Video Game
Narratives in
Swedish EFL
Teaching:
A Study of How the Use of Video Game
Narratives Could Potentially Aid or Hinder
Swedish EFL Teaching
Supervisor: Jenny Siméus Anton Ljungvall
English for Subject Teachers, 61-90 credits Degree Project (15 credits)
Abstract
Video Game Narratives in Swedish EFL Teaching: A Study of How the Use of Video Game Narratives Could Potentially Aid or Hinder Swedish EFL Teaching
By: Anton Ljungvall Length of essay: 21 pages
This study aims to explore the potential benefits and disadvantages of utilizing video game narratives in Swedish EFL teaching. The subject is approached through a qualitative literature review of previous research on the use of video games inthe process of L2 acquisition. The results are then discussed from a sociocultural perspective, in relation to the frameworks introduced in the background and to the Swedish steering documents.
The results indicate that video games are likely to be part of many students’ out-of-school experiences of the English language and that playing video games can be seen as an example of extramural language learning. The results also highlight how engaging in multiplayer video game narratives can aid L2 acquisition by for example increasing motivation, expanding learner vocabulary and by providing learners with strategies for discourse management such as politeness, humor and small talk. The collaborative and interactive nature of the video game narrative and of video game communities is also shown to align well with the Swedish steering documents that promote social interaction and the development of communicative competence.
However, direct classroom implementation of video games is problematized by the fact that not all students have previous experience or tools for interacting with the video game format of storytelling and that gender discrepancies in video game consumption could lead to boys benefiting more than girls from language learning through video game narratives.
Table of Contents
Introduction ... 1
Background ... 1
The emergence of video game culture ... 2
Video game narratives ... 3
Swedish Curriculum and Syllabus ... 5
Communicative competence ... 7 Multimodality ... 8 Theoretical perspective ... 8 Aim ... 9 Method ... 9 Search criteria ... 10 Primary sources ... 10 Results ... 12
Video game narratives as an example of extramural language learning ... 12
The socio-emotional impact of video game narratives on L2 communication ... 13
Interacting with video game narratives requires the development of specific literacies ... 15
Effects of video game narratives on learner motivation, vocabulary and the development of discourse management skills ... 16
Discussion ... 17
Relating to students’ experiences ... 19
Multimodality ... 19
Communicative competence ... 20
Social interaction ... 20
Conclusion ... 21
Suggestions for further research ... 21
Introduction
The art of storytelling has been essential to society throughout human history. Since the first lie was told, the ability to tell a compelling story has been the foremost tool of power and influence in the human arsenal (Gee & Hayes, 2011, p. 29). The tools and expressions might have changed, but stories have been told for as long as there have been ears to hear. People have been creating digital stories since before the dawn of the internet era, but only in recent years have digital platforms been made readily available to the global population. Visual media, such as films and television series are consumed at a higher rate than ever and one form of media that has become increasingly more popular is the video game. Today, the video game industry is “booming”, with video game sales continually increasing and more and more young people engaging with video game culture (CNBC, 2018).
The emergence of the video game genre can in many ways be compared to that of film. In an article from 2011, Tony Brown describes how film has become “immeasurably larger in volume and richer in tradition and study” compared to just 20 years ago and how “despite this, film is still not widely used as a main reference source in teaching” (2011, p. 235). Brown continues to describe how “there remains an element of having to pretend its use as something else in order to bolster its acceptance” and how film could actually offer a form of text that speaks to students on different levels than the more commonly used written word (p. 236).
The same argument can also be used to describe the video game genre, which only in recent years has become acknowledged as a potential tool for teaching and learning (Karagiorgas & Niemann, 2017, p. 501). But what unique capabilities does the video game genre offer as opposed to other forms of media? This study attempts to investigate how the interactive video game narrative can aid or hinder Swedish EFL teaching, by conducting a literary review of previous research on the subject.
Background
There have been a number of studies and articles written within the field of game studies regarding the concept of video game narratology, for example, in Storyplaying: Agency
and Narrative in Video Games where Sebastian Domsch analyses the concept of video
game narration, highlighting the uniqueness of the video game format by measures of interactivity (Domsch, 2013). Domsch compares the video game genre to others and
distinguishes how interactivity and reader agency set this genre aside from others. Video games differ in style and form and “rather than games being narratives, they contain narratives through narrative forms” (Domsch, 2013, p. 31). Domsch also describes how elements of interactivity can shape the video game narratives in a unique way: “Through the incorporation of choice, video games easily can (though they need not) become strongly non-unilinear in their design, either through the redundancy of multiple-paths or through de-chronologization” (Domsch, 2013, p. 53). This means that the inclusion of player choice in the video game narrative structure results in that the order and manner in which events unfold become randomized and impossible to fully predict. This definition of interactive narration is explained further under the heading “video game narratives”.
