Master thesis in Sustainable Development 2020/15
Examensarbete i Hållbar utveckling
Reducing the number of cars in Europe:
Effects on quality of urban life
Lina Apsheva
DEPARTMENT OF EARTH SCIENCES
I N S T I T U T I O N E N F Ö R G E O V E T E N S K A P E R
Master thesis in Sustainable Development 2020/15
Examensarbete i Hållbar utveckling
Reducing the number of cars in Europe:
Effects on quality of urban life
Lina Apsheva
Supervisor: Stefan Gössling
Copyright © Lina Apsheva and the Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University
Content
Part I – Introduction, background and methodology
1 Introduction ...1 1.1 Project description... 1 1.1.1 Terminology...2 1.1.2 Location applicability...2 1.2 Research questions...3 1.3 Project outline...3 2 Background...3
2.1 Urban automobile dependency...4
2.2 Sustainable urban transportation...5
3 Methodology...6
Part II – The meaning of QOUL 1 Definitions of QOUL in literature and policy...7
2 Indicators of QOUL...8 3 Measures of QOUL...9 4 Discussion...10 4.1 Defining QOUL...10 4.2 Measuring QOUL...11 4.3 Part II conclusion...12
Part III – Effects of motor traffic reduction on indicators of QOUL 1 Results...12
1.1 Effects on objective indicators...12
1.2 Effects on subjective indicators...13
2 Discussion...14
Part IV – Conclusion, limitations and recommendations 1 Conclusion...15
2 Limitations and recommendations...16
3 Acknowledgements...17
Reducing the number of cars in Europe: Effects on quality of
urban life
LINA APSHEVA
Apsheva, L., 2019: Reducing the number of cars in Europe: Effects on quality of urban life. Master thesis in Sustainable
Development at Uppsala University, No. 2020/15, 21 pp, 15 ECTS/hp
Abstract:.
The transportation sector is the biggest contributor of greenhouse gas emissions, as well as air and noise pollution in urban areas. City planners and policy makers increasingly recognize the importance of changes in transportation systems that would decrease the use of private motor vehicles and promote more sustainable modes of transport, such as public transport, cycling and walking. While public policies recognize the effects that such changes can have on the urban environment and physical health of city dwellers, it rarely considers the overall quality of urban life (QOUL), which includes subjective indicators such as satisfaction with living conditions and mental wellbeing. Lack of a universal definition of QOUL and its relationship with urban planning and transportation planning in particular further complicate our understanding of the ways in which implementation of new transportation policies affects quality of life of city residents. This study examines the meaning of QOUL in relation to urban
transportation planning and policies that aim to make transportation in cities more sustainable and friendly to the environment. It analyzes definitions of QOUL in the context of urban planning and investigates the effects that new policies can have on QOUL indicators.
Keywords: Sustainable development, quality of life, urban planning, car use, public transport, pollution, health
Reducing the number of cars in Europe: Effects on quality of
urban life
LINA APSHEVA
Apsheva, L., 2019: Reducing the number of cars in Europe: Effects on quality of urban life. Master thesis in Sustainable
Development at Uppsala University, No. 2020/15, 21 pp, 15 ECTS/hp
Summary: As cities across the world look to reduce the levels of air an noise pollution, their attention is drawn to the effects of transportation systems on the quality of urban life. This text explores the meaning of quality of urban life in the context of the ways in which we choose to travel. It further explores the ways in which the choices we make when it comes to urban transportation effect the quality of our life.
Keywords: Sustainable development, quality of life, urban planning, car use, public transport, pollution, health
1
Part I – Introduction, background and methodology
1. Introduction
It is hard to find modern urban planning manifestos that do not go to extensive lengths in order to
highlight the importance of sustainable development. The same can be said about programs that deal with urban transportation. In the European context in particular, the concept of sustainable development, as well as practices aimed at achieving sustainability, have become an integral part of strategic urban planning (Gauthier, 2009). In 2009 the Directorate-General for Regional Policy of the European
Commission published a document titled “Promoting Sustainable Urban Development in Europe”, which highlighted the importance of sustainable urban development “at all political levels” (EC, 2009). In 2019 the European Commission reiterates its goal of making mobility in European cities “sustainable, energy efficient and respectful to the environment”. In the documents, the Comission stated a strong desire to reduce “the adverse effects connected to mobility” through “promotion of co-modality” (EC, 2019). Moreover, the European Union policy listed congestion, sustainability and air quality as three of the main challenges faced by the European transportation systems today (EC, 2018).
In recent years changes in transportation systems that support a shift away from use of wheeled motor vehicles have become one of the most widely accepted measures for reduction of air pollution,
greenhouse gas emissions and congestion in cities. These changes usually promote use of buses, trams, trains, cycling and walking as more sustainable modes of transportation (Gössling & Choi, 2015). In the cases of many European cities, measures favoring such changes require a switch away from dependency on wheeled motor vehicles. As in the last century cars have been perceived as the dominant mode of transportation in Europe and in other places, such as North America and Australia, they have been prioritized in urban transportation systems (Gössling, 2016). Nevertheless, today governing bodies and members of the public seem to share a consensus which is based on a belief that measures promoting alternative modes of transport will have a positive effect on the environment and will allow cities and countries to achieve the goals of sustainable development (Newman & Matan, 2012). Existing research in the field of environmental science largely supports this belief (see for example Frank, et al. 2010).
However, there is far less evidence of the ways in which changes in urban transportation will affect the quality of urban life (QOUL) of the people who live in these cities.
In order to investigate this subject, it is important to begin by developing an understanding of the exact meaning of the concept of quality of urban life. Moreover, it is important to understand what exactly QOUL means in the context of urban planning and policies that aim to make urban transportation systems more sustainable by prioritizing active transport over motor vehicles. This paper seeks to analyze these questions and to build an argument on a foundation of previous research in the fields of public policy, urban planning, psychology and sustainability. Moreover, it strives to assist in the development of an understanding of the ways in which an implementation of such policies in urban planning can and will affect the QOUL of city residents. Through a critical analysis of previously used definitions, this paper seeks to propose a wholesome definition of the term that can be used in urban planning, in particular in relation to the gradual shift away from car dependency and toward sustainable urban transportation in Europe.
1.1. Project description
Today, the majority of the world’s population – 55% – live in cities (UN DESA, 2018). According to UN estimates, this proportion will increase to 68% by 2050 (UN DESA, 2018). As the world is facing rapid urbanization, it has become as important as ever to understand structures of urban living and the ways in
2
which they interact with one another. For a long period of time GDP was used as a standard of
measurement for living conditions and the primary driver of public policy. However, in recent years this system has faced a lot of criticism. It has been suggested that traditional measures should be
complemented by measures of wellbeing, which serve as better indicators of the quality of individuals’ lives and can inform more successful policy making (Adler & Seligman, 2016).
