientists will answer their research questions and goals. What is important when choosing a research strategy is that it has to make it possible to answer the research questions.

There are several different research strategies like experiment, case study, survey, archival research, action research, grounded theory and ethnography. The research strategies are also not constricted to being used separately, they can be used combined in order to fit the study in a better way (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2012).

The research strategies which were used in this study were case studies with different clubs, as well as a survey which was sent out to the fans. Eriksson & Wiedersheim-Paul (2011) says that usage of a case study as a strategy where a few subjects are being studied from several different aspects. As an example, a more thoroughly done investigation on a few corporations.

In this study three different clubs were interviewed. Further on Eriksson & Wiedersheim-Paul (2011) discusses that a case study is applicable when the focus lies on creating a deeper understanding instead of trying to find and understand connections. As stated, three sport clubs were interviewed in this study in order to create a deeper understanding about

relationship marketing being used during the pandemic. In interviews the questions are more open in how the interview subjects can answer, compared to surveys.

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Regarding the survey Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill (2012) says that it is most suitable as a strategy in order to answer “what”, “who”, “where”, “how much” and “how many”. Because of this a survey is most often used for explorative and descriptive research. They continue to state that a survey is suitable when there is a need to collect large amounts of data, which a survey does in an economical way. A survey makes it possible to collect quantitative data which then can be used in order to suggest particular relationships and potential reasons behind them. In order to investigate the attitudes of the fans a large number of respondents are necessary. A bigger number of participants in the study also makes it easier to generalize to some extent in regards of the population of fans (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2012).

3.4 Data analysis

When both the fans and the sport clubs’ point of view were analyzed, the similarities and differences of opinion were investigated in order to find how the clubs have been working, and how the attitudes of the fans towards the club have been affected during the pandemic.

The questions were formed in a way to be able to see the attitudes of the fans with help of the theoretical framework, as well as the different clubs’ opinions and ways of working were analyzed and compared between the different clubs. Also, to see if some features were more important than others in regards of the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, for an example social media usage might have increased in order to stay connected to the fans. The

commitment-trust theory was used in order to identify the relationship and aid in analyzing its aspects. Regarding viewer-statistics the data was not allowed to be shared by the requested corporation to the author of the study. With the help of the literature the fans were categorized into one out of five different categories.

3.5 Search for literature

The theoretical framework was based on the literature, the focus was on previous literature in the area of relationship marketing. The search for scientific articles has been made in Google Scholar, which is a search engine for scientific publications which is accessed through the university. Specific key words were used in the process of finding relevant articles, these were keywords like “relationship marketing”, “pandemic”, “sports”, “fans”, “relationship”,

“COVID-19” and “trust”.

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3.6 Data sampling

The information needed to answer the purpose, as well as research questions have been

gathered with the help of Interviews with three different sport clubs and a survey with the fans which 111 fans answered. Secondary sources containing relevant statistics regarding viewers has also been reached out to.The respondents for the survey were selected on the criteria that they are following a favorite team or sport on a regular basis. A broad spectrum of fans was reached out to in order to reach every category of fans which have been mentioned earlier in the report. They were then, depending on their answers categorized in order to compare answers from different fans. For the other point of view, the criteria were that the respondents are working in a sport club. Because of that they were able to give specific answers on how the club is feeling that the relationship with the fans have been affected, and how they have worked in order to prevent losing them. In order to be able to make a comparison, as well as to get more reliable answers a few different sport clubs were chosen to respond.

Primary data was gathered with the help of semi structured interviews with people active in each sport club, as well as from the survey with the fans. According to Saunders et al (2012) a semi structured interview consists of a several questions and areas which has been chosen in advance and therefore leads to a discussion about the given area. This method was chosen because of the qualitative aspect of the study and therefore to get a deeper understanding from the interviews with each sport club. Regarding the survey to the fans, it had a quantitative approach where the data was analyzed, compared to the interviews with the sport clubs where the words were analyzed.

In order to get results regarding viewer statistics the streaming site Cmore was contacted. But as stated earlier the requested information could not be handed out.

3.7 Validity and Reliability

The literature which has been used are written by esteemed authors such as Christian Grönroos, Philip Kotler, Gary Armstrong and Anders Parment. Also, the scientific articles used have been found through the search engine Google Scholar.

The sport clubs were contacted in advance, they were informed of who I am, and what the study was about as well as why I was doing it. They were also asked if they could be willing to participate in the study before any kind of questions regarding the study were asked. The

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internal reliability was also strengthened with the help of referring to the theoretical frame of reference when interpreting the collected data.

The external reliability refers to the extent which the study can be repeated, and the same results will be achieved. According to Bryman & Bell (2013) it can be problematic to achieve a high external reliability due to the fact that social situations and its environments change. In order to achieve a higher level of external reliability, the interview guide was designed to be as easy as possible to understand. The questions were formed in a way to avoid leading the interview subjects towards an answer in any way.