Video games have increased in popularity and accessibility over the last couple of decades but are still considered to be more niche than films and tv-series. A study of young Swedish people’s media consumption shows that video games, unlike movies, are consumed much less frequently after the age of 18, and the same study also suggests that the reason for this might be that video games are regarded as being more childish than other forms of media (Statens medieråd, 2019, p. 42). Still, the distinction between what constitutes a movie and video game is primarily made with regards to measures of interactivity, where video games are “both object and process; they can’t be read as texts or listened to as music, they must be played” (Espen, 2001, p. 1). When films include the option to choose outcomes, they become increasingly like video games and when video games rely less on player choice and more on predetermined storylines, they become more like film. The two are no longer mutually exclusive (Schenk, 2013, p. 45).
The emergence of video game culture
Much like with the explosive expansion of cinematography and film during recent decades, video game narration has evolved significantly during a relatively short period of time. It used to be that writing and architecture were the main carriers of culture and civilization, but digital media has since become “the vehicle of cultural transmission of our time” (Barrie-Anthony, 2005). According to Swedish public health authorities, more than half of young people between 9-18 years of age play video games regularly and especially teenage boys tend to spend several hours a day playing video games (Folkhälsomyndigheten, 2020).
Video games can be divided into two large classes: “casual games” and “world games” (2011, p. 78). Casual games are usually designed around a single type of problem, can be
played for short periods of time and are simple to learn but difficult to master. World games, on the other hand, require of the player to navigate one or several characters inside a more complex world affected by space and time (p. 78). These games let the players solve multiple sorts of problems, take a longer time to finish and often require longer play sessions for the player to progress. It is primarily world games that contain substantial narrative structures (p. 78), and research on the use of video game narration in teaching therefore tends to refer to world games, rather than casual games in their studies.
World games have intricate environmental designs and extensive virtual environments that are accessible to travel or exploration, and simply beholding the visual appearance of a game is something that appeals to many players (Roberts & Kelly, 2018). World games with rich stories and complex narrative structures often generate questions and discussion amongst players, and in some cases, community-driven wiki-pages1 are even organized to
collect and compile information about the game’s characters and lore2. An example of a
game with such a devoted following is the highly successful and popular MMORPG3
World of Warcraft, where thousands of players inhabit the same virtual online world
simultaneously and in which players have to cooperate to solve different objectives in smaller and larger groups.
It is, however, important to underline that not all user experiences of video games are positive and that studies have also shown that excessive gaming time can lead to negative implications for young people such as video game addiction, sleep deprivation and ”not having the time to do school assignments” (Hellström, 2013). As with most hobbies, it is easy to get ‘hooked’ on video games and virtual game worlds can sometimes become an escape from everyday life, thereby distancing players from reality, family and friends.
Video game narratives
Video game narratives are unique in that they contain elements of interactivity and player choice. Domsch suggests the following about video game players interacting with the game world: “immersive stories invite our participation by offering us many things to keep track
1 A wiki is a site that is designed for groups of people to quickly capture and share ideas by creating simple
pages and linking them together (Microsoft, 2020).
2“Knowledge and information related to a particular subject, especially when this is not written down; the
stories and traditions of a particular group of people” Oxford Learners Dictionaries, s.v. “Lore”, accessed December 30, 2020, https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/lore
3 Massive Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game – a game in which a large number of players, often
of and by rewarding our attention with a consistency of imagination” (Domsch, 2013, p. 99). Like in participatory theatre, digital platforms create the experience of a live stage performance, where the actions of the reader are allowed to change the outcome of the story. By interacting with their environment, players constantly shape and shift their surroundings, creating the illusion of autonomy, while ultimately being limited by the rules and confinements of the games programing.
The experience of player autonomy is especially captured in pivotal moments of choice, sometimes referred to as “nodal” situations where players are allowed to choose between different paths, often with great consequence to the narrative (Domsch, 2013). The possibility to make crucial decisions for the direction of the story is what sets the video game narrative aside from other genres the most, or to quote Domsch: “No other medium provides its users as consistently with nodal situations that involve choice as do video games” (2013, p. 96).
The introduction of alternative routes to take and choices to make also leads to several potential outcomes for the story. Bode et. al. call this the “future narrative” (Bode, Dietrich, & Kranhold, 2013, p. 2). Sometimes the future is decided by the reader and sometimes it is chosen at random, but in both cases, there exists a potential for the outcome of the story that is yet to be revealed or chosen. An example of this can be found in the western styled video game Red Dead Redemption 2, in a sequence where the player-controlled protagonist, Arthur, encounters a man hanging from a cliff. The player can choose to save the man which leads to an optional side narrative in which Arthur helps the man, who turns out to be a photographer, to take pictures of rare animals in several locations throughout the virtual world. This also means that the player learns the story of how the man ended up on the cliff, what mysterious fate has befallen his family and much more. Alternatively, the player could choose to leave the man hanging, missing out on the chance to get to know the photographer all together. The player could also choose to push the man of the cliff, which could result in persecution from law officers and establishing a reputation in the game world as a murderer and an outlaw. Throughout a playthrough of a world game, the player will most likely encounter many such situations where the actions they choose to take, or not take, will directly affect the narrative and the outcome of the story.
Swedish Curriculum and Syllabus
In this section, parts of the steering documents that are of relevance to the present study are presented. These will later be discussed in relation to the results of the literary review. The concepts of communicative competence and multimodality are then explained since these become especially relevant for the present study.