As the concept of QOUL does not have a clear definition in the context of urban policy, it is often measured by the standard of objective indicators of living conditions, such as density, accessibility and pollution. Policymakers and city planners often rely on these indicators when making decisions and implementing changes that will eventually have an effect on not only lives of residents, but also local economy and the environment. While the objective variables do reflect the effects of policies on QOUL to some extent, they cannot provide a clear understanding of the ways in which they affect individuals’ subjective wellbeing, which constitutes an important part of the concept of QOUL. A preliminary review of literature which was conducted in the first stages of this study and focused on the concept of QOUL in the context of public policy led the author to a conclusion that there are not enough studies that strive to create a better understanding of QOUL and the ways in which it can be applied in policymaking.
This study recognized the importance of laying out a theoretical ground for further research in the field, as a better understanding of the effects that sustainability-oriented changes in transportation planning can have on QOUL also may provide a better framework for creating successful policy changes. In this respect, this study agrees with the argument that QOUL can and should be a merit of urban policies that seek to make transportation systems in cities more sustainable. Moreover, it seeks to gain a better understanding of sustainability in the context of urban planning through stepping out of the conventional environmental framework of sustainability and examining social sustainability in the form of QOUL.
1.1.1.
Terminology
Some of the studies cited in this paper investigate the broader concept of quality of life, rather than quality of urban life specifically. However, as this study uses the information that applies to the concept in relation to urban living, the term QOUL is used throughout the paper. In the context of this study the term QOUL refers to the set of indicators which determine the quality of life of urban area residents. These indicators include human health, life satisfaction, the built environment and environmental
conditions and are discussed to a greater length in part II, alongside the meaning of the concept of QOUL in the context of urban transportation.
The term sustainability-oriented policies in urban transportation is used in this paper to a great extent and refers largely to policies that promote or push for a decrease in use of private wheeled motor vehicles, which are also referred to simply as “cars”, in cities. Subsequently, these policies promote the use of active transport among city residents. The goals of such policies vary. However, in the cases of many cities they are implemented in order to decrease traffic, congestion and air and noise pollution.
1.1.2.
Location applicability
As it will be discussed further in this paper, QOUL is a concept that does not have a universal definition and consists of a number of subjective and objective indicators which can vary depending on the context in which they are being examined or applied. Because of this, our understanding of the concept of QOUL can vary greatly depending on the geographic context of the conversation. In order to provide a
comprehensive understanding of the concept, it is important to consider which geographic location or area the concept is going to be discussed or applied in.
3
This study focuses on QOUL in the context of a European city. More specifically, it examines the ways in which transportation policies which aim to reduce the number of motor vehicles in cities interact with QOUL in the European political context. The arguments in this study are partially built around the framework of the European Union transportation policy. Additionally, they are built on definitions and suggestions of QOUL measurements provided by the European Statistics Office, also known as Eurostat. While the findings of this study can be applied in the contexts of other regions, especially other “western” countries, such as Canada, USA, Australia and New Zealand, it is important to keep in mind that the significance and/or applicability of certain variables will change depending on the geographic context. These changes largely depend on different levels of car dependency in various cities, as well as the differences in quality of public transit and city density.
1.2. Research questions
This study seeks to answer the following questions:
– What is the best way to define QOUL in the context of sustainable transportation planning in Europe? – What effects can transportation policies targeting a decrease of motor traffic in European cities have
on the QOUL indicators of city residents?
It is important to point out that this study looks specifically into policies that aim to promote sustainable development through reduction of use of motor vehicles. It examines the effects that policies favoring active modes of transportation, such as walking, cycling and using public transit can have on indicators of QOUL.
1.3. Project outline
This paper consists of five parts. Part I introduces the subject and sets the background of the study. The background section discusses previous research in the fields of psychology, urban planning and
sustainable development and examines the concept of QOUL in particular in relation to urban transportation planning.
Part II of the paper focuses on answering the first of the two research questions stated above. It includes a literature review of the definitions of QOUL previously used and defined in academic literature.
Moreover, it takes a look into indicators and measures of QOUL suggested by previous research and employed by the European Union. Part II also includes a discussion section which consists of an analysis of the definitions and indicators of QOUL from the perspective of urban transportation planning.
Part III of the paper focuses on the second of the two research questions stated above. Building on the previous analysis, it analyses and discusses the ways in which changes in urban transportation policy that seek to reduce the number of motor vehicles in cities affect the QOUL indicators discussed in Part II. Part IV includes the conclusion of the paper. It also discusses the study limitations and provides recommendations for further research.
2. Background
The aim of this section is to provide a comprehensive background of urban transportation planning and policies that seek to make transportation systems in cities more environmentally, socially and
4
dependency and demonstrates various arguments about the current state of transportation systems in Europe and other countries of the Global North.
2.1. Urban automobile dependency
“… It’s mostly not true that there was some conspiracy behind (car dependency). We’ve always been on the cutting edge of transportation, and freeways actually worked for a long time. It was 20 minutes anywhere. We were building the future, the way people talk about autonomous vehicles now, the way they talked about subways before that. We thought for a while, rail cars are so yesterday, let’s just get rid of all them because cars will be here forever. That led to a problem or two.
But we’re changing that. I mean, we just passed the largest transportation initiative in American history at the local level. We’re going to be building 15 rapid transit lines at once…
I think we’re solving it by trying to plan better communities. We used to segregate away where we work, where we play, where we live. And now we’re trying to build communities where you can actually walk…”
- Eric Garcetti, Mayor of Los Angeles, 2019 There is a reason why these words, spoken by the mayor of Los Angeles Eric Garcetti during a live recording of the Freakonomics Radio podcast on June 5, 2019, were used to introduce this section. Today Los Angeles is known as one of the most car-dependent cities in the world and is associated in the minds of many with endless traffic, poor public transit systems and urban sprawl (Debner, 2019). This quote demonstrates that even cities like Los Angeles are now recognizing the importance and necessity of changes in their transportation systems. City planners now strive to create systems where individuals can walk, cycle and use public transport instead of relying on motor vehicles as their primary way of
transportation (Newman & Kenworthy, 2015). It is important to understand this development in the context of the history of individual travel.