3.8 Ethical aspects

When reaching out to the clubs and fans the researcher of this study had a few ethical principles in mind in order to treat the respondents in the best way possible. According to Bryman & Bell (2013) ethical rules in business economics often are associated with integrity, voluntariness, which means willingness from the parties themselves to take part in the study.

The other two associations are confidentiality and anonymity for the parties involved. These ethical principles were used in the shaping of this study.

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4.Empiri

In this chapter the gathered data from the survey as well as interviews will be presented. It consists of a presentation of the clubs and their answers from the interviews as well as a presentation about the collected data from the survey which the fans have answered.

Piteå IF: Has a female team in the highest division of Sweden, OBOS Damallsvenskan. They even won the division and was crowned Swedish champions in the year of 2018.

4.1 Piteå IF

Piteå IF is a football club located in the north of Sweden, in the city of Piteå. The club has a female team in the highest division of Sweden, OBOS Damallsvenskan. They even won the division and was crowned Swedish champions in the year of 2018, which was the first time for them. The club also has a male team in the third division in Sweden.

The first contact made with the club was with the help of their club-page where a general email to the club was found and contacted. Which then gave out the contact information to the person who answered on behalf of the club.

4.1.1 Interview

The person speaking on behalf of the football club Piteå IF sits in the board as well as

working inside of the club. The person says that the relationship with the fans is good, but that almost all communication from the club is being done with the help of social media.

The person continues to state that the relationship with the fans have changed in the way that they do not encounter each other in physical meetings like before, but rather stay in contact on social media platforms.

The pandemic led to a new partnership between the club and a company that specializes on the different social media platforms, this was because the club found it necessary to get information out to the fans and keep the relationship alive. Additionally, to the new partnership, the club has also hired one person who works with the different social media pages of the club and has the company as help.

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Regarding fans and how to categorize them, the club had looked into how they can be separated depending on their age, and where they live. As a result of that, the club will try to find new groups of fans.

In order to establish, maintain and enhance relationships with the fans and to keep their loyalty, the club has as previously stated started a new partnership with a company as well as hired a person, which both has the task to reach out to the fans. Once the pandemic is over, the club thinks that everything will go back to normal and that the interest will rise. This is because the club feels that the fans remain loyal, despite all the difficulties which the pandemic has brought. Lastly, what the club has learned from the pandemic, and will take with them to the future is the usage of social media and to work more with that.

4.2 Bodens BK Handball

Is a Swedish handball club located in Boden, approximately 30 kilometers outside the city of Luleå. They have both a male team and female teams in the third division as well as fifth division in Sweden. The male team played one season in Allsvenskan two seasons ago, which is the second highest division in the country.

A person which sits on the board of the club and works with events that affect the teams was contacted and willing to answer all the questions.

4.2.1 Interview

The person speaking on behalf of the club Bodens BK Handball says that when they can have spectators on the games the relationship is very good, and that there usually are meetings and such in order to strengthen the relationship with the fans. Regarding if the relationship has changed during the pandemic, the person says that no contact with the fans other than social media makes it hard to keep the contact with them. In other words, that the ability to meet in person is important in order to maintain and develop new contacts and relationships.

The person says that the club have started using social media a bit more as a consequence of the pandemic, and that especially the female team have been good at showing what is going on in the team. But that both the male, and female teams have started to post more on social media in order to make it easier for the fans to follow the teams. However, the club itself have made no change in the organization or its way of working towards the fans. One thing which

The relationship between fans and sport clubs during the COVID-19 pandemic

The relationship between fans and sport clubs during the COVID-19 pandemic

Samuel Sandsten

The relationship between fans and sport clubs during the COVID-19 pandemic

Thesis Project

Samuel Sandsten

Luleå University of Technology

Institution of Business Administration, Technology and Social Sciences

Table of contents

List of Figures

1.Introduction

1.1 Background

1.2 Problem discussion

1.3 Purpose

1.4 Delimitations of the study

2.Literature review

2.1 Relationship marketing

2.2 Schools of thought in relationship marketing

2.3 Relationship between fans and club

2.3.1 Spurious & True loyalty

2.4 Affective & Calculative commitment

2.4.1 Affective commitment

2.4.2 Calculative commitment

2.5 The commitment-trust theory

2.6 Theory of planned behavior

2.7 Theoretical framework

3. Methodology

3.1 Research purpose

3.2 Research approach

3.3 Research strategy

3.4 Data analysis

3.5 Search for literature

3.6 Data sampling

3.7 Validity and Reliability

3.8 Ethical aspects

4.Empiri

4.1 Piteå IF

4.1.1 Interview

4.2 Bodens BK Handball

4.2.1 Interview