WHAT IS CONCEALED FROM THE EYE OF THE BEHOLDER A technical analysis of

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WHAT IS CONCEALED FROM THE EYE OF THE BEHOLDER

A technical analysis of Amor and Psyche

Teresia Strömgren

Department of Culture and Aesthetics: Art History

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ABSTRACT

Department: Department of Culture and Aesthetics, Art History Address: 106 91 Stockholms universitet

Tel: 08-16 20 00

Supervisor: Maria Beatrice de Ruggieri

Title and subtitle: What is concealed from the eye of the beholder: a technical analysis of Amor and Psyche

Author: Teresia Strömgren

Address: Uppsala

Tel:

Essay level: Master Thesis Essay defended (semester): Spring 2020

The oil on canvas painting Amor and Psyche attributed to Flemish artist Denys Calvaert in 1568 has subdued UV, IR and X-ray analysis. The result of these multispectral analysis provided a point of departure from the concept of materiality for further reasoning regarding:

attribution, provenience, art period, display and panting technique. The painting is dated though not signed, and the dating is not consistent with Calvert’s signatures. The art period is coherent with the date. Marks, seals and conservation status might support its considerable age. The paintings mythological subject and painting technique might imply that it was destined for a private broad art market in Bologna. The painting technique in IR and X-ray show a relined canvas with an Italian 16^th Century traditional built up painting layers, little underdrawing, little tracing and compositional changes. In comparison to a similar version of the subject attributed to Lorenzo Sabatini, it is plausible one version made by pupil Calvaert sprung from one composition in his master Sabatini’s workshop.

Keywords: UV, IR, X-ray, Amor, Psyche, multispectral analysis, Calvaert, underdrawing, Bologna

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INTRODUCTION

[…] but when she took the lamp and came to the bed side, she saw the most meeke and sweetest beast of all beasts even faire Cupid couched fairly, at whose sight the very lampe encreased his light for joy, and the razor turned his edge.¹

It is this precise moment that has been depicted in the painting Amor and Psyche, when Psyche sneaks up to see her handsome husband for the first time, Cupid or Amor, the son of Venus. Besides the subject and the chosen moment in the tale the material of the painting help today’s viewer to understand the starting point of this particular paintings history. With technical analysis more than the visible marks can be detected, and the painting’s appearance and alterations can be interpreted. The paintings physical features become a source in itself if interpreted correctly; and the materials alteration contributes to the history of the painting.

Aim and research questions

Little is known about the painting Amor and Psyche’s provenience; it is not signed but dated to 1568. This thesis intention is to investigate what this painting has endured during its lifetime from a technical art perspective and answer: what the painting depicts, the context of what it was made for and by whom, and how it has altered through time and therefore

changed context.

Amor and Psyche has been attributed to the Flemish artist Denys Calvaert, who spent most of his life in Italy late 16^th Century to first half of the 17^th Century. According to the dating, it places the painting to a time when Calvaert was in Bologna as a pupil for Lorenzo Sabatini, before going to Rome with him to train his artistic skills by copying masters like Raphael. If the painting style, the painting technique, the dating and the marks is coherent with paintings from this area during this time it is likely that the attribution is correct. This thesis will

contribute with a never before performed technical analysis of the painting Amor and Psyche, which might shed light on the question of the production methods.

Theoretical framework

By placing an objects material characteristic in focus, the object in itself becomes the primary source for a historical investigation. It is within the field of Technical Art History this thesis

1 Apuleius, The Golden Asse, University Colledge in Oxenforde, 1566, p. XIV.

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occurs. The object is important in its appearance as much as in its fabrication and choice of material. The material as a source might be legible for a trained observer and reveal important historical facts. The concept of materiality² is used by Michael Yonan to stress the importance of the material and its actual appearance as a discipline of its own in Art History; as opposed to for example the doctrine of the Iconographic theory. An objects material, physical

characteristics and alterations - natural or forced – becomes an essential field of research and is a valuable source to be interpreted for the initiated. To apply the ideas of materiality in this thesis, the technical analyse will constitute the core of the investigation of the painting Amor and Psyche, to a further connection with secondary sources. By a close study of material and technique, this thesis strives to answer questions regarding the paintings provenience and provenance.

Concerning the interpretation of the technical features of Amor and Psyche, and to place the painting in a context, an iconographic perspective will complement the technical investigation.

By using the iconographic perspective, this thesis will try to embrace Svetlana Alpers

viewpoint of the importance of an objective eye as opposed to an eye of a scholar tradition of the Italian Art History. By comparing Dutch and Italian art, she points out the need for the appreciation of images as not depending on an Art History in reference to Italian work of art, and she stresses its social manifestation in a broader culture.³ If the context of the painting is Bologna during the late 16^th Century, a certain hierarchy in the society and the art market is likely to affect the art produced. By entering this culture, as the attributed artist Denys Calvaert did, this might have affected his work and his craft. Then again, the painting is not signed and the attribution has been questioned. It is in applying unprejudiced viewing of the object, this thesis will try to anchor the observations in a context with the relevant written sources.

Previous Research

The theoretical framework of this thesis is based on material studies and contextual literature of the art market in Renaissance Italy. To understand the function of paintings during the 16^th and 17^th Century, Display of Art in the Roman Palaces, edited by Gail Feigenbaum, has been helpful when making connections between the paintings and its probable commissioner or

2 Michael Yonan, Materiality as Periphery, 2018, p. 7, Visual Resources, DOI:

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owners. This research project from the Getty Research Institute with the overarching theme of art display gathers relevant articles regarding the society and market during given time.

Another source is the compilation of statistics by Rafaella Morselli and Anna Cera Sones from the Collection of paintings in Bologna in the 17^th Century, which accounts inventory lists of art collectors during mentioned time in Bologna.⁴ Their work gives a reliable overview of the socially broad art market and the diversity of art buyers in Bologna. Further statistics regarding provenance possibilities are accessible through The Getty Provenance Index⁵.

One of the few sources where the painting Amor and Psyche occurs is Aurelia Brandt’s article discussing the reattribution of two works of art, one of them with close connections with the painting being focus of the attention in this thesis. Her hypothesis is that our painting is a copy of the one sold on an auction in 1998 to a private owner.⁶

What regards the material point of view, Provenance an alternative history of art, by Gail Feigenbaum an Inge Reist, stresses material marks as important historical sources. A vast source concerning seals, Sigillografia. Il sigillo nella diplomatica, nel diritto, nella storia, nell’arte - volume 1, volume 11, Giuffrè, Milano 1969-1978, has shed light upon the history of seals and theirs uses.⁷

One of the first to write about Denys Calvaert is Carlo Cesare Malvasia in his cataloguing of the Bolognese painters.⁸ Malvasia follows the tradion of Vasari in his Lives of the artist, tracing artists in their professions and is therefore useful as a secondary source to Calvaert’s whereabouts when not needing an art historical critique. Further is Denys Calvaert’s legacy from Antwerp in fusion with his schooling in copying masters as Raphael in Italy analysed by Furio Rinaldi in his article Calvaert in Rome, in Burlington Magazine.⁹ This article

4 Raffaela Morselli, Collezione e quadrerie nella Bologna del Seicento: inventari 1640-1707, Malloy Lithographing, Inc, Michigan, 1998.