Over the course of the last century, motor vehicles became an essential part of the everyday life of large groups of people around the world. During the first half of the 20th century many countries and cities saw
their streets transforming from public spaces occupied by all members of the society to spaces dedicated almost exclusively to motor vehicles (Gössling, 2016) (see also Norton, 2007). While, at the advent of automobile dependency, cars were accessible only to individuals who belonged to certain layers of the society, the economic rise in the aftermath of the World War II made cars available to almost every family in North America. A similar trend soon followed in Europe (Gössling, 2016).
It can be argued that it was around this time that individuals started viewing car ownership as an indicator of quality of life. This newly popularized mode of transport provided an opportunity for personal control, autonomy and a new level of comfort. In this respect, it is not surprising that city residents felt drawn to motor vehicles and viewed them as the most desirable mode of travel. City planners sought to meet the demand and revolutionize city planning in favor of the automobile.
However, several decades later, it has become evident that systems which prioritize motor vehicles and dedicate urban space to cars while putting public transport in an inferior position and neglect the needs of cyclists and walkers, are simply not sustainable (Nijkamp & Perrels, 1994). Car dependency and growing car ownership lead to congestion, pollution and increased travel time, which in turn lead to higher levels
5
of stress among city residents (Petrunoff, et al., 2018). Moreover, various modes of transport contribute differently to the outcomes of transportation systems, creating that which Gössling (2016) calls an imbalance and an “unequal distribution of “burdens” associated with transport choices” for city residents. In their book, “The End of Car Dependency” (2015), Newman and Kenworthy argue that while the environmental and social impacts of car dependency are worthening, the countries of the Global North have reached the “peak of car use” and are now gradually shifting their attention to alternative modes of transportation. This also means that cities are no longer built around the idea that cars are the superior form of transportation which should be prioritized over other parts of the urban environment (Newman & Kenworthy, 2015).
Most cities in Europe now recognize the problems related to excessive use of motor vehicles and strive to implement policies which will favor other modes of transport, such as public transit, cycling and walking (Gössling, 2016). These measures usually include investments in public transport, reclaiming of urban space for walking and cycling through renovation of roads into pedestrian streets and bike lanes, and densifying of city spaces in order to improve accessibility.
2.2. Sustainable urban transportation
According to the International Energy Agency (2017), in 2013 urban areas accounted for approximately 64% of global energy use and produced 70% of the planet’s carbon dioxide emissions. The agency predicted that these shares would rise as cities grow and the economic activity of urban areas expands (IEA, 2017). Moreover, the IEA analysis showed that an evolution of urban transport systems, which would encourage use of active transport and public transit, would help significantly decrease greenhouse gas emissions in urban areas.
The findings of the IEA supported earlier studies conducted by the World Bank (2012), which came to a conclusion that urban transportation is the fastest growing consumer of fossil fuels and the fastest growing source of CO2 emissions in the world. The world bank provided recommendations for reducing GHG emissions from urban transport, where it suggested that policymakers should seek to reduce the demand for motorized activity through “appropriate” urban planning and promote the use of “low-emission” transport modes, such as walking, cycling and public transportation (The World Bank, 2012). In the past decades, many cities around the world, and particularly in Europe, have set the goals of lowering GHG emissions, including reduced motorized activity, as part of their sustainability agendas. The European Commission has identified the transportation sector as an essential ground for reducing GHG emissions and improving QOUL indicators in European cities (EC, 2017). Moreover, the cited report of the European Commission on sustainable urban mobility explicitly stated that “there is strong evidence that sustainable urban mobility increases the quality of life in urban areas” and “translates into better air quality, less noise and more active forms of travelling, such as walking and cycling” (EC, 2017). This study aims to further examine the ways in which sustainable mobility in cities relates to quality of urban life.
In order to examine the effects of sustainable mobility on QOUL it is important to identify what exactly constitutes the sustainability aspect of this kind of mobility and which practices in transportation should be considered sustainable or oriented toward sustainability. While the European Commission utilizes the term “sustainable urban mobility” in many contexts, it does not provide an easily-accessible definition of the concept. In turn, the UN defines a sustainable transport system as a system that: optimizes the needs of transporting goods and passengers; minimizes the consumption of energy, land and other resources; generates low emissions of greenhouse gases and ozone depleting substances; and minimizes the adverse social impacts arising from transport operations (ESBN, 2019).
6
Another definition of sustainable transportation can be deprived from one of the most renown definitions of sustainable development, which was first introduced in 1987 in the Brundtland report of the World Commission on Environment and Development. That definition states that sustainable development is one that “meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (World Commission on Environment and Development , 1987). Following this definition, it can be stated that sustainable transportation is transportation that meets the needs of the present
generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
This study recognizes all of the aforementioned definitions of sustainable transport and mobility as valid and reliable and bases its understanding of these concepts on these definitions. Moreover, it recognizes that, as stated by the European Commission (2017), there is a need for “a shift towards cleaner and more sustainable transport modes and alternatives to car use and ownership”. This study therefore focuses its attention on sustainability-oriented practices in transportation which support the shift away from car use and ownership in cities and favor more sustainable modes of transportation.
3. Methodology
This study is built on the basis of previous studies in the fields of urban planning, transportation planning and psychology, as well as studies of quality of urban life. Services of the Uppsala University libraries as well as other online research tools, such as Google Scholar, were used for conducting the search of literature that went into the writing of this paper. Key words such as “quality of life”, “wellbeing”, “urban”, “city”, “transportation”, “urban transportation planning”, “automobile”, “pollution” and others were used in order to find literature and studies conducted previously in relation to the topics discussed in this paper (see Appendix A). The author categorized and reviewed the literature that was found during the research stage of the study with a purpose of gaining a better understanding of the concept of QOUL, as well as its meaning in the context of urban transportation planning.
Moreover, the study looked into the policies of the European Union which relate to transportation and sustainable transportation in particular in order to gain a better understanding of the concepts in question in the European context (see Appendix A). Additionally, the study examined and analyzed the set of QOUL indicators used by the EU statistics agency, Eurostat, in order to gain a better understanding of the ways in which QOUL can be measured within the official political and social process in the EU.
As one of the goals of this study is to provide a basis for future research and, possibly, policies that seek to redesign transportation systems in a way that will make them more sustainable and more favorable in relation to QOUL, it seeks to build on previous research in the area and provide a new outlook on the issue at hand (see Appendix B). The study recognizes the necessity of future empirical research on the topic of QOUL in relation to transportation and seeks to provide a theoretical background for such research.