The Swedish curriculum states that “school should make use of the knowledge and experience available in the surrounding environment, and which students have acquired from i.a. working life” (Skolverket, 2013, p. 7) and that “the world students meet in school and the work they take part in should all help in preparing students for life after school” (Skolverket, 2013, p. 6). This demonstrates an aim to make teaching and learning relevant in the current cultural and societal context, instead of something detached from it.
The curriculum also states that students are supposed to develop abilities to “use non-fiction, fiction and other forms of culture as a source of knowledge, insight and pleasure“ (Skolverket, 2013, p. 8).
The upper-secondary school syllabus for English, in the first paragraph, states that:
Knowledge of English increases the individual's opportunities to participate in different social and cultural contexts, as well as in global studies and working life. Knowledge of English can also provide new perspectives on the surrounding world, enhanced opportunities to create contacts, and greater understanding of different ways of living (Skolverket, 2011, p. 1).
Here, the role of language in social and cultural interaction is highlighted, but also the important values of solidarity and understanding that can come from being able to communicate clearly across national and cultural borders. This would include the ability to communicate with digital media, where much of students’ social interaction takes place. The Swedish syllabus for English puts emphasis on communication above adherence to grammar rules and in the aims section of the syllabus, the importance of communicative skills is explicitly highlighted:
Teaching of English should aim at helping students to develop knowledge of language and the surrounding world so that they have the ability, desire and confidence to use English in different situations and for different purposes. Students should be given the opportunity, through the use of language in functional and meaningful contexts, to develop all-round communicative skills (Skolverket, 2011, p. 1).
The syllabus states that “teaching should […] help students develop language awareness and knowledge of how a language is learned through and outside teaching contexts“
(Skolverket, 2011, p. 1), meaning that students should be made aware that learning can occur both in a formal and an informal setting. This view of students as autonomous language learners even outside the classroom, is rooted in constructivism, where the active role that learners play in the learning process is especially highlighted (Lai, 2017).
Finally, the syllabus mentions again how, “in teaching, students should meet written and spoken English of different kinds and relate the content to their own experiences and knowledge” (Skolverket, 2011, p. 1).
English 5
Besides covering the content specified in the aim of the subject, the English 5 course for upper secondary school also includes course specific core content divided into the categories: content of communication, reception, production and interaction. Under “content of communication”, reference is once again made to students’ previous experiences: “Subject areas related to students' education, and societal and working life; current issues; events and processes; thoughts, opinions, ideas, experiences and feelings; relationships and ethical issues” (Skolverket, 2011, p. 3). The course also deals with “content and form in different kinds of fiction” (p. 3). There might be several definitions of what fiction means in this context, but since no such definition is established, a wider concept of fiction as something that describes imaginary characters and events4, might be
assumed.
Under the heading “reception”, the syllabus mentions spoken language, but also “film and other media”, the latter part indicating a connection to multimodality and the use of different text-types (Skolverket, 2011, p. 3).
Students are also meant to learn “strategies for listening and reading in different ways and for different purposes” (p. 3), which can also be related to communicative competence. It is also stated that students should be made to reflect on “how words and phrases in oral and written communications create structure and context by clarifying introduction, causal connection, time aspects, and conclusions” (p. 3). This would support the argument for using narratology and textual analysis in the English courses.
Under the heading “production”, the syllabus specifies “strategies for contributing to and actively participating in discussions related to societal and working life” as one of
4 “The type of book or story that is written about imaginary characters and events and not based on real
people and facts” Cambridge Dictionary s.v. “Fiction”, accessed December 30, 2020 (https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/fiction).
three focuses, the other two being “oral and written production and interaction of various kinds […] where students instruct, narrate, summarise, explain, comment, assess, give reasons for their opinions, discuss and argue” and “processing of their own and others’ oral and written communications” (p. 4). These three once again highlight the importance of communication and social interaction and require that students engage with others in both speech and writing.
English 6 and 7
In the English 6 and 7 courses, “subject areas related to students' educational and societal life” are again included in the content of communication (Skolverket, 2011, pp. 7, 11). “Form and content in film and literature” as well as “texts of different kinds and for different purposes” and “film and other media” are also mentioned as parts of what students are supposed to encounter during the courses (Skolverket, 2011, pp. 7, 11). Within these more advanced courses, focus is placed more on a formal language context and therefore, less room is given for language learning connected to extracurricular or informal settings. However, it is still stated that students should encounter “spoken and written language in various genres” and that students are supposed to process “language and structure in their own and others’ oral and written communications”, which adheres to a communicative approach to language learning (Skolverket, 2011, p. 12).
In summary, the steering documents seem to indicate that Swedish EFL teaching should: be related to students’ previous experiences, employ a multimodal understanding of texts and utilize different forms of media. It should also aid students in the development of communicative competence by teaching students how to adapt their language and to interact in different ways, in different contexts as well as enable social interaction.
Communicative competence
The concept of communicative competence is based on the premise that speakers adapt their language to specific recipients and contexts and that language is to be considered a social phenomenon (Lundahl, 2019, p. 97). It also stresses that L2 acquisition takes place in a social context and that the process is therefore dependent on interhuman communication (p. 97).