5 The Getty Research Institute [website] http://piprod.getty.edu/starweb/pi/servlet.starweb?path=pi/pi.web#?, (accessed 4 February 2020).

6 Aurelia Brandt, ‘Storia di un Errore : un inedito “Amore e Psiche” di Sabatini fu copiato dal sodale Calvaert, nel 1568 : una testimonianza a lungo fraintesa del passagga dal manierismo al barocho in Emilia’, in Quadri &

sculpture, 8, 2000.

7 G.C. Bascapé, Sigillografia. Il sigillo nella diplomatica, nel diritto, nella storia, nell’arte - volume 1, volume 11, Giuffrè, Milano 1969-1978, 2006 Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali,

http://www.icar.beniculturali.it/biblio/_view_volume.asp?ID_VOLUME=63, (accessed 4 February 2020).

8 Carlo Cesare Malvasia, Felsina Pittrice: Vite de pittore bolognesi, Bologna, 1678, p. 250. Available from:

Internet Archive, (accessed 29 January 2020).

9 Furio Rinaldi, Denys Calvaert in Rome, Burlington magazine, March 2016, vol. 158, no 1356, p. 183.

Available from: Academia, (accessed 29 January 2020).

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illuminates not only Calvaert’s painting technique but touch upon Calvaert’s dating and signing of sketches, whereas no other studies of Calvaert’s signing has been found.

Material and method

The art work being analyzed is the oil on canvas painting Amor and Psyche, dated to 1568 and attributed to Flemish Denys Calvaert in 1958. The painting is part of Stockholm University collection of paintings at Schefflerska palatset in Stockholm. The provenance known is that the University bought it in 1957 by AB Möbleringskonst, and it has been owned by a certain L. E. Mathias in Stockholm in 1943.

To be able to perform a technical analyse of Amor and Psyche, the painting has undergone technical analysis such as: UV, IR and x-ray. With digital images of these investigations and macro-photography, an interpretation of the results has concluded in a technical entry. In taking a point of departure in this technical entry, several psychical features could be further investigated. When looking at details in UV light, there is a possibility to see retouches because of the difference in binder’s fluorescence and it is possible to for example trace out whether the dating has been altered. The UV images have been used to enhance the contrast and make it possible to read the handwritten text on the labels on the strecther. The dating will be compared to other signatures and dating of Calvaert and Sabatini registered on paintings sold at the auction house Sotheby’s.

The IR light penetrates the paint layers and therefore shows where the underdrawing is, if there is one, and how it looks like. The IR images can more clearly make visible density and execution of brush strokes. From the analyze results we might be able to interpret the process of painting technique used.

The x-ray show radiopaque material which gives information about the support, in this case the canvases and possible changes in composition thanks to the elements different density in the paint layers. Compositional changes might reveal the painting process in connection to its function; if it is a painting from a sketch and possibly commissioned or transferred from a cartoon likely aimed for a broad art market. When we study the contextual literature regarding the art market in Bologna we can make plausible reasoning regarding the paintings ownership and context.

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Departing from the result in the technical investigation the research questions will be examined from the written sources perspective; the sources being literature regarding: the contemporary local art market, provenance statistics, the painting subject and painting

technique, the attributed artist and references on seals and marks. With these inputs, probable connections could be established and applicable to this paintings history.

Disposition

The content of this thesis is to: foremost compose a technical entry of the painting, give a brief overview of the tale of Amor and Psyche and how it has been depicted, trace a brief biography of the artist Denys Calvaert and compare his signatures and dating, shed light on the art market and the function of painting display in Renaissance Italy, anchor the paintings physical features in the archival documents and make reference to common seal practises.

Delimitations

This thesis focus on the physical changes the painting has undergone close to its provenience to connect them with its original function. All later labels providing information to a more contemporary provenance will therefore be discarded. The painting technique and a

comparative study are not this thesis primary attention as they will be carefully studied in a fellow contemporary thesis, and will therefore only be traced out in this thesis. Canvas, wood, pigment and binding analyses are all in need of an irreversible analyse technique and will not take part in this investigation. For further studies of provenance in connection to the seals and labels, inventories ought to be investigated. Unfortunately, distance and time limits the possibility to investigate this possibility of profound archival studies.

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TECHNICAL ENTRY OF ART WORK

Artist Denis Calvaert

Title Amor and Psyche

Dimensions cm 73 x cm 59 (cm 70.8 x cm 56 painted area on canvas) Support Doubled plain weave canvas on stretcher

Location Schefflerska palatset, Stockholm University Inventory n. 303

Instruments

Radiography. X-ray tube:Gilardoni – Artgil 3; mA current, kV<60; digital scanner HD-CR 35 NDT, digital paltes HD-IP Plus 30/40 cm.

Infrared Reflectography.Osiris, Opus Instruments, InGaAs - Operation wavelenght 0,9-1,7 µm; Image size 512 x 512 to 4096 x 4096.

UV fluorescence.Nikon D800, Micronikkor lens 55 mm, filters 2B+85B.

Macrophotography/Microphotography.Nikon D800, 12 cm extension tube, Micronikkor lens 55 mm.

Support

The plain weave canvas has been doubled. Original canvas is not visible more than in a two places along the upper border. The second canvas has smaller dimensions than the third canvas and has visible holes from the front (25 x 22) and slight cusping to go with the holes along the upper and lower borders, hardly non along the sides. There are no miscoloured areas around the holes. The third canvas is attached to a wooden stretcher. The canvases are not visible in structure on the surface. Density of second canvas warp: 19 weft: 18. Canvas on stretcher warp: 17 weft: 17. Paint and ground layer ends primary in a clear edge along the borders, except for minor areas where the ground or infillings have an uneven cut. There are no sign of abraded canvas, ground or colour along the edges. Canvas with holes is torn and plied in lower left corner.

X-ray showed little contrast and the final setting had to be increased to 47 kV in 360 seconds.

In x-ray there is the original canvas visible which ends along the ground and paint

layers. It has similar density with the other two, but possible minor cuspings along the left

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along the same border. This first canvas has a clear cut, not much abraded borders or other damage. But, in some areas the x-ray shows no canvas, only radiopacity as thick as no canvas is visible in a gradual increase. This indicates that there are no lacunas on the canvas, only different thickness in ground layer. The doubled canvases have probably been glued as only the original canvas is visible in x-ray, likely due to the ground layer. UV show more

fluorescence along the original canvas borders and on occasion superimposes the second canvas.