As this study examines transportation and QOUL in the European context specifically, it relies on the EU and Eurostat framework for indicators of QOUL. The main source of information on QOUL variables suggested for EU policy is a report of an expert group on quality of life indicators which was composed by Eurostat and published by the EU in 2017. The report suggested a wide variety of indicators which can be used for measuring QOL of different populations (both rural and urban) (see Figure 1). These
indicators, described in the report as the “dimensions” of QOL, are further divided into subdimensions, which were also reviewed in the context of this study. This study looks specifically at the indicators which, based on the preliminary research and literature review, the author believes to be relevant in the
7
urban transportation context. These indicators include income (material conditions, perception of physical safety), natural and living environment (air and noise pollution, access to green and recreation areas, landscape and built environment) and overall experience of life (life satisfaction, affects).
Part II – The meaning of QOUL
1. Definitions of QOUL in literature and policy
As pointed out by a number of scholars, there is no universal definition of QOUL (Friman, et al., 2018) and, therefore, no unified measurement system for identifying the levels of QOUL in various cities and neighborhoods. Definitions of QOUL in different contexts may be based on either objective indicators, such as health and financial wellbeing, and/or subjective indicators, such as self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with living conditions (Friman, et al., 2018). The differences between subjective and objective QOUL will be discussed in greater detail in section 3.
In the broadest sense, QOUL can be described as an evaluation of human circumstances in an urban setting (McCrea, et al., 2011). However, most academic literature uses more elaborate and narrowly defined terminology, which often varies depending on the context of a specific study. Mulligan, et al. (2005) defined general QOL as “the satisfaction that a person receives from surrounding human and physical conditions, conditions that are scale dependent and can affect the behavior of individual people, groups such as households and economic units such as firms”. Later Marans & Stimson (2011) argued that the Mulligan, et al. definition better applies to quality of urban living and, therefore, should be used to describe QOL in urban areas specifically.
Other scholars, including those who conducted earlier studies of QOUL in the context of urban planning, have similarly pointed out the term “satisfaction” as an underlining indicator of QOUL. Myers (1988) specifically wrote that QOUL is a “political concept” used to “describe citizen satisfaction with residential locations”. Interestingly, Myers (1988) listed “traffic” and “parks” as two of the community features which can have a positive or a negative effect on QOUL in the context of urban living. Concurrently, it has been pointed out that QOUL is a concept that city planners should approach in a comprehensive manner instead of focusing on separate facets of activity, such as transportation, housing and other elements or urban life (Myers, 1988).
As pointed out by Marans & Stimson (2011), one of the most challenging parts of investigating and understanding the concept of QOUL is developing a distinction between QOUL itself and other related concepts, such as well-being, satisfaction and happiness. All of these terms are often used as substitutes for definitions of QOUL, especially in relation to subjective approaches to the concept. Moreover, they are often considered to be important components of QOUL (see for example Campbell, 1976). Among other things, Campbell (1976) argued that “satisfaction” was a reasonable objective of QOUL which could be used to inform public policy.
While the importance of satisfaction as an indicator of QOUL is extensively highlighted in literature, some studies argue that our understanding of the concept should not rely entirely on the notion of satisfaction as satisfaction alone does not provide a comprehensive reflection of circumstances in which individuals reside (Lee & Sener, 2016) (see also Felce & Perry, 1995). Felce & Perry (1995) in particular argue in favor of a multidimensional approach, stating that such an approach “accommodates both concerns that objective data should not be interpreted without reference to personal autonomy and preference and concerns that expressions of satisfaction are themselves relative to the individuals’
8
temperament and the circumstances and the experiences that have shaped their frame of reference”. Simultaneously, some studies argue that a multidimensional approach should also be applied in the field of transportation (see for example Sallis, et al., 2004).
The definitions of QOUL used by prominent international organizations also vary in terms of the extent of emphasis placed on subjective and objective indicators. For example, WHO defines the concept as “an individual's perception of their position in life in the context of the culture and value systems in which they live and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards and concerns” (WHO, 2019). According to the organization, QOUL is a “broad ranging concept affected in a complex way by the person's physical health, psychological state, personal beliefs, social relationships and their relationship to salient features of their environment” (WHO, 2019).
The European Union also favors a multidimensional approach to QOUL and highlights a number of indicators, which are separated into 9 various dimensions (see Figure 1). Arguably, many of these dimensions include indicators which can be measured objectively and do not rely entirely on individuals’ perceptions of their circumstances in a manner outlined by the WHO. Moreover, the Eurostat definition used by the EU recognizes that the concept of QOUL is “broader than economic output and living
standards” and “includes the full range of factors influencing what people value in life beyond its material aspects” (Eurostat, 2017).
2. Indicators of QOUL
In the “Final report of the expert group on quality of life indicators” (2017) composed for the European Commission, Eurostat provided a detailed list of indicators of quality of life. The indicators listed in the report were chosen based on the existing data on dimensions of quality of life, which were also outlined in the document. These dimensions were: material living conditions, productive or other main activity, health, education, leisure and social interactions, economic security and personal safety, governance and basic rights, natural and living environment and overall experience of life (Eurostat, 2017). Not all of these dimensions and indicators falling under them are applicable in the context of urban transportation.
9
The idea of dimensions of QOUL in relation to transportation was previously investigated by Richard Lee and Ipek Sener (2016). They argued that there were various types of well-being which constituted four dimensions of QOUL related to urban transportation. Lee and Sener identified these dimensions as physical, mental, social and economic well-being and argued that components of transportation which have the strongest effects on them are the built environment, mobility and accessibility and vehicle traffic (see also Felce & Perry, 1995). Examining the concept of QOUL in transportation context, Lee and Sener (2016) argued that the idea of coming up with a global overarching definition of the concept is
“unrealistic” and that it is more worthwhile to examine “the pathways through which transportation influences” QOUL (Lee & Sener, 2016).
Through the examination of pathways between transposition and QOUL, Lee and Sener established a framework, which they titled TQOL – transportation and quality of life. This framework demonstrates the ways in which three components of transportation systems – built environment, mobility and accessibility and vehicle traffic – can affect QOUL. Additionally, they argued that this framework demonstrates the connections between various dimensions of QOUL and reveals the ways in which transportation-related factors can impact even those components of the concept that do not have a direct interconnection (Lee & Sener, 2016). The following section of this paper provides a more detailed examination of the effects that changes in urban transportation policies that favor modes of transport alternative to motor vehicles can have on QOUL.
3. Measures of QOUL
Most studies which set out to measure QOUL in various areas usually implement either an objective or a subjective approach. The practice of implementing a combination of these approaches and using both subjective and objective indicators for measuring QOUL is a relatively new idea in research and
especially in public policy (Lee & Sener, 2016). The objective approach usually implies use of objective indicators and secondary data, as well as use of GIS technology and the practice of “improved surveying” (Marans & Stimson, 2011).
