CULTURE, LANGUAGES AND MEDIA
Degree Project in English Studies and Education
15 Credits, Advanced Level“One for all, all for one?”
- A study regarding collegial efficacy as a means to support
English teachers in their teaching
“En för alla, alla för en?”
- En studie om kollegial effektivitet för att stötta engelsklärare i deras undervisning
Emil Andersson och Jimmy Olsson
Grundlärarexamen med inriktning mot åk 4-6, 240 hp 2019-03-19
Examiner: Björn Sundmark Supervisor: Chrysogonus Malilang
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our sincere gratitude towards the participating teachers in this study. Thank you for sharing your knowledge and experiences! We also want to thank our supervisor Chrysogonus Malilang, whose comments and insight has guided us throughout the writing process.
Abstract
This study sets out to explore English teachers’ perceptions of aspects concerning their workplace and collegial collaborations. At the present time in Sweden, there is a need for new qualified teachers, and furthermore, a considerable amount of the current teachers employed are considering resignation. This has resulted in that many unlicensed teachers, who are not properly qualified, have been hired. In some schools, this has caused
competence development to stagnate, having teachers rely more on getting through their work-days rather than to develop the quality of their teaching. Furthermore, reports have surfaced that reveal heightened stress levels, and workload to be causing more sick leave and burnout. However, a concept called collective efficacy, have been found to counter many of these issues. By prioritizing collective collaboration and efforts that are well structured and supported by the school leadership, personnel have been shown to improve in both efficacy and well-being. This is why we wanted to examine what perceptions English teachers had of their current workplace situation, communication, opportunities for collegial exchanges, supportive measures and competence development in regard to
teaching English. The study was conducted using a mixed methods approach. We gathered data through a questionnaire with 34 respondents, and through semi-structured interviews with two English teachers. A majority of the teachers in the study were positive to the perception that they collectively could improve student results. They were also positive to the benefits of collegial exchanges. However, time is frequently identified as the leading factor as to why they can not, under ruling circumstances, incorporate more structured collegial exchanges. This implies that schools and school leadership would need to dedicate both time and to structure formal and functioning meetings for these collegial exchanges at their schools - should they chose an approach such as this.
Preface
The following paper is conducted based upon the goals and guidelines of the course Advanced Level Degree Project in the Major Subject at Malmö University. We hereby state that all of the work has been equally written throughout this study.
This includes:
● Deciding the research questions,
● Conducting and analyzing the data collected,
● Structuring and writing the paper and all of its components, ● Active engagement throughout the length of the study.
We hereby confirm that the above statements are accurate, and no work has been done independently.
Table of contents
1. Introduction 7
2. Aim and research questions 9
2.1 Aim 9
2.2 Research question 9
3. Theoretical Review 10
3.1 Collective teacher efficacy (CTE) 10
3.1.1 Definition of CTE 10
3.1.2 Factors improving the implementation of CTE and possible outcomes 11
3.2 Steering documents 12
3.3 Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) 13
3.3.1 Teaching English as a Foreign Language in a Swedish context 14
4. Method 15 4.1 Choice of method 15 4.2 Data Analysis 16 4.3 Participants 17 4.4 Research instruments 17 4.5 Ethical considerations 18 4.6 Pilot study 19 4.7 Procedure 19 5. Results 21 5.1 Demographic background 21 5.2 Quantitative results 22 5.2.1 Workplace situation 22 5.2.2 Workplace communication 23 5.2.3 Collegial exchanges 24 5.2.4 Supportive measures 25 5.2.5 Competence development 26 5.3 Qualitative results 26 6. Discussion 30
6.1 What are English teachers’ perception of the following areas in regard to teaching
English? 30
6.1.1 Workplace situation 30
6.1.2 Workplace communication 31
6.1.3 Collegial exchanges 32
6.1.5 Competence development 33
7. Conclusion 35
7.1 Key findings 35
7.2 Limitations 36
7.3 Suggestions for future research 36
References 37
Appendices 41
Appendix A: Interview guide 41
Appendix B: Consent form 42
1. Introduction
A major influencing factor regarding the teaching profession, and the education it provides, is the current national teacher shortage. Skolverket (2017), and Statistiska
centralbyrån (2017), reported on the national teacher shortage and predicted the profession to be missing a total of 80.000 teachers in 2031 - with no signs of decreasing. This has led to a steadily increasing percentage of unlicensed teachers who are being hired (Skolverket, 2017). Furthermore, an inquiry done by Lärarförbundet (2014) revealed that 60% of teachers in Sweden are considering resignation. The issues have arisen mostly due to several reforms of the national curricula, steering documents, and the teaching profession in general over the last few years (Kjellström et al., 2016).
The hiring of unlicensed teachers compromises the quality of the teaching. Even if they know the English language, they lack the proper training from the teachers’ education required to consistently convey knowledge to students. The English subject is even more vulnerable in this instance than, for example, the Swedish subject. This is because, more often than not, unlicensed Swedish teachers have an innate knowledge of the language - something not as common with the English subject. We have come across similar perceptions when deployed on our teacher´s field practice, where unlicensed English teachers expressed a lack of required competencies and methodological knowledge. Furthermore, they expressed they were unable to further develop their competencies at their workplace to the required standard. Consequently, many English teachers seem to have developed a dependency on text- and workbooks with clear frameworks. These help