Communicative Language Teaching had its breakthrough in Sweden in the 1980s with the curriculum for elementary school and has since surpassed grammar as the primary
focus for Swedish EFL teaching (Lundahl, 2012, s. 96). The term communicative competence refers to the “ability to use language appropriately in different settings” and to the more socially bound aspects of language (Mesthrie, 2009, p. 5). This puts less emphasis on adherence to prescriptive grammar rules and more on successful communication, where both parts can understand the other.
Multimodality
When embracing an understanding of texts as multimodal, one seeks to distinguish and categorize them by their function, rather than their form, recognizing that several different literacies are required in the understanding of a single text (Lundahl, 2019, p. 455). Multimodal texts make use of different modes to communicate meaning and often require specific tools to be read and interpreted.
Theoretical perspective
This study, like the Swedish steering documents, employs a sociocultural understanding of language learning and development. Sociocultural theory, which is often associated with theorists like Vygotskij, states that reading is a mediated process of inner dialog between the self and the text, in which knowledge is constructed and not merely received or passively transferred (Lundahl, 2019, p. 130). The theory means that mediating tools construct the learning process and shape the knowledge that is then constructed. According to Vygotskij, there exists a “zone of proximal development” (ZPD) between an achieved level of competence and a potential future competence, in which a learner requires “scaffolding” to progress (s. 160). Within this zone, learners are presented with challenges where they require more advanced learners to guide them. Sociocultural theory also stresses the importance of participation and cooperation in social contexts and claims that learning is situated in the process of communication, with support from others (Lundahl, 2012, s. 158).
Sociocultural theory has also influenced the field of second-language acquisition (SLA) theory and according to James Lantolf and Steven Thorne, the sociocultural version of SLA theory is centered around the concept of mediation (Lantolf & Thorne, 2007, p. 198). Learners make use of mediating tools in the construction of knowledge which uniquely shapes their mental activity. Lantolf and Thorne also describe how cultural artifacts, such as language, become internalized through imitation and take on a psychological function. They appear first in communication with others, and then within the individual. This means
that the mediating tools used for learning will directly shape and situate the learner’s knowledge in a certain context. Sociocultural SLA theory therefore suggests the use of “tasks that parallel activities in the everyday world” or task-based learning where language is used as a means to some concrete end (Lantolf & Thorne, 2007, p. 208).
Aim
The purpose of this study is to examine how the use of video game narratives could aid or hinder the process of L2 acquisition in a Swedish EFL context, by conducting a literary review of previous research.
The study is based on the following research questions:
• How can L2 acquisition be aided or hindered by the use of video game narratives?
• How could Swedish EFL teaching in particular be benefited or disadvantaged by utilizing video game narratives?
Method
This project employs a qualitative method of literature review, where a meta-analysis of previous studies on video game narration and L2 acquisition is conducted. The meta-analysis combines “the results of studies conducted by various researchers to obtain an overall combined result” or synthesis (Pan, 2017, p. 125). The previous research has been analyzed in search of reoccurring themes and patterns which are then presented in the results section. This method requires that the material is representative of the field, and that it presents arguments that are both supportive and critical, if such arguments exist (Pan, 2017, p. 17). Studies that both support and problematize the role of video games in L2 acquisition are therefore included in the literary review. The findings of the literature review are then discussed in relation to the aim and research questions, information activated in the background, theoretical perspectives and the Swedish steering documents. The sections that are highlighted in the Swedish steering documents as well as the categorization of the results of the literary review are obtained by utilizing a hermeneutic method of close reading. The hermeneutic method is built on the process of interpreting content and is sometimes described as “the art or science of interpretation” (Malpas & Gander, 2015, s. 1). As interpretations are highly subjective by nature, it is impossible to
extrapolate the gaze of the reader from the equation, meaning that the observations made are also likely to be subjective or biased by the interpreter.
Search criteria
The academic field of game studies is a relatively young one and there are several disciplines and approaches which have contributed to its emergence ranging from “history and anthropology to psychology, sociology, educational sciences, computer sciences, and lately, particularly literary and art studies” (Mäyrä, 2008, p. 11). In this study, however, only research connected to educational sciences will be referred to, since the scope of the project concerns a teaching and learning context. The studies have been obtained by means of library searches, database searches on ERIC (EBSCO), and Google Scholar as well as through referencing and citations encountered in the literature. The literature searches have primarily been centered around the following keywords: video games, narration,
education, teaching, L2, EFL and learning, in varied grammatical forms and orders.
Primary sources
New Language Learning and Teaching Environemts: digital games in language learning and teaching (2012) edited by Hayo Reinders contains several research articles written by
researchers that have studied the potential of video games for teaching and learning. Several of the articles presented by Reinders et al. regard diferent aspects of video games connected to L2 language learning and are therefore included as primary sources for the present study (marked * in the table). It could be considered problematic that these sources come from the same edited volume, but since I find them to be representative of the field and to present arguments that both support and question the role of video games in the process of teaching and learning, I have chosen to include them in the present study nevertheless. In addition to Reinder’s publication, the study includes texts written by Chik, Enevold, Gee, Hayes, Lai, McQuiggan, Olin-Scheller, Piirainen-Marsh, Tainio, Sanford, Madill, Sundqvist, Sylvén, and Thoss as represented in the following table.