On the contrary, subjective approaches often use subjective indicators and primary data. When a subjective approach is applied, data used for research purposes is typically collected through social surveys and interviews. Such surveys typically ask the participants to evaluate or assess different aspects of their lives (McCrea, et al., 2011). Later these assessments are used to determine the participants’ satisfaction with the environment they live in and other circumstances of their lives. The aspects that relate to a participant’s environment are often presented as QOUL domains (McCrea, et al., 2011). Some examples of such domains are housing, health and employment. Other examples have been discussed earlier in the paper, within the discussion of frameworks used by scientists and international organizations such as the EU.
Several studies have also highlighted the need of determining an order of importance that these domains hold for respondents (see for example Felce & Perry, 1995). These studies argue that establishing a hierarchy between indicators is essential as different people may assign different levels of importance to various aspects of their lives (McCrea, et al., 2011). Additionally, Marans and Stimson (2011) argued that taking the differences in levels of importance into account can help gain a better understanding of
individuals’ perceptions of their living conditions and, consequently, the ways in which these perceptions affect their own assessment of their subjective QOUL.
It is also worth noting that the emergence of geographic information system (GIS) technology in recent years has allowed for a more integrated approach to measuring QOUL and provided opportunities for
10
analysis that can create a more comprehensive understanding of QOUL levels in various regions (Marans & Stimson, 2011). Additionally, recent technological advances allow for “improved surveying methods” to be used for gathering wider ranging data which allow for a more detailed picture of individuals’ satisfaction levels during various activities, including daily travel (Viegas de Lima, et al., 2018). These methods are enabled through use of mobile phones which leverage WiFi, accelerometer, GPS and GSM technologies (Viegas de Lima, et al., 2018).
4. Discussion
4.1. Defining QOUL
As repeatedly stated above, there is a great variety of definitions of the concept of QOUL within the frameworks of both academia and public policy. The divergence of definitions of the concept is fueled by differences in perspective (for example societal and individualistic) and by different theoretical outlooks and academic orientations (Felce & Perry, 1995). Looking past the great variety in definitions, this study found a common theme that can be observed in most definitions of QOUL used in scholarly literature and in the context of international organizations and public policy. All of the definitions included in this study pointed out the importance of the surrounding environment and circumstances, as well as individuals’ perception of these circumstances when discussing the quality of their lives.
This tendency can be observed in the studies that focus on the objective approach to the concept as well as those that focus on the subjective indicators of QOUL. While studies that utilize the objective approach examine objective domains, such as air quality and access to green areas, studies that focus on subjective indicators examine individuals’ satisfaction with these domains. Nevertheless, both of these approaches look into domains of the living environment and the ways in which they are related to the quality of residents’ lives. They also tend to highlight this outlook in their definitions. This trait is important to keep in mind as transportation is arguably one of the most important constituents of the urban living
environment and it plays a significant role in urban residents’ perception of their circumstances and, consequently, the quality of urban life.
It is interesting to observe the ways in which different definitions of QOUL provided in academic literature demonstrate emphasis on either the subjective or the objective approach to the concept. Oftentimes the emphasis on subjectivity can be noticed through the use of words such as “satisfaction” and “perception” in the definitions. Use of such words demonstrates that the study or document defines QOUL by individuals’ perceptions of their circumstances, rather than the objective quality of those circumstances. While inclusion of highly subjective concepts such as “satisfaction” is important in defining QOUL, definitions which are applied in the context of transportation planning should not be limited entirely to the subjective indicators, such as individual satisfaction with their circumstances. Transportation has a significant impact on individuals and their perceptions of life. However, it also has a significant impact on their surrounding environment. City residents may not be actively aware of certain factors of their living environment, such as air or noise pollution. Therefore, it is important that
definitions of QOUL, especially in the context of urban and transportation planning, also highlight the objective indicators of QOUL, such as quality of air and living environment, noise levels, accessibility and others. Furthermore, knowledge and measurement of objective indicators is essential for
understanding QOUL levels in different areas and can serve well in informing policy and sustainability-oriented changes in urban environment.
11
While objective indicators of QOUL can play an important role in informing political decisions,
subjective indicators can serve as predictors of the public’s response and reaction to these decisions and the ways in which urban residents may adapt to changes in transportation systems. An understanding of the ways in which individuals perceive their living environment and their everyday travel, as well as of the factors that make individuals feel more or less satisfied with their living conditions can help create better policy. Policy based on such data will have the potential to not only improve the objective domains of urban living, but also have a more positive impact on the overall QOUL of city residents.
It can be further argued that the indicators of surrounding environments and circumstances which are used to determine the levels of QOUL in various areas will be different depending on the context in which they are analyzed. While indicators such as financial wellbeing and housing conditions may not be applicable in the context of transportation policy, factors such as air and noise pollution, accessibility and public transit quality can serve to best describe and analyze QOUL in the context of urban transportation planning. Therefore, a definition of QOUL should not only highlight its comprehensive nature, but also be broad enough to encompass the differences that exist between various contexts in which it is applied. Alternatively, it can be narrow in a way that highlights indicators specific to the topic in question. Albeit, in that case a different definition should be used depending on the context in which QOUL is discussed.
4.2. Measuring QOUL
In line with the duality in definitions of QOUL, most scholars developing frameworks of measurement for QOUL have also made a clear distinction between subjective and objective indicators of the concept. It is important to acknowledge that objective and subjective QOUL require different sets of measurements and frameworks for investigation. QOUL measurement frameworks that were created to examine
objective indicators such as quality of air and noise pollution can be applied in various geographic
contexts. Such frameworks can be used to measure objective domains of QOUL in different cities without a need for any major changes in the measurement system. However, indicators used for measuring subjective QOUL may vary as different demographic groups may have different sets of values and hold different beliefs (McCrea, et al., 2011).
Moreover, as McCrea et al. (2011) pointed out, people can differ in their experiences, perceptions and assessment of urban living. In instances where subjective indicators are used in measuring subjective QOUL in various areas, these differences should be taken into consideration. Another factor affecting subjective QOUL measures are cultural differences between various groups of people. As pointed out by Mulligan, et al. (2005), people in countries that tend to have a more optimistic outlook on life are likely to report higher levels of satisfaction in comparison to people in countries where the more prevalent cultures promote a more pessimistic outlook on life. Differences such as these will affect the ways in which individuals perceive their living environment and react to changes in transportation systems. Therefore, the frameworks of measurement for the subjective indicators of QOUL are highly sensitive to the cultural differences in various geographic areas and groups of individuals and will need to be adjusted in
accordance with these differences.