Viewing from the back: the stretcher has three red probably wax seals on the stretcher. The one in the middle of the upper crossbeam of the stretcher could be a round seal with an M arched by a crown with five points in an a rectangular or shield formed limitation, hard to clearly see as some of it is missing in a lighter red wax than the other two (Image 9). The other two are slightly overlapping in the centre of lower crossbeam quite unreadable; half of both seals are missing (Image 10). One of the two could be legible if recognized, round, and contains six roundels in a pyramid with a six point star over it, the lower quarter of it has only three roundels visible in what looks like a up side down pyramid, the whole in a decorative mounting arched by a crown. The other round seal is less clear but a crown, the roundels and the star could be identified. Two paper labels on upper crossbeam situated on both side of the seal, on the right side with the overlapping seal in pen/ink handwritten probably saying:

Lettera S per Inventario di Maddalena (Image 9). The left one handwritten with pen/ink: w. u.

(or n) B (or 13) A· 2. One label on lower crossbeam far right, handwritten in blue ink: 303.

Calvaert Amor och Psyke. On the upper crossbeam corner, far left, handwritten in pencil: 185 70 115, close to this: 2 is written with a pencil twice, one of the written with a pencil less shiny. In the lower corner of the canvas is a stamp saying: STOCKHOLM UNIVERSITY, in a circle with three crowns and a torch with floral decoration in the middle.

The stretcher is probably made of pine wood, nails are visible in x-ray. The three canvases are in good condition, no abrasion tears or mending visible. The canvases are not visible on the surface which is current when relining a canvas, it is therefore likely that the ground layer is rather thick.

Ground layers

The ground layer is visible along a few borders where the original canvas can be detected with a nude eye. The ground layer is not visible uncovered on any part of the paint layer, only shining through where the paint layer is thin. The ground layer ought to be light, as shining

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through on the dark part of the paint layers, which are the thinnest areas. One example is on the brown areas on the supposed wooden construction of the bed. The probably glazed dark parts have not completely covered the ground in these areas.

In IR it seems like the ground has been applied horizontally as brush strokes do not follow the composed forms. In x-ray some areas is as thick as no canvas is visible in a gradual increase.

If there would have been clear cut between visible canvas and radiopaque material as ground or dense paint layer, a lacuna might have been the possible reason, but here it’s a gradual increase of radiopacity.

In x-ray there is not much signs of new infillings in the ground layers, neither visible lacunas except from the abraded small areas. But in IR, damages close to the right border along the head of Amor has been infilled and retouched. A few centimetres in from the right border retouches have been done. These damages could have been caused by abrasion from the stretcher, as visible in x-ray, and/or from a frame in combination with the stretcher.

Underdrawing No underdrawing is visible through the covering paint layers.

In IR but clear strokes follow some profiles and next to them as indications of different composition positions, for example the profile of Psyche’s right leg, on yellow coverlet and bed linen (Figure 9). The dark strokes are likely to be in a wet medium as having a thicker round starting point, thinned out. No visible shadowing is built up by the underdrawing, it might be that an invisible underdrawing is made of a dry, not thick material as chalk, pen or coal. There is one area in the corner construction of the four-posted bed where a probably a pen has traced out the beams at the right upper part in between the drapery ply as a change of bed perspective (Figure 8), on Psyche’s right over arm somewhat enhanced with a brush and another showing various positions of the tip of Amour’s forefinger on his left hand (Image 5).

Here pouncing marks might be visible. On the right side of the vertical beam, the strokes visible probable belongs to the glazed paint as they have a more regular starting point and a sweeping end downwards. There might be incisions following the drapery contours on the sheets (Figure 11).

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Underpainting ("Abbozzo") In visible light no underpainting is visible.

In x-ray the presumably pentimenti regarding Amors right arm could be interpreted. Original posture would be bent over the stomach, not alined with the body (Figure 4). There could further be a change of composition regarding the quiver with arrows. Original position ought to be hold by the right arm, not positioned besides the bed. This is suggested by the

radiopacity in x-ray following the form of the arm and quiver, and strengthens by the quiver now being painted thinly over the more finished bed and not reserved.

In IR a slight pentimento regarding the upper part of the bed could be read out, originally the cushion part seems to have been higher up. The position of the handle of the oil lamp seems to have been lower originally. In connection to this, the underdrawing of the forefinger which holds the handle has another shape than the final one which goes with the pentimento of the oil lamp’s position and the changed size of the lamp (Image 6). Other changes are the position of bed linen hanging over the bed side on both sides of Amor, a leg position change of Psyche and a shortening of the bed towards the back. Details like a pattern is visible in IR on the drapery, but as the colours are so altered; they are hard to see if existing in colouring layers.

But as they are quite broad brushed and in some areas seems close to the superficial layers, they might be painted in the painting layers, and the detailing suggesting the curtains plies belongs to the underdrawing. The pattern is similar to the yellow coverlet which suggests that it is part of the painting layers with the exception of one visible underdrawing brush stroke.

Paint layers

The dark part of the painting seems to be thinner and glazed. The lighter areas are thicker and show shorter dense brushstrokes building up a relief and a form. A profile in a dark colour and residues in some places in a light colour is visible along the borders. Some green colour is visible on top of painting layers on lower left corner/border.

In IR clear broad strokes follows for example the background drapery. A light ground is probably covered up with layers of broad brushstrokes. Long broad brushstrokes on drapery and background, thicker paint layer on details and the figures. In IR it is clear that embroidery in the hair, drapery, arrows, body details and feathers on the wings have light heightenings.

The flame of the oil lamp and quiver with arrows has been painted on underlying paint layers.

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Along almost the whole paintings border a dark profiled line is visible in IR from before additional infillings or abrasions. In IR there are visible retouches as mentioned under

underdrawing paragraph, and further retouches are visible along some part of the lower border.

In x-ray the lighter areas are much radiopaque, the dark part not. The wings of Amor have probably been glazed on with a final outlining of the feather illusion with a fine brush. The pigments in drapery and background have probably been altered in a way that little shades and details are visible; it blends together in a dark similar colour, as lakes tend to do reacting with other materials. This ought to be caused by alteration of pigments and not oxidation of the varnish as it is concentrated to certain dark areas coherent with their form. The medium suggested is oil, as it is common on canvases, diluted gives the pigments a fluidity but can further be more concentrated and give a covering effect. The cracks are visible in x-ray as a dark pattern which suggests that they go through the ground and do not expose it, hence they would be light. They are signs of ageing cracks and due to a drying process and a flexible canvas.

UV shows not much retouching; it is a high fluorescence from the varnish and is therefore not a reliable indication if there are restored lacunas and retouching.

Varnish

Ageing cracks coherent with a canvas is visible all over the painting. The varnish is slightly opaque and covers the cracks.

In UV the fluorescence is high, higher along the borders, but less on certain areas not conformed to a certain form of a detail. This suggests that cleaning sample areas have been executed (Figure 2). In the lighter parts, as on the incarnation, a more vivid palette is visible in visible light than on not cleaned areas that appears more greyish. The varnish has been amply applied horizontally with a broad brush with evident brush strokes causing an uneven stripy appearance in UV. The varnish could be a natural resin, for example dammar or mastic, diluted in turpentine, not synthetic because of its presumable age and application.