Author Title Year of
publication
Type
Chik, A. Digital Gameplay for Autonomous Foreign Language Learning: Gamers' and Language Teachers' Perspectives
2012 Book chapter *
Enevold, J. Datorspel som Pedagogisk Resurs 2012 Book chapter Enevold, J. Digital Materialities and Family
Practices
2014 Article
Enevold, J. Mama Ludens Ex Domo 2016 Article
Gee, J. P. What Video Games Have to Teach us About Learning and Literacy
2003 Book
Gee, J. P. Assessing Serious Games: The GRAND Assessment Framework
2014 Article
Gee, J. P. & Hayes, E. R.
Language and Learning in the Digital Age
2011 Book
Lai, C. Autonomous Language Learning with Technology
2017 Book
McQuiggan, S. W. et al.
Story-based Learning: The Impact of Narrative on Learning Experiences and Outcomes
2008 Article
Olin-Scheller, C.
Mellan Dante och "Big Brother": En Studie om Gymnasieelevers
Textvärldar
2006 Dissertation
Peterson, M. Language Learner Interaction in a Massively Multiplayer Online Role-playing Game 2012 Book chapter * Piirainen-Marsh, A. & Tainio, L.
Other‐repetition as a Resource for Participation in the Activity of Playing a Video Game
2009 Article
Reinders, H. & Wattana, S.
Talk To Me! Games and Students' Willingness to Communicate
2012 Book chapter *
Reinhardt, J. & Sykes, J. M.
Conceptualizing Digital
Game-mediated L2 Learning and Pedagogy: Game-enhanced and Game-based Research and Practice
2012 Book chapter *
Sanford, K. & Madill, L.
Understanding the Power of New Literacies Through Video Game Play and Design
2007 Article
Sundqvist, P. Extramural English Matters: Out-of-school English and its Impact on Swedish Ninth Graders' Oral Proficiency and Vocabulary
2009 Dissertation
Sundqvist, P. & Sylvén, L. K.
World of Voccraft: Computer Games and Swedish Learners' L2 English Vocabulary
2012 Book chapter *
Thoss, J. Tell It Like a Game. 2014 Book chapter
Results
In the following section, I present the results of the literature review based on categories which are generated in the analysis of the studies and are of relevance for the aim and research questions.
Video game narratives as an example of extramural language
learning
Video game narratives have become an integral part of youth culture as many students spend several hours a day, engaging with video games and online gaming communities (Chik, 2012, s. 96). Gee and Hayes state that “video games have become a major expressive and even artistic force beside their older cousins: books, movies, and television” and that many young people now devote time to video games that they used to devote to television and to a lesser extent, movies and books (2011, p. 78).
This means that students at upper secondary school are, if not more, then at least equally likely to have experience with the narrative structures of film and video games than they are with those of written texts. Vernacular or of-the-shelf video games that are readily available to the general public, also represent “an everyday genuine activity to which they can relate” and are often considered to be genuine products of video game culture (Reinhardt & Sykes, 2012, s. 35). In her dissertation from 2009, Sundqvist coined the term
place in an out-of-school context (Sundqvist, 2009). She has since advocated its importance in the process of L2 acquisition.
According to Chun Lai, the informal learning that takes place outside of school should even be the primary focus of language teaching, which should then aim at “strengthening learners’ willingness and capacity to engage in out-of-class autonomous language learning” (Lai, 2017, p. 190). However, not all students are as familiar with video game narratives and according to Sanford and Madill, “the intersect of gender, literacy, and video game play” is complex and diverse (2007, p. 440). According to Enevold: “the design of everyday life and digital materialities, domesticates play and, in turn, play (re)constitutes family practices” (2014, p. 22). This means that while video games are subject to current values and traditions, they are also capable of influencing and changing them. Enevold demonstrates how play is domesticated to the norms of the home and how the activity of play is affected by other practical factors, such as access, space and economy (2014, p. 21). In a more recent article, she also illustrates how feminist critical action research can be used to work towards actively diversifying game culture and how gender stereotypes surrounding gaming is prone to change (2016, p. 2).
The socio-emotional impact of video game narratives on L2
communication
The changes in the medial landscape have brought crucial changes to the way people interact on a daily basis and according to Gee and Hayes, “digital media are [even] changing our social relationships, particularly whom we consider to be strangers and intimates” (2011, p. 33). The general conception of what is considered to be valid forms of social interaction is changing and so is the social status of the online gaming community. For many players of MMORPGs, the social bonds with members of the group are just as strong as with people they meet in real life, and the social structures could be compared to that of a workplace, where people have a clear role and have to learn how to interact with their coworkers (Gee & Hayes, 2011, p. 85). The handling of social interactions in video game narratives also requires practice to master, and in multi-player games, players need to develop social skills to be able to communicate (Espen, 2001, p. 1).