As an alternative to frameworks that measure various indicators of QOUL, Lee and Sener (2016), argued in favor of a more comprehensive approach that entails use of a combination of both objective and subjective indicators. Moreover, they argued in favor of shifting the attention away from the measures themselves in favor of looking at the interactions between various factors. Such a framework can serve as a good alternative to the traditional approaches that seek to measure subjective and objective indicators of QOUL. However, such a framework will require significant adjustment depending on the context in which it is being used. Moreover, implementing such a framework will require a deep understanding of the ways in which specific environmental, political, economic and cultural contexts affect the connections between various domains.
12
4.3. Part II conclusion
Based on the results of the study, it can be argued that in the context of urban transportation QOUL should be defined by a set of objective and subjective indicators which demonstrate the quality of living conditions in urban areas in combination with the satisfaction that individuals living in those areas receive from their living conditions. In the context of this definition, the measures of living conditions should include access to public transport and other modes of active travel, as well as the quality of air and the built and living environment. Moreover, it can be said that the best way to measure QOUL in the context of urban transportation is to measure the combination of subjective and objective indicators that define the living environment in a particular area.
Part III – Effects of motor traffic reduction on indicators of QOUL
1. Results
1.1. Effects on objective indicators
Use of non-motorized modes of transportation, also defined in academic literature as “active transport” or “active travel”, positively affect human health in various ways. Medical studies have shown that use of modes of transportation that require moderate physical activity, such as cycling and walking, including walking as a part of using public transport routes, has significantly positive effects on the physical health of city residents (Pucher, et al., 2010).
As lack of physical activity is associated with an increased risk of a number of chronic diseases and health conditions and presents one of the leading risk factors for global mortality (WHO, 2010), increased physical activity through active travel can help reduce these risks and contribute to improvement of overall health. In particular, previously conducted medical studies show that regular physical activity can reduce risks of coronary heart disease and stroke, diabetes, hypertension, various forms of cancer and depression (WHO, 2010). The reduced risk of depression presents an especially interesting factor for this study, as it crosses over the border between physical and mental health, as well as subjective wellbeing. The significance of this connection will be discussed further in this section, as well as in the discussion section of this chapter. In addition to reduced risks of chronic illnesses, using walking and cycling as a means of transportation, in particular as an alternative to travel by motor vehicles, is associated with lower body weight and less weight gain over time (Saelens, et al., 2003). In turn, healthy body weight contributes to reduces risks of a number of undesirable health conditions (Pucher, et al., 2010).
According to the World Health Organization (2010), adults between 18 and 64 years of age can achieve and maintain healthy levels of physical activity through everyday activities, including transportation via cycling or walking. Meanwhile, Pucher et al. (2010) pointed out that the likelihood of people engaging in active transport on a daily basis can be increased through changes in the built environment, e.g.
infrastructure that promotes walking and cycling, well-developed public transit systems, street connectivity and density (see also Saelens & Handy, 2008). This in turn means that policies in urban planning that promote active travel are likely to lead to improvement of overall health of residents in the areas where such changes in policy are implemented.
13
Another way in which sustainability-oriented policies indirectly affect the indicators of QOUL of city residents is through changes in their living environment. Two of the main factors which stood out during the research phase of this study were noise pollution and quality of air. Both of these factors are linked to use of motor vehicles in cities (Poudenx, 2008). Research suggests that reduced use of motor vehicles and a switch to active and more environmentally friendly modes of transportation are likely to lead to a decrease in air and noise pollution (Poudenx, 2008), which in turn will have a positive effect on the overall health of city residents and, consequently, the quality of their lives.
Recent decades have shown increased evidence of negative and even lethal effects of urban transport-related air pollution on human health (Krzyżanowski, et al., 2005). According to the WHO Regional office for Europe (2003), transport-related air pollution contributes, among other things, to changes in autonomic nervous system regulation, increased inflammatory responses and increased risk of death, particularly from cardiopulmonary causes. Additionally, some studies suggested that transport-related air pollution in cities can cause adverse outcomes in pregnancy (WHO, 2004). Moreover, certain evidence pointed to higher levels of mortality from lung cancer among people with longer-than-average levels of exposure to transport-related air pollution, such as professional drivers and railway workers (Kunna-Dibbert & Krzyzanowsky, 2005).
In its turn, exposure to noise has also been linked to a number of health risks, such as hearing impairment, hypertension, heart disease, annoyance, sleep disturbance and decreased performance in school
(Passchier-Vermeer & Passchier, 2000). With noise defined as “unwanted sound that disturbs
communication and speech intelligibility and interferes with sleep and mental tasks” (Moudon, 2009), studies have identified increased vehicle traffic as one of the main reasons for increased noise exposure (Passchier-Vermeer & Passchier, 2000)(see also Moudon, 2009). This link suggests that a decrease in vehicle traffic will lead to a decrease in noise pollution in urban areas and consequently to a decrease in the aforementioned risks for human health.
As it was pointed out earlier in the paper, WHO (2010) linked active travel to a decreased risk of
depression. Other studies found that using active travel as a way of commuting to work is linked to lower levels of stress (see Petrunoff. et al, 2018). Moreover, train commuting was linked to lower levels of stress than commuting by car (Wener & Evans, 2011), while individuals who walked or cycled to work demonstrated higher levels of travel satisfaction than individuals who traveled by car or train (Olsson, et al., 2013) (see also Ettema, et al., 2016). Furthermore, research conducted by Ettema, et al. (2016)
showed that people who switched from car use to active travel as a result of policy change reported higher levels of life satisfaction. Some studies went as far as to make an argument that lower stress levels present the largest benefit of active travel for QOL and spoke in favor of using this factor for informing public policy (Adler & Seligman, 2016) (see also Petrunoff. et al, 2018).
1.2. Effects on subjective indicators
The European Union recognizes the quality of the built environment surrounding people’s residences and working areas as an indicator of QOUL (Eurostat, 2017). The EU urban policies recognize that people benefit from environmental services, such as access to clean water and recreational areas (Eurostat, 2017). Moreover, surveys conducted under the direction of the European Commission showed that people reported higher satisfaction with their living environment if that environment included green areas (see also Chiesura, 2004).
As it was stated earlier in the paper, the previous prioritization of private motor vehicles in urban policies has led to creation of a system in which urban space is distributed in a way that favors motor vehicles and their drivers. It has been argued that policies which strive to decrease the number of motor vehicles in cities can lead to a restructuring of the urban environment in a way that favors green and recreation areas
14
over parking lots and roads dedicated to motor vehicles (Nieuwenhuijsen & Khreis, 2016). Access to green areas and networks can in turn have a positive effect on both physical and mental health
(Nieuwenhuijsen & Khreis, 2016). Moreover, access to such areas can help fulfill some of the residents’ social functions and psychological needs, consequently having a positive effect on their overall perceived quality of life (Chiesura, 2004). Therefore, a restructuring of the urban environment in a way that
prioritizes green and recreational areas over space occupied by motor vehicles can have a positive effect on the levels of individuals’ satisfaction with their living circumstances and, consequently, the overall quality of their lives.