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THE ANALYZE OF AMOR AND PSYCHE

This chapter attempt to anchor the technical entry with the written sources to interpret the physical features of the painting.

The tale of Amor and Psyche

In late second century AD, Lucius Apuleius writes the The Golden Asse, in which the tale of Amour and Psyche takes part.¹⁰ The story depicts Venus who is jealous of the noble daughter Psyche’s beauty and condemns her to marry a beast. Venus’s son Amor takes pity on her and marries her instead on condition that Amor is invisible to her. The sisters of Psyche persuade her to sneak up on Amor when he is asleep, but she accidentally wakens him up with a drop from the oil lamp. Furious he condemns her in is turn and she has to undergo several

difficulties before she is forgiven.

The depiction of the tale

The tale was a common subject during the Renaissance, although which precise moment in the tale that has been depicted varies. Romano Giuliano (1526-1528)¹¹, Perin del Vaga (1545)¹², Giorgio Vasari (1550)¹³, Lorenzo Sabatini (ca 1570, the attribution will be further discussed on p. 16)¹⁴ and Jacopo Zucchi (1589)¹⁵, are examples of artists depicting the bedroom scene in different medium. Common features to recognize the tale is the setting: a four-poster bed with heavy draperies of colourful textiles during night-time. The scene shows two naked figures, whereas one of them with wings and the other one with bear breasts.

Amor’s attributes being the quiver with arrows and the bow often visible in the foreground, besides the bed or in the bed. Psyche is recognizable by holding the knife and, above all, the oil lamp.

10 Lucius Apuleius, The Golden Asse, Oxford, University Colledge in Oxenforde, 1566, p. xxxviii-lii.

11 Painting available from: https://digitalcollections.frick.org/digico/?_ga=2.123915272.380336898.1580819098- 208104558.1580819098#/archive/All/Art%20Collecting%20Files%20of%20Henry%20Clay%20Frick,%20Serie s%20I:%20Purchases, (accessed 2 March 2020).

12 Painting available from: http://castelsantangelo.beniculturali.it/index.php?it/186/perin-del-vaga-psiche-scopre- amore-e-amore-fugge, (accessed 2 March 2020).

13 Painting available from: https://archive.org/details/diemalereidersp01vossuoft/page/276/mode/2up, (accessed 2 March 2020).

14 Painting available from: http://www.artnet.com/artists/jacopo-zucchi/venere-e-cupido-dormiente-vm6at- ebpSOUhSE9-42w0w2, (accessed 2 March 2020).

15 Painting available from: https://galleriaborghese.beniculturali.it/en/opere/amor-and-psyche/, (accessed 2 March 2020).

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Image 1 Denys Calvaert, Amor and Psyche, copyright Stockholm University, 2020.

In Amor and Psyche, Psyche is sitting on her knees, she has lowered her knife and the oil lamp shines on Amor, still sleeping, and her face shows a tender emotion. She has obviously recognized her husband as Amor, and relieved abandoned her plans to kill him. They are both depicted naked, but draperied, Psyche with an intricate hair-setting with jewelleries. Psyche stands in a realistic but theatrical pose; Amor is lying outstretched in a sleeping Venus-pose, both facing the viewer as on a set stage. All in a sharp light shadow contrast with the oil lamp as supposed light source. The tender emotion visible in Psyche’s face reflects the harmony of the naked relaxed bodies, and there is no indication of the coming turmoil. The artist has not chosen the scene where Amor is awakened by the hot oil from the burning lamp, the dramatic moment where the harmony is disturbed, but right before that. Amor lies with an elongated arm along his body line. He is not holding the quiver as might have been the original pose according to the x-ray, which will be discussed further (The painting technique in the

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Art period and versions of the theme

In an attempt to contextualize the paintings stylistic appearance, an approximate art period shall in the following reasoning be proposed. The choice of the moment depicted in the tale is earlier in comparison to Jacopo Zucchi’s interpretation of the tale, when Amor is awake (Image 2).¹⁶ Amor and Psyche is, if the dating is correct, earlier in time than Zucchi’s painting in 1589. Jacopo Zucchi was the attributed artist to our painting according to German art historian Hermann Voss, specialist in late Renaissance and baroque painting, later second director of the Nazi Führermuseum¹⁷, in 1943. However, Voss changed his mind after

studying a photo of the painting in 1957.¹⁸ If our version was painted in 1568, 20 years earlier than the Zucchi version, this could be supported by the depicted moment. The precise

depiction is not yet the more typical Baroque moment, in the peripetia of the tale. This is right before; the spectator knows what to come. The moment of depiction could indicate that the dating is accurate. The focus is on the sensually carefully draperied bodies, as a revitalisation of the Antique sculptures, not the turning point of the emotional narrative when the oil drops.

Our painting alludes to the High Renaissance, arching manierism, not later purely stylistically.

Another reattribution concerns the painting sold under the name Venere e Cupido dormiente, (cm 58 x cm 48) attributed to “Circle of Jacopo Zucchi” from 1570. This painting is

enlightened in an article by Aurelia Brandt, art specialist at Christie’s.¹⁹ According to this article, the Stockholm painting is a copy of this Venere e Cupido dormiente, private owned, and that the later is likely to be a work of Sabatini instead of Zucchi. Despite the misleading name, Brandt refers to the painting as Amore e Psiche (I will keep the painting’s auction name here to not confuse the paintings). Supporting her idea, Brandt does a stylistically comparison acknowledging the proto-baroque style of the Calvaert version together with his Flemish characteristic roots visible as showing in the soft and ample faces, opposed to the Venere e Cupido dormiente being more Emiliano classicistic and appearing with a less colour contrast.

It was not until after the auction that the signature of Sabatini was found and the reattribution was to follow. The dating was set to around 1570 by a D. Benati,²⁰ which would be later than

16 Jacopo Zucchi Amor and Psyche, Galleria Borghese 1589,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jacopo_Zucchi_-_Amor_and_Psyche.jpg) (accessed 9 February 2020.)

17 ʻVoss, Hermannʼ, Dictionary of Art Historians, 2020, http://arthistorians.info/vossh (accessed 9 February 2020).

18 Sten Karling, The Stockholm University Collection of Paintings, Stockholm, Almqvist & Wiksell, 1978, p. 68.

19 Brandt, Storia di un Errore : un inedito “Amore e Psiche di Sabatini fu copiato dal sodale Calvaert, nel 1568 : una testimonianza a lungo fraintesa del passagga dal manierismo al barocho in Emilia p. 38-39.