Playing video games is sometimes regarded as an antisocial occupation, but Sundqvist and Sylvén point out that “while being kept from family by a computer game may seem
asocial, a teenager immersed in [an online multiplayer game] is in fact meeting with people of all ages, countries and value systems” (Sundqvist & Sylvén, 2012, p. 189).
Video games also offer new opportunities for social equality in interaction by allowing everyone to be producers as well as consumers. Gee describes this as the “insider principle”, where learners “are able to customize the learning experience and domain/game from the beginning and throughout the experience” and how this motivates learners to engage in social learning activities (2003, p. 197).
Another principle described by Gee is the “affinity group principle” - where learners constitute “a group that is bonded primarily through shared endeavors, goals, and practices and not shared race, gender, nation, ethnicity, or culture” (2003, p. 197) . This emphasizes the fact that the global nature of the gaming community is able to bring people closer together, regardless of ethnicity or nationality.
Reinders and Wattana also highlight the importance of an emotional “willingness to communicate” and how “communicative competence alone is necessary but not sufficient for effective communication in the target language” (2012, p. 160). They refer to a number of other studies concluding that learners’ willingness to engage in out-of-school social L2 communication, directly affects their exposure to the target language and consequently the development of communicational and social skills (p. 161).
Reinders and Wattana’s own study on students’ willingness to communicate in video games, concluded that the text and voice chat-functions inside of the video game narratives allowed for extensive communication between players and provided a genuine and secure environment to engage in the target language (2012, p. 184). The results of the study also emphasized the “importance of affective factors in L2 acquisition” and that interactive video game narratives were able to increase student enthusiasm, lower anxiety and improve willingness to communicate by providing learners with a secure environment (p. 185).
In another study, conducted by Sundqvist, it was concluded that among Swedish students “who reported playing video games in English, the more time they had reported, the less anxious they reported feeling when speaking in English” (Sundqvist, 2009, p. 130). This result indicates that indulging in activities like video game playing, makes L2 learners more confident in their own language use, and thereby more likely to communicate in the target language. However, Sundqvist’s study also concluded that “boys spend significantly more time on active/productive EE [extramural English] activities than girls and that, therefore, EE has a greater impact on boys’ oral proficiency and vocabulary, than it has on girls” (2009, p. 202).
Interacting with video game narratives requires the development of
specific literacies
For a long time, the study of canonized texts has dominated the study of literature while text types of a lower standing, often connected to pop-culture, have had difficulties in gaining access to the teaching and learning context (Olin-Scheller, 2006, p. 21). Today’s media landscape, however, is changing rapidly and is characterized by fierce competition and remediation, meaning that different forms of media are replacing each other, fulfilling the same central purposes but exploring new ways of conveying meaning (Thoss, 2014, p. 170). Language has always been multimodal, and the concept is certainly not something new, but according to Gee and Hayes “multimodality is more pervasive, diverse and important today than ever before” (2011, p. 1).
Gee suggests that video game narratives require students to develop specific contextual literacies, as in multimodal texts, the images and words often communicate different things and that sometimes, “the combination of the two modes communicates things that neither of the modes do separately” (Gee J. P., 2003, p. 14). This can make the communicated meaning unclear and complex. According to Gee: “we never just read or write; rather, we always read or write something in some way”, and learning to interact with video game narratives, thereby entails learning a specific kind of literacy (2003, p. 13).
A study from 2007 concluded that “players take much of video game operational literacy for granted because of the large amounts of time that they have devoted to learning the symbol/language system”, but how they are actually capable, in a video game context, to “continually handle semiotic systems efficiently and effectively” (Sanford & Madill, 2007, p. 441). The authors also suggest that the “multiple semiotic systems on the screen simultaneously can be baffling to novices” and that those who are inexperienced with the format can be overwhelmed by it (p. 442). This, since, the sheer amount of information, and the tempo with which it is presented to the player within video game narratives are often unlike those of any other form of media.
In video games, learners also have several opportunities to “operate within – but at the outer edge of – his or her ability, so that the tasks at hand are perceived as challenging but not undoable” (Sundqvist & Sylvén, 2012, p. 191). Most video games ensure that players face challenges that are adapted to their current capabilities, often by means of experience-systems that increase the difficulty as the player progresses (Reinders & Wattana, 2012, p. 157) This means that the goals in the game continue to be challenging, yet attainable.
Members of the WoW [world of warcraft] community also regularly devote themselves to what they call “theory-crafting”, where underlying game mechanics, variable narrative routes and systems are studied and analyzed within the community (Sundqvist & Sylvén, 2012, p. 82). “Many players use the knowledge they gain from sites devoted to theory-crafting to improve their play, and many contribute their own data and analyses to these sites that have become collaborative and communal repositories of knowledge” (Gee & Hayes, 2011, p. 83). This means that individual players can add information that they have gathered through playing the game and collectively reach a greater understanding of the narrative and mechanics of the game through border-transcending collaboration.