2. Discussion
The results of this study show that there are several ways in which changes in transportation policy that favor non-motorized transport and active travel can affect the indicators of QOUL. All of these indicators are related to one another and changes in one have the potential to produce changes in others. While previous research has resulted in a great variety of available definitions of QOUL, one underlining theme in discussions on the concept has been the importance of the condition of the living environment.
Honoring this trend, this study looked into the ways in which changes in transportation systems that act to reduce the number of cars in cities can affect the living environments in cities and in turn affect the lives of their residents. It is especially important to understand the connections between physical and mental health and the ways in which a switch toward active transportation in cities can affect the health of the residents of those cities.
The review conducted in the course of this study showed that the dimensions of QOUL proposed by the Quality of Life Expert Group in the report for the European Commission which are most critical in the context of urban transportation planning are: material living conditions, economic security and physical safety, natural and living environment and overall experience of life. The expert group divided these dimensions into subdimensions. This study also reviewed the subdimensions of QOUL proposed by Eurostat and came to a conclusion that, based on the divisions, the most applicable dimension in the context of urban transportation planning is natural and living environment. In a similar fashion, not all of the subdimensions are applicable in the context of urban transportation This study came to this conclusion because it reviewed all of the subdimensions of this indicator of QOUL applicable in the context of urban transportation. The subdimensions of the natural and living environment for QOUL are pollution
(including noise), access to green and recreational areas and landscape and built environment, which also refers to accessibility (Eurostat, 2017). All three of these subdimensions are directly related to and affected by urban transportation and can serve as an example of the ways in which transportation affects QOUL. This example is also beneficial because it demonstrates a connection between transportation and both objective and subjective indicators of QOUL.
While this study did not have the capacity to perform an in-depth investigation of the effects that transportation policies which seek to reduce the number of cars in cities can have on thes indicators of QUOL, it summarized and analyzed previous research in the area, building a ground for future research and policy. Based on the findings of this paper, it can be stated that policies that do not only seek to improve the physical health of individuals, but also seek to improve their satisfaction with life, are more likely to have a positive effect on overall QOUL. It is important to understand the context behind new transportation policies that encourage urban residents to reduce their use of motor vehicles and make a switch toward active travel. When such policies are implemented, they have the potential to have a negative effect on life satisfaction among city residents as they can reduce their comfort and possibly increase their daily travel time (see Simsekoglu, et al., 2017). Hence, it can be argued that the most
15
successful policies are implemented in ways that honor individuals’ subjective assessment of their living conditions and strive to improve not only objective, but also the subjective indicators of QOUL.
Therefore, a deep understanding of the ways in which policies in urban planning affect the levels of individuals’ satisfaction with life is essential for ensuring that such policies will be well-received by the public. Additionally, policies that consider the comprehensive nature of QOUL will be less likely to cause a backlash that can lead to reduced levels of life satisfaction among city residents. Subjective assessments of living conditions and circumstances which scholars often classify as subjective QOUL constitute a significant part of the overall concept of QOUL.
Part IV – Conclusion, limitations and recommendations
“There are clear opportunities for simultaneously improving health and
cutting GHG emissions most obviously through policies related to transport
systems, urban planning, building regulations and household energy supply.
These influence some of the largest current global health burdens, including
approximately 800,000 annual deaths from ambient urban air pollution, 1.2
million from road-traffic accidents, 1.9 million from physical inactivity, and
1.5 million per year from indoor air pollution.”
(Campbell-Lendrum & Corvalán, 2007)
1. Conclusion
Based on the review of studies and policy related to the concept of QOUL, which was conducted in the course of this study, the author came to a conclusion in regard to the two research questions outlined in the first part of this essay. The review of previously published academic literature allowed this study to find a ground that supports the argument this study makes in favor of an accurate way to define the concept of QOUL in the context of urban transportation planning. Due to the nature of the concept, which encompasses many areas of human life and can be viewed from both subjective and objective
perspectives, this study concluded that the best way to define QOUL is through sets of indicators. This study then looked into indicators of QOUL suggested by research and international bodies, such as the European Commission. Using a review and an analysis of literature as a backdrop, it discussed the ways in which changes in urban transportation systems that strive to reduce the number of private motor vehicles in cities and the consequent decrease of the numbers of such vehicles as well as a possible increase in active travel can affect the indicators of QOUL. The results of this study showed that while these indicators are highly interrelated, not all of the indicators or dimensions proposed by the European Commission and other international and academic bodies are applicable in the context of urban
transportation planning. Basing its argument on the review and analysis of literature, the study was able to distinguish and analyze the indicators which it deemed to be applicable in the context of the discussed subject. Furthermore, the results of the literature review showed that discussed changes in urban environment can have a positive effect on QOUL indicators such as health and built environment.
16
2. Limitations and recommendations
There is a need for further research of the effects that sustainability-oriented transportation policies can have on the mental well-being of city residents. While this project has touched upon the subject, it did not have the full capacity necessary for studying all possible outcomes. Moreover, the research conducted in the process of this study did not find any evidence that extensive studies in this regard have been
conducted before. One of such aspects, which also constitutes a shortcoming of this study, is the variation in levels of car dependency among city residents.
A review of previous literature on the subject leads to a conclusion that there are many aspects of mental well-being and human psychology that should be investigated against the backdrop of car dependency and the push for use of active transport. There are reasons to believe that the extent to which certain residents are dependent on the use of motor vehicles would affect the way in which a switch toward active transport would affect their QOUL. This is also true in relation to differences in individuals’ general lifestyles, as well as their values and beliefs. There is a possibility that individuals’ preconceived notions of the ways in which their actions may affect the environment can affect the ways in which changes in their lifestyles will in turn affect their mental wellbeing and the overall satisfaction with life, both of which constitute important parts of the concept of QOUL.
Other individual characteristics which were not included in the consideration of this study were age and income. This study did not consider the ways in which changes in transportation policy may affect the QOUL of children or senior citizens and the ways in which these effects may differ from those such changes can have on the QOUL of adults. Moreover, this study did not consider income differences between individuals and residential areas. There is a possibility that areas with higher or lower income may experience changes in transportation systems differently from areas with other levels of income. Same can be expected when it comes to individuals with higher or lower levels of income. While this study does not consider these differences, it sees big potential for research in this area.