20 Brandt, p. 39.

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the Stockholm version. This makes two similar versions, both once attributed to Zucchi now reattributed to Calvaert and Sabatini. The dimensions are smaller on the Sabatini painting and it seams like this one has been cut both horizontally and vertically in comparison to the Stockholm version. When superimposing the two pictures they both have similar

compositional proportions with minor deviations. Aurelia Brandt is proposing the theory, by a stylistically study and by the fact that Calvaert was the pupil of Sabatini and a skilled copyist, that the Sabatini version is the original one. Later sections will discard from the Italian art period classification – whether mannerism or baroque is concerned - and try to reveal the physical characteristics to show upon the relations between the two paintings.

Image 2 Jacopo Zucchi or Lorenzo Sabatini, Venus e Cupido dormiente, [online image].

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Display of art during the 17^th Century in Bologna and Rome and the Art Market

In this section, an overview of the Art Market in the 17^th Century is traced: what genres of art that was present and esteemed and how they were displayed.

The display of mythological paintings

During the 16^th Century in Rome, easel paintings started to gain popularity on the art market.

The mythological subjects were not destined to a sacral environment but were commissioned or created for the private market. The destined ownership might explain the more modest dimensions for these kinds of paintings when comparing them with for example altarpieces for the churches. Frescoes had been the dominant representation of the historical and mythological subjects, now they yielded to easel paintings to be displayed in galleries and special rooms dedicated to paintings.²¹ Paintings were integrated as loose paintings with textiles, wall paintings and modelled stucco decorations, but could also be paintings on the walls or ceilings as frescoes or oil paintings. The frames could be expensive pieces made of gilded wooden frames, though sometimes just being painted directly on the walls.²² As Rome was the seat of power during the fluctuated Papal rule, its hierarchic and intricate system of representation came to influence other Italian cities and their noble families as the Medici in Florence and the Malvasia in Bologna. Earlier devotional pictures had been displayed in the bedrooms, and portraits in the representation rooms. Now the entire thematic narrative – for private or for public viewing – with movable paintings initiated the amateurs to collect paintings and enabled the redecoration according to the owner’s preference. Paintings were placed in groups of painting, seldom a unique piece of its own.²³ Textiles where more

expensive than paintings, therefore paintings could have been used as a cheaper alternative to cover up the walls.²⁴

The erotic subjects were meant for the bedrooms as cabinet paintings. Cabinet paintings were often painted with oil on a copper plate, and had quite small dimensions. Mythological paintings were high esteemed, as historical paintings, and higher up in the hierarchy than landscapes and still life.²⁵ In Michele Danieli’s article about erotic paintings it is suggested that Calvaert painted in this particular genre following up Sabatini’s painting in this genre.

21 Gail Feigenbaum, ʻIntroduction: Art and display in principle and in practiceʼ, in Gail Feigenbaum (ed.), Display of Art in the Roman Palace, Los Angeles, Getty Research Institute, 2014, p.20.

22 Feigenbaum, ʻIntroduction: Art and display in principle and in practiceʼ, pp. 2-3.

23 Feigenbaum, ʻForewordʼ, in Gail Feigenbaum (ed.), Display of Art in the Roman Palace, p. ix.

24 Feigenbaum, 2014, p.19.

25 Feigenbaum, 2014, p.20.

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Danieli continues that Calvaert painted a few before the 1600 and from then started to produce erotic paintings for a private market using his pupils to make replicas of the same composition for a greater commercial use.²⁶ If the dating is correct, the Stockholm painting would be among the earlier ones, and in the Sabatini workshop. Although this genre was much esteemed, it was a somewhat controversial genre and question for debate. As for example in 1581 when the bishop of Bologna Gabriele Paleotti published a document discussing profane and religious images, during the Counter-reformation period which resulted in some artist refusing to paint erotic paintings with nude women.²⁷

Paintings with mythological scenes were common during the Renaissance. According to Getty Provenance Index Sales catalogues and Archival inventories 16 mythological paintings has been sold by Calvaert, among them a “quadretto da letto” sold to conte Ippolito Cucchi in 1694, and 50 non described painting’s in 1814. This statistics shows that this was a genre used by Calvaert, but it does not tell us whether our Amor and Psyche belongs to this statistics.

Paintings with a theme could during the 16^th Century be dedicated to entire rooms with different scenes alluding to one person. Sala di Venus in Castel Sant’Angelo, by Perin del Vaga in (1501-1547) and Sala di Psyche in Il Museo Galleria Borghese, by Pietro Antonio Novelli (1729-1804) are two examples of this phenomena that have been preserved to our days. These rooms generally displayed a series of paintings in the ceilings or on the wall depicting different scenes in the tale.

Originals and copies

In Bologna during the 17^th Century, the art market flourished as the consumer of art was widely spread among the different social classes. A personal or family “quadreria”, a room of art, was not mere for the nobility but as well for the bourgeoisie and to carpenters and shop keepers. As a local art history canon was traced by biographer as Carlo Cesare Malvasia, a larger group of citizens took an interest in art and these collections contained the master artists, there disciples and copies. People invested in local contemporary art.²⁸ With this market a lucrative profession as art dealers established and were influencers regarding the art history canon. Copying masters was a way to show the admiration of master pieces and part of an

26 Michele Danieli, "Pittura erotica tra Bologna e Praga: aggiunte a Denys Calvaert e Dirck de Quade van Ravesteyn", in (ed.) Jozef Matula Czech and Slovak Journal of Humanities Historia Artium, Olomouci,

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artists training. Numerous copies fluctuated in the art market. Although, the distinction between an original and a copy was not as clear as we sometimes wish to define it today, as the labour in the workshops was teamwork were many participated in the craft according to the hierarchy. A pupil’s characteristic detailing could be traced in a work attributed to the master of the workshop.²⁹ An art collection consisted of a blend of originals and copies chosen for the context and in regards to the collector’s economic ability. The Venus e Cupido dormiente is a proof of one or even many versions of a subject. The different versions are showing the use of copies or replicas to satisfy a demanding market. An example of versions reusing one composition is treated in another article by Michele Danieli, where two similar versions called Allegoria, was painted by Lorenzo Sabatini. The composition appears in a drawing of Calvaert who adds some details like a mirror reflecting the nude woman’s back, a drawing later existing as a painting by Lavinia Fontana (Prospero Fontanas daughter,

Prospero being a master of Calvaert during his early years in Bologna).³⁰ It is suggested that Calvaert’s drawing could have become a painting, now lost, which was copied by Fontana.

This example shed light upon how Calvaert processed Sabatini’s compositions and it may be why he became a skilled cartoonist for Sala Regia in the Vatican with Sabatini.³¹

Denys Calvaert

In the following, a brief biography and style orientation of Denys Calvaert’s artistry will be traced as him being the attributed artist to our painting Amor and Psyche.