Thoss suggests that these new media forms should be probed for their inherent potential and that there is a need to “explore and proliferate [their] new medial and narrative possibilities” (Thoss, 2014, p. 182). However, new media also present new challenges and Enevold stresses that the romanticizing of digitalization should be questioned and that one should be critical and aware of potential flaws within these new digital methods of teaching (Enevold J. , 2012, p. 160).
Effects of video game narratives on learner motivation, vocabulary
and the development of discourse management skills
Extramural activities like video game playing, that require an active approach, have been studied in a Swedish context and shown to lead to more successful L2 acquisition than passive activities like watching film or listening to music (Sundqvist, 2009). Sundqvist and Sylvén suggest that the need for understanding that arises when playing video games in L2 English is likely to make students “highly motivated to learn specific game terminology” connected to the gaming community, especially, since computer games are both “set up to encourage players/learners to be active rather than passive“ and to allow for the practice of language in a context “where practice is enjoyable rather than boring” (2012, p. 192). They also state that these principles align well with SLA theories that stress the importance of interaction, target language input and output and task-based learning for successful L2 acquisition (p. 191). Video game narratives can also serve as a medium for “contextualizing learning in meaningful ways while creating rich, engaging experiences for learners” (McQuiggan et al., 2008, p. 9). This means that the narrative can facilitate learning by allowing students to interact in a positive and engaging learning environment.
A study by Peterson also states that video game narratives can “provide a context where learners can obtain potentially valuable language practice” and develop such important discourse management skills in the target language, as are involved in the operation of communicative competence (Peterson, 2012, p. 72). In his study, six students playing a MMORPG were shown to make use of “both transfer and adaptive strategies in order to effectively manage their interaction” (2012, p. 77). These strategies included politeness, humor, small talk and other examples of discourse management.
In a study conducted by Piirainen-Marsh and Tainio (2009), two teenage boys were observed while playing video games specifically to analyze their repetition of language elements. The study showed that their language repetition worked as a resource for showing engagement, contributing to the game-experience and recontextualizing or expanding on previously heard language, thereby suggesting that video games can be used to aid vocabulary learning (Reinders & Wattana, 2012, p. 158). The positive connection between playing computer games and vocabulary acquisition is also supported by Sundqvist and Sylvén, who found that in video game narratives, “learners may learn the meaning of new lexical items from the gaming context or by asking co-players” (2012, p. 201). Players typically interact with each other both via the game itself and through voice chats, meaning that the game encourages both production (writing, speech) and reception (reading, listening) of the English language (p. 190).
Discussion
Here, the results are discussed in relation to the research questions, information given in the background and the study’s theoretical perspectives. There is some overlap in the presentation of the results for question 1 and 2, as some of the same arguments can be made in both a general and a local discussion. The conclusions surrounding the implication of the results for a Swedish context are structured around the fact that Swedish EFL teaching, according to the steering documents, should be related to students’ experiences, employ a multimodal understanding of texts and utilize different forms of media, help students develop communicative competence and encourage social interaction.
• How can L2 acquisition be aided or hindered by the use of video game narratives?
Video games have been shown by previous studies to have a motivating effect on learners, reduce anxiety and to help learners focus on L2 communication, rather than on correctness, but also to lead to an increase in willingness to communicate in the target language and to help expand learner vocabularies (Sundqvist & Sylvén, 2012, p. 201). This aligns well with sociocultural SLA theory that stresses the importance of communication and social interaction in language learning. Playing video games also enables the development of specific skills and literacies connected to the video game format (Gee J. P., 2003, p. 13).
Video game narratives tend to present players with challenges that are adapted to their capabilities, that gradually increases in difficulty as the player progresses with the story (Reinders & Wattana, 2012, p. 157). This progression-based structure is unique to the video game genre and also correlates well with sociocultural theory and to the zone of proximal development, in which learners are provided with scaffolding by the environment in the process of learning.
Video game narratives generally encourage players/learners to be active rather than passive and nodal elements of choice present learners with opportunities to engage in and interact with the stories they encounter, giving them more agency in the experience of texts (Domsch, 2013). They also allow for the practice of language in a secure and enjoyable context, capable of providing them with the confidence and willingness required to engage in the target language (Sundqvist & Sylvén, 2012, p. 192).
The social aspect of video game narratives allows students to develop “transfer and adaptive strategies” in managing their interaction (Peterson, 2012, p. 77). These strategies include politeness, humor, small talk and other examples of discourse management. Video games have also been shown to provide a platform for social interaction on a global scale and that the way in which people interact with each other and how they value their online relationships is changing (Gee & Hayes, 2011, p. 33).
Video games have been shown to contribute to students’ extramural language learning and target language exposure, which in turn have been shown to be important factors for L2 acquisition (Sundqvist, 2009). However, the fact that boys spend considerably more time engaging with extramural language activities than girls means that the positive effects are gendered (Enevold J. , 2014, p. 22). Thus, meaning that boys will be more likely than girls to benefit from including video game narratives in teaching, which poses potential problems of gender inequality.
The video game narrative format contains great potential for language learning, but as is previously stated in the background, it should be pointed out that excessive gaming time
has been shown to lead to negative implications for students’ health (Hellström, 2013). However, since video game addiction has not been the focus of the present study, this argument will not be developed further in this context.