Another limitation of this paper that presents potential for further research relates to policy. While this study investigates the possible effects of policy changes in urban transportation, it does not consider the ways in which policy is implemented and the ways in which the changes are introduced to the society. It is possible that effects of policy changes on QOUL may vary depending on these factors. Further research in this regard would also benefit policy makers as it would have potential to further determine ways of making policy more efficient and beneficial for city residents.
Furthermore, this study did not consider the relationship that reduced motor traffic in cities can have with the number of traffic accidents involving cyclists. There is data which suggests that individuals using active modes of transportation and cycling in particular are more vulnerable to sustaining injuries from traffic accidents in comparison to other traffic participants (European Road Safety Observatory, 2018). Expectedly, an increased number of cyclists and a decreased number of cars on the street can affect the numbers and nature of traffic accidents. Such an affect would be directly related to one of the main QOUL indicators – physical health and safety. This study does not consider the possible effects that such changes in the transportation structures can have on QOUL, but it recognizes the necessity of further research in this area.
17
3. Acknowledgements
Firstly, I would like to give my regards to my supervisor, Professor Stefan Gössling, and to thank him for his limitless patience, invaluable insight and continuous encouragement without which this project would not be possible.
Secondly, I would like to thank my evaluator, Doctor Katrin Lättman, for taking interest in my study and providing insight instrumental to the conclusion of this project.
I would also like to give my regards and thanks to the director of the Master’s in Sustainable Development thesis course at Uppsala University Malgorzata “Gosia” Blicharska for her patience, understanding and support in the process behind this project. Moreover, I would like to thank the study counselor of the program, Amanda Johnson, for her support and the rest of the MSD team for making this program into what it is today.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my family and friends for always being there for me and supporting me throughout this journey. I would not have completed it without you.
18
4. References
Adler, A. & Seligman, M. E. P., 2016. Using wellbeing for public policy: Theory, measurement, and recommendations. International Journal of Wellbeing , 6(1), pp. 1-35.
Campbell, A., 1976. The quality of American life: Perceptions, evaluations and satisfactions.. New York: Russel Sage Foundation .
Campbell-Lendrum, D. & Corvalán, C., 2007. Climate Change and Developing-Country Cities: Implications For Environmental Health and Equity. Journal of Urban Health, 84(1), pp. 109-117. Cao, J., 2013. The association between light rail transit and satisfactions with travel and life: evidence from Twin Cities. Transportation, 40(5), pp. 921-933.
Chiesura, A., 2004. The role of urban parks for the sustainable city. Landscape and Urban Planning, Volume 68, pp. 129-138.
Debner, S. J., 2019. Notes From an Imperfect Paradise (Ep. 380). [Sound Recording] (Freakonomics Radio).
EC, 2009. Promoting sustainable urban development in Europe, Belgium: European Communities. EC, 2017. Sustainable Urban Mobility: European Policy, Practice and Solutions , Brussels: European Commission: Directorate-General for Mobility and Transport Directorate - Investment, Innovative & Sustainable Transport.
EC, 2018. Transport in the European Union. Current Trends and Issues, Brussels: European Commission.
EC, 2019. European Commission: Mobility and Transport. [Online] Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/sustainable_en [Accessed 2019].
ESBN, 2019. Transport. [Online]
Available at: https://esbn.unescap.org/our-work/transport [Accessed 2019].
Ettema, D., Friman, M., Gärling, T. & Olsson, L. E., 2016. Travel Mode Use, Travel Mode Shift and Subjective Well-Being: Overview of Theories, Empirical Findings and Policy Implications. In: Mobility,
Sociability and Well-being of Urban Living . Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
European Road Safety Observatory, 2018. Traffic Safety Basic Facts 2018, Brussels: European Commission.
Eurostat, 2017. Final report of the expert group on quality of life indicators, Luxembourg: European Union.
19
Eurostat, 2019. Quality of life. [Online]
Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/gdp-and-beyond/quality-of-life [Accessed 2019].
Eurostat, 2019. Quality of Life (QOL) > Data: Background Information. [Online] Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/gdp-and-beyond/quality-of-life/data [Accessed 2019].
Felce, D. & Perry, J., 1995. Quality of life: Its definition and measurement. Research in Development
Disabilities, 16(1), pp. 51-74.
Frank, L. D. et al., 2010. Carbonless footprints: Promoting health and climate stabilization through active transportation. Preventive Medicine, Volume 50, pp. S99-S105.
Friman, M., Ettema, D. & Olsson, L. E., 2018. Quality of Life and Daily Travel: An Introduction. In:
Quality of Life and Daily Travel. s.l.:Springer International Publishing AG.
Gössling, S., 2016. Urban transport justice. Journal of Transport Geography, Volume 54, pp. 1-9. Gössling, S. & Choi, A. S., 2015. Transport transitions in Copenhagen: Comparing the cost of cars and bicycles. Ecological Economics , Issue 113, pp. 106-113.
Gauthier, M., 2009. Urban planning and sustainable development. Environnement Urbain / Urban
Environment, Volume 3.
IEA, 2017. Energy Technology Perspectives 2017: Catalysing Energy Technology Transformations, Paris: International Energy Agency .
International Energy Agency, 2016. Cities are at the frontline of the energy transition. [Online] Available at: https://www.iea.org/newsroom/news/2016/september/cities-are-at-the-frontline-of-the-energy-transition.html
[Accessed 2019].
Krzyżanowski, M., Kunna-Dibbert, B. & Schneider, J., 2005. Health effects of transport-related air
pollution. s.l.:WHO Regional Office Europe.
Kunna-Dibbert, B. & Krzyzanowsky, M., 2005. Health risk assessment of transport-related air pollution. In: Health effects of transport-related air pollution. Copenhagen: WHO Regional Office for Europe. Lee, R. J. & Sener, I. N., 2016. Transportation planning and quality of life: Where do they intersect?.
Transport Policy, Volume 48, pp. 146-155.
Marans, R. W. & Stimson, R., 2011. An Overview of Quality of Urban Life. In: A. C. Michalas, ed.
Investigating Quality of Urban Life: Theory, Methods and Empirical Research. London New York:
Springer Science+Business Media , pp. 1-29.
McCrea, R., Marans, R. W. S. R. & Western, J., 2011. Subjective Measurement of Quality of Life Using Primary Data Collection and the Analysis of Survey Data. In: Investigating Quality of Urban Life:
Theory, Methods, and Empirical Research. London New York: Springer Scienve+Business Media, pp.