Biography

Denis Calvaert, or Calvart, also known as Dionisio Fiammingo, was probably born in Antwerp 1540.³² His father was merchant Denis Caluwaert, and mother: Marguerite van de Venne. He is first mentioned in 1556 as pupil of landscape painter Gerstian van den

Queckborne under the name of Denys Caluwaerl (Galvaert, shilder)³³. He went to Italy, as was the custom for Flemish artists when following their training as artists, and at 20 years of age he entered the school of Prospero Fontana in Bologna where he probably stays for two

29 Morselli, p. 7-9.

30 Michele Danieli, "Lorenzo Sabatini e Guido Reni. Per la provinienza di due dipinti della Galleria Sabauda", in Studi Piemontesi XLVI, pp 519-526. Available from : Academia, (accessed 6 March 2020).

31 Rinaldi, Denys Calvaert in Rome, p. 183. Available from: Academia, (accessed 29 January 2020).

32 ʼCalvaertʼ, Treccani, 1974, Available from : http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/calvart-denis-detto-dionisio- fiammingo_(Dizionario-Biografico)/, (accessed 4 January 2020).

33The Antwerp Records of artists (1556-57),

https://archive.org/stream/deliggerenenand00lukagoog/deliggerenenand00lukagoog_djvu.txt, (accessed 6 March 2020).

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years and he continues his training with more elaborated tasks with Lorenzo Sabatini.³⁴ It is during this period of time our painting Amor and Psyche ought to be painted, according to its dating. Sabatini and Calvaert travels to Rome to work with the Sala Regia in the Vatian under the new pope Gregorio XIII. In 1573 Calvaert may have left Sabatini to draw and copy Raphael.³⁵ 1575 he returned to Bologna where he later opens an artist school with pupils like:

Matteo Bordone, Guido Reni, il Domenichino et Francesco Albani. He apparently teaches the painting technique used by the most prominent artist of the 16^th Century through the

manieristic culture dominant in Bologna at this time.³⁶ He was a skilled drawer, as many sketches still remain proof of.

Calvaert’s dating and signing

Amor and Psyche has been dated with the Latin letters M·DLX·VIII, thus 1568. This dating has been painted on in the lower right corner and is hardly legible in visible light, but more evident in IR, although the X·VIII is very pale. In UV light, it is visible that the old varnish has been removed on the dating, but residues of the old varnish are still covering the last letters more than the initial M and D. There is no sign of underdrawing of the letters and the letters are thinly superimposed the other painting layers, as if it is the last thing you paint before varnishing the painting.

A drawing by Denys Calvaert bought by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, had the signature: 1574 / DIONISIO CALVAERT / DE ANVERSA, in pen and brown ink.³⁷

According to article writer Furio Rinaldi, this signature correspond to other signatures by Calvaert, another being DIONISI CALVART 1578, in pen and ink. According to Rinaldi another signature: Dionisio Calvart fecit Romae 1574, is not consisting with Calvaerts signature or handwriting. All three of these examples are later than Amor and Psyche and dating on drawings which often have a more stringent signature system.³⁸

Regarding signature and dating on paintings, several examples are to follow, gathered from the auction house Sotheby’s (out of sixteen sold). The canvas painting The Holy Family and

34 Malvasia, Felsina Pittrice: Vite de pittore bolognesi, Bologna, pp. 250, 251. Available from: Internet Archive, (accessed 29 January 2020).

35 Rinaldi, p. 183.

36 ʼCalvaertʼ, Treccani, 1974, http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/calvart-denis-detto-dionisio- fiammingo_(Dizionario-Biografico)/, (accessed 4 January 2020).

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the Infant Saint John the Baptist with an angel, has been signed and dated centre left: FECIT DIONISIO CALVART FIAMENGO 1569.³⁹ The date is notable one year after our painting, if the dating is correct, when Calvaert was working for Lorenzo Sabatini.

A copper painting Sacra Famiglia con Santa Elisabetta e San Giovannino, has been signed and dated: 1584 DIONISIO FIAMENGO.⁴⁰ The cupper painting Madonna and Child with saints Catherine, Dominic and the Infant Saint John the Paptist, a landscape beyond, has been signed and dated upper left: 1592 DIONISIO CALV… RT FIANDERESE .⁴¹ The oil on canvas The Conversion of Saint Paul, has been signed lower right with: DIONISI CALVART ANTVER.⁴². Another copper painting Holy Family with Saint Jerome and the Infant John the Baptist, has been signed and dated lower centre: CALVA… T… CIT 15…⁴³. And finally a cupper painting called The Holy Family with Saint Stephen, has been signed and dated lower right: 1596 DIONISIO CALVA FIAMINGO.⁴⁴

The first signature of Calvaert is said to be the one on his La Vigilanza, situated on a rock with the name and date 1568. This signature was found during a restoration in the 19^th Century, but today it is no longer visible, according to a conservation report.⁴⁵

All these six examples of signatures on paintings, oil on copper or canvas support, show similar features. Other paintings sold and presented by the Sotheby’s auction house and

attributed to Calvaert had no signatures. In comparing Amor and Psyche’s dating to these ones, it is clear that they have nothing in common. The dating in roman letters could have been added later, or it might be an affirmation of Calvaert, being a pupil for the Sabatini workshop at the time, that he is copying a subject that is not his and therefore did not sign it with his name as working for Sabatini. Or still, it is his subject but as a pupil in a workshop he is not allowed to take credit for it.

39 ʼCalvaertʻ, Sotheby’s. Available from: https://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2018/the-otto- naumann-sale-n09810/lot.9.html?locale=en, (accessed 20 February 2020).

40 ʼCalvaertʻ, Sotheby’s. Available from: https://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2006/old-master- paintings-mi0259/lot.5.html?locale=en, (accessed 21 February 2020).

41 ʼCalvaertʻ, Sotheby’s. Available from: https://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2017/old-masters- evening-l17036/lot.19.html?locale=en⁴¹ʼCalvaertʻ, Sotheby’s, available from:

42 ʼCalvaertʻ, Sotheby’s. Available from: https://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2016/master- paintings-n09515/lot.56.html?locale=en, (accessed 21 February 2020).

43 ʼCalvaertʻ, Sotheby’s. Available from: https://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2014/old-master- british-paintings-evening-l14036/lot.18.html?locale=en, (accessed 21 February 2020).

44ʼCalvaertʻ, Sotheby’s. Available from: https://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2008/old-master- paintings-evening-sale-l08036/lot.36.html?locale=en, (accessed 21 February 2020).

45 According to: Polo Museale dell’Emilio Romagna.

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Sabatini dating and signing

Unfortunately, the signature of Venere and Cupido dormiente is by us unknown. And the only comparison material from Sotheby’s is the oil on silver copper (out of seven): Holy Family with the Sleeping Child, signed and dated LAURENTIUS SABADINUS BONON FECIT 1571.⁴⁶ This restricted reference material helps but to show that few paintings of Sabatini were signed, or at least few signatures are visible today.

Interpretation of technical features

The materials and their features are highly relevant for what techniques were used depending on genre and what stylistic result to obtain. Therefore, the focus in coming sections is the materiality, though the interpretation of analyze results are intersected with the context of the painting.

The support and its alteration

The original canvas in Amor and Psyche has been relined twice, whereas the intermediary canvas has smaller dimensions than the third canvas and small in comparison to the stretcher.

The second canvas has visible holes along the borders. The holes are quite large, regular and torn in their edges, but the edges are not as dark as if nails have been corroded and

discoloured them. If the second canvas ever has been directly attached to the stretcher, the nails must have been attached from the front. But some of the holes are too far out nearly over the edge of the stretcher, and it is likely to believe that this second canvas has ever been attached to the stretcher. The holes and its cuspings could indicate that the second canvas has been attached to another stretcher or the quite large holes indicate a temporary attachment tied up, maybe while relining the original canvas. If the second canvas has been attached to

another smaller stretcher, there would be signs of cupped borders along the painted parts, or at least abrasions along the supposed stretcher, if attached from the sides of a stretcher. However, there are no such signs. There is no barb on the painting layers that indicates an abrasion to a frame.

From the viewpoint of the condition of the second canvas it is hard to tell why it was a need for a relining to a third canvas. If current stretcher was the original stretcher for a painting designated for the stretcher, there is the question of what the second canvas has suppose to

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contribute to the history when it is probably too small for the current stretcher. Then again, what was the reason for a third relining when the second canvas seams to be in a good state of conservation. If the original canvas has been cut down from a wall, relined on the second canvas and temporary outstretched in an artist’s workshop, then maybe the third canvas was added when the buyer decided upon purchase, and the frame and the stretcher was attached.

As frames could be much more expensive than a painting, it might have been more economic to reline the painting, adjusting it to the frame.

The original canvas has a clear cut borders, there is little sign of neither abrasions nor a poor conservation status; visible in x-ray the colour and ground covers the whole original canvas.

There are only some probable retouches along the left and right borders which might cover lacunas. Further more are there hardly any cuspings on the original canvas, if there are something similar to it they are along the upper and lower borders not coherent with the second canvas holes. All this strengthens the hypothesis that the original canvas has been cut along the borders before relined. All three canvases are very similar in material, colour as far as visible and density which might tell us that they are somewhat contemporary.

Along the borders of the painting layers a coloured in-framing is visible most clearly in IR, as a dark profile. In macro-photography the colour of this painting’s profile is overall dark. The dark painted borders could originate from the 15^th Century tradition on canvases to be partly visible when framing for a probable indication of where to insert nails and or as a guide line for restretching for a final destination, as suggested in an article for national Gallery,

London.⁴⁷ When painted, it could have been attached tied up with cords on a temporary stretcher with the intended dimension outlined by a painted profile. Like this it could more easily be used as a model for copies, then not in need for a stretcher. In macro-photography some areas along the borders are white/yellowish on top of the other paint layers (Image 3).

Some green areas are visible along the borders, outside the darker profile but on the original canvas (Image 4). These residues of colour could indicate that the canvas has been a part of a bigger original canvas surrounded by a painted frame; and that the relining could have been done when cutting off the painting from a larger canvas for a new display possibility. Or, the

47Jill Dunkerton, Susan Foister and Nicholas Penny, “Original Developments”, in Dürer to Veronese, Sixteenth- Century Painting in the National Gallery, Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 1999, p. 267.

Available from: Mondo.su.se/portal, (accessed 6 March 2020).

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residues might be infillings along the borders, and the green parts are areas not covered by the darker superficial paint layers.

Image 3 White/yellowish color residues on top of

painting layers. Image 4 Green pigmented areas visible on original canvas.

Sometimes there has been a need for a second canvas and it has probably been attached to a smaller stretcher than the current one. If not a stretcher, the second canvas could have been the needed base when flattening the painting, if the painting has been cut out from the original tension. There are examples of large canvases being primed and cut to appropriate size when bought, at least in a Flemish tradition, as textiles being bought and cut out from the textile roll.⁴⁸ The current stretcher is probably not the original stretcher as the intermediate canvas exists and has smaller dimensions than the stretcher. As frames were expensive, it might have been the paintings dimensions that was changed according to an existing frame, whereas a need for a larger stretcher. As the label and seals are on the stretcher, it is not likely that the painting was commissioned as they are on a secondary support. These seals and label likely belongs to later owners.

The painting technique in the Stockholm version

Canvases as a painting support grew in popularity during the 15^th Century all over Italy.⁴⁹ The coloured light quite thick ground is consistent with the earlier Italian Renaissance painting technique on which is visible the underdrawing for the outlining of the composition. As early as from the 1520 Bologna artists experimented with darker grounds as Parmigianino with dark greyish-brown priming over the gesso ground.⁵⁰ In Amor and Psyche, the underdrawing has

48 Jo Kirby, “The Painters trade in the Seventeenth Century: Theory and Practice”, in (ed. Diana Davies and Ed Green) National Gallery Technical Bulletin, Painting in Antwerp and London: Rubens and Van Dyck, Volume 20, London, National Gallery Publications Limited, 1999, p. 25. Available from: Mondo.su.se/portal, (accessed 6 March 2020).

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been superimposed by the paint layers, and changes in the composition have been made.

Some underdrawing probable by pen is visible in IR, and it is likely that the underdrawing has been outlined with brushes. One evident example of underdrawing with brushstrokes is a slight compositional change in Psyche’s forefinger holding the oil lamp, visible in IR (Image 6). There might be a perspective change in the bed construction, traced out in a dry medium (Figure 8). Another example of a dry medium underdrawing is the outlined forefinger on Amour’s left hand (Image 5). The two underdrawing’s positions correspond to the Sabatini version. In the last example, the pouncing technique might be visible. Often pouncing traces disappear with superimposing paint layers, though on occasion they are visible.⁵¹ As no other example on Amor and Psyche has been noted, these pouncing traces are questionable.

Image 5 Underdrawing visible on Amour’s forefinger's change of position, IR-image.

Image 6 Underdrawing visible on Psyche’s forefinger's change of position, IR-image.

The paint layers consist of several layers of dense light colours and thin darker glazes with final heightening in a dense white colour. On this a thick varnish. In our painting there is no sign of an elaborated underdrawing with built up shading common in the Flemish glazing painting technique. The IR shows more of sketchy outlined profiles more or less respected by the superimposed paint layers. There are some incisions that cohere with some contours, visible in white light and viewed as white in IR as to separate them from a darker thus drawn strokes (Figure 11 and Figure 12). The possible tracing techniques visible could be part of a copying process from a cartoon.

Visible in x-ray, there is an indication of a change of composition regarding Amor’s right arm.

The large pentimento of this kind would suggest an artistry freedom not valid for pupils in a workshop. Either the master approved of it, doing it himself, or the pupil was enough skilled

51 Christina Curry and Bob Ghys, ‘La peinture ancienne et ses procédés : copies, répliques et pastiches’, in (eds.) Marcq H. Verougstraete, Jacqueline Couvert, Roger Schoute, Anne Dubois Design transfer in Pieter Brueghel the younger’s workshop: a step-by-step reconstruction based on technical examination of his paintings, Leuven, Peeters publisher, 2006, p. 206.

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to contribute to this kind of composition change. There are further compositions changes as the size of the oil lamp which has now smaller dimensions, the position change of Psyche’s leg and the shortening of the bed (Image 7). The paint layers don't always respect the profiles and some areas are superimposed on other areas shining through the most superficial paint layers, as for example the wing and shoulder of Amor (Image 8). The supposed pigment alterations on the drapery could be the cause of bad treatment during restorations or natural ageing.

Image 7 Change of leg position and prolonged bed visible in IR.

Image 8 Superimposed paint layers on Amour's shoulder and wing.

A conclusion of the interpreted features is that being Flemish and such a skilled drawer, one would expect an elaborated underdrawing, if Calvaert is its creator. But an elaborate

underdrawing is not visible. It may be that Calvaert was under heavy influence from the Italian way of using the underdrawing, abandoning the Flemish accurate underdrawing tradition with an elaborated built up light and shade not needed in an Italian painting

technique where dense paint layers covers the underdrawing. He is the pupil in a new painting tradition and eager to learn and try out different tracing techniques. Another possibility is that the underdrawing is made of a very thin medium and therefore not visible in IR more than in a few places where the superimposed paint layers don't cover the underdrawing. The dry

medium underdrawing on the forefinger suggests a trying out of the composition from what might be a transfer. The outstretched forefinger on Sabatini’s version might have been altered by Calvaert for a more relaxed pose. In this detail it might arguably possible to read out a pouncing technique used. Using a pouncing technique would suggest a transfer from a cartoon, as do incisions and reinforced brush underdrawing. The interpretation of compositional

changes in IR and x-ray as the underdrawing changes and the painted changes, where the over

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version is a processed composition. Trying out the composition is not coherent with a copying process. The paint layers not respecting underlying painted areas and profiles could indicate a more free application of superimposing paint layers from an existing sketch or a transfer from a cartoon.

Commissioners and owners

As discussed, the art market in Bologna for these kinds of paintings was broad. The wax seals on the stretcher imply a need for a mark of ownership. These seals and the paper label stating ownership could have been executed for a juridical reason or simply to keep order in a constantly fluctuant interior decoration setting. The visible marks on the painting can give an indication of previous owners. The relevant marks up for investigation on our painting are the wax seals and the hand written label in black ink.

Seals

Marks on paintings were a mean to state ownership.⁵² Insignias expressing this ownership were often made of wax seals. In the extensive work on seals by G. C Bascapé, much information about the seals use, appearance and proprietors can be found. It says that seals were of common use by notaries in Italy, but during the middle Ages they were foremost made of lead. The red wax seals became a legal mark used by the notaries in Italy from the 14^th Century.⁵³ They can be divided in categories of: heraldic type, realistic type, a

representation of a notary sitting at a desk, signs connected to the work of a notary, saints or sacred symbolic and allusive.⁵⁴ They could be: round, ogive, oval or shield formed, whereas the round was the most common. The heraldic type can be applicable in our case, out read as a letter with a crown and symbols.

Another category of seal is the private ones. Among the private seals, there are a broad variety of inscriptions, the most common being wax seals. The type of seals with letters, initials or monograms signified most often name, and sometimes the surname, although, they could signify the city name or a profession. They were almost always rounded and could be accompanied with a cross if not belonging to the nobility.⁵⁵ On secondary seals, seals that

52 Feigenbaum, Provenance an Alternate History of Art, p. 17.

53 Bascapé, Sigillografia. Il sigillo nella diplomatica, nel diritto, nella storia, nell’arte - volume 1, volume 11, p.359, http://www.icar.beniculturali.it/biblio/_view_volume.asp?ID_VOLUME=63, (accessed 17 February 2020).

54 Bascapé, p. 371.

55 Bascapé, p. 383.

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accompanied a real seal, letters could be combined with crowns - as in our case - stars, crosses or roses.⁵⁶ The crown is interpreted as a profane sign, not a religious one.⁵⁷ The art market in Bologna was arching various social classes from the nobility to merchants and other

professions; this appears also to be valid for the seals. Evolving from being signs used by the nobility to being something anyone could use. The private seals were most often round in shape.⁵⁸

The nobility and royal seals have been divided in three subgroups depending on there

appearance, being: figures that allude to the person, a representation of the person or heraldic or symbolic signs.⁵⁹ The heraldic category could be valid for one or two of our seals, but not for the one with the supposed letter arched by a crown. Although, according to the G.C.

Bascapé’s writing these studies have been based on male seals. Little studies have apparently been made on ladies seals, as our seal with a letter might be, but this study concludes that many of the ladies seals are in close connection to their husbands.⁶⁰

One need for an inventory stamp or seal for women in the Renaissance Italy is the legal tradition of dowries. The property belonging to a woman to be married from her father to future husband was legally hers and could be inherited as private property. One example of an inventory done is when Maria Maddalena Neri, daughter of collector Giovanni Franceso Negri, was in need for a dowry when marrying Giuseppe Maria Ugolotti. The painter Giulio Valeriani was commissioned to do the inventory and an economic evaluation of it 1697.⁶¹ The inventory label and seal on the Stockholm version

As described in the technical entry, there are three seals in what is likely to be red wax. One of them is quite legible, interpreted as the letter M centred in a shield form with a five point crown above, also known as a duke’s crown (Image 9). The font of the M is soft gothic rather than classic. It is quite hard to tell if the seal is round, as some of it is missing. This seal seals the hand written label in black probably ink, interpreted to: Lettera S, per inventario di Maddalena. When trying to classify the legible seal, there is a wide span of possibilities. It is likely to be a private seal, maybe with an initial, and the symbol of the crown to go with it.

56 Bascapé, pp.383-384.

57 Bascapé, p. 90.

58 Bascapé, p.406.

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There is no heraldic symbol being a representation of an important family except the crown possibly representing a duke’s crown as in a noble family. Assuming that we interpreted the label correctly together with the fact that the seal is positioned as it is, thus establishing the authority of the inventory made, this seal would have the use of a propriety mark. The question is then why this mark was needed, by whom or to whom.

Image 9 Red seal and handwritten labels on stretcher, upper horizontal board, UV-light.

The darker red seals on the lower crossbeam are hard to read as half of one is missing and the other one is not well defined (Image 10). It seems like the two have the same subject. The more legible one could be interpreted as six roundels in a pyramid on one half of the seal, with a six point star above it. It could be something next to the pyramid, maybe flanked by two wings or branches. On the other half, it might be part of a pyramid upside down. The symbols are surrounded by a medallion type of decoration. Overarching the whole seal, only half of it being visible, is probably a crown, unclear what type.

Image 10 Red seals on the stretcher, lower horizontal board.

WHAT IS CONCEALED FROM THE EYE OF THE BEHOLDER A technical analysis of