• How could Swedish EFL teaching in particular be benefited or disadvantaged by utilizing video game narratives?
Relating to students’ experiences
By examining recent statistics over what young people in Sweden read, watch and play in their spare time, it can be concluded that the amount of time spent watching films and playing video games generally outnumbers that of reading books(Statens medieråd, 2019). Many students are more used to interacting with video game narratives than they are with books and therefore likely to find them more relatable to their out-of-school experiences. For some students, of-the-shelf video games also represent genuine cultural products that connect teaching to every-day life (Reinhardt & Sykes, 2012, s. 35).
However, some students have little to no previous experience or interest in video games and there are many factors that affect students’ familiarity with video game narratives, such as economy, family values and gender (Enevold J. , 2014, p. 21). According to the previously presented results from the Swedish media council (2019), boys at upper secondary school will be more likely to have experience with playing video games than girls, which poses questions regarding gender equality. Using arguments of relatability to motivate the use of a game-enhanced approach in teaching would therefore require initial inquiry about individual students’ experiences, as video game narratives represent but one of students’ many extracurricular activities. Just like we cannot assume that all students consider printed novels or sport to be relatable, we cannot assume their familiarity with video game narratives.
Multimodality
Video game narratives have been shown to be multimodal in that they contain a combination of image and text-based information and can display multiple semiotic systems simultaneously (Sanford & Madill, 2007, p. 441). This would support the use of video game narratives among other forms of media in teaching. However, the results of the present study indicates that those who are inexperienced with the video game format can find the tempo and presented amount of simultaneous information overwhelming
(Sanford & Madill, 2007, p. 442). According to sociocultural SLA theory, the mediating tools used in the process of learning actively shape and situate knowledge in context (Lantolf & Thorne, 2007). The video game format might be unique in measures of interactivity and ability to contextualize learning, while creating rich, engaging experiences for learners, but it also requires students to develop specific literacies connected to the video game genre (Gee J. P., 2003, p. 13). This means that learners who are unfamiliar with the video game format will most likely have had insufficient practice using it, which limits the possibility for classroom-applications.
Communicative competence
The Swedish steering documents state that “[s]tudents should be given the opportunity, through the use of language in functional and meaningful contexts, to develop all-round communicative skills” (Skolverket, 2011, p. 1). The results of this study indicate that video game narratives can aid in expanding students’ vocabulary and to develop communicational skills by creating a need for understanding both the game content and the language of other players (Reinders & Wattana, 2012, p. 158). Video games can also provide a context for valuable language practice and enable students to develop important discourse management skills in the target language, as are involved in the operation of communicative competence (Peterson, 2012, p. 72).
Social interaction
Sociocultural theory emphasizes the importance of social interaction and participation for language learning (Lundahl, 2012, s. 158). The Swedish syllabus also claims that in learning the English language, students should be provided with “opportunities to participate in different social and cultural contexts”, “enhanced opportunities to create contacts, and greater understanding of different ways of living” (Skolverket, 2011, p. 1). The results of this study suggest that students who engage in video game narratives feel less anxious and nervous when speaking English and that they therefore feel more confident in their own language use (Sundqvist, 2009, p. 130). The video game community also represents a social and cultural context where people are “bonded primarily through shared endeavors, goals, and practices and not shared race, gender, nation, ethnicity, or culture” (Gee J. P., 2003, p. 197). This could support the introduction of L2 learners to video games in teaching, as a way to provide them with opportunities to create diverse
social contacts and to reach a greater understanding of how people from other parts of the world live.
Conclusion
This study has researched the video game narrative format and its potential benefits or disadvantages with regards to Swedish EFL teaching and learning. The results of this study indicate that video game narratives could hold great potential and that there seems to be more benefits than disadvantages connected to the format when it comes to L2 language development. Video game narratives are also shown to align well with the sociocultural approach of Swedish EFL teaching, promoting social interaction and the development of communicative competence. The interactive elements of video game narratives, as described by Domsch (2013), together with elements of social interaction are able to provide learners with challenging yet supportive language learning environments that stimulate the development of language skills. However, the positive effects have been shown to depend on having experience with playing video games and to require that specific literacies tied to the format first be developed. While video games might be familiar to many of the students in a classroom, they should not be considered to be universally relatable. In the end, gaming represents but one of many examples of learning activities connected to life outside of school. Students also need to develop skills and knowledge connected to other contexts in society and therefore, video game narratives should be considered as one of the several different tools that could be utilized in the development of the English language.
Suggestions for further research
The results of this study show that video game narratives could potentially be related to several areas that are specified within the Swedish steering documents. These include the relatability of teaching to student experiences, the development of communicative competence and the importance of social interaction. It would therefore be of relevance to conduct a field study where the practical applications of video game narratives in Swedish EFL teaching are tested, observed and analyzed in the classroom.
As previously mentioned, ludology is a relatively young research field that is gaining more and more attention following the rapid expansion of the video game genre. Hence, video games remain a rich source for teaching and learning, containing many potential applications yet to be explored.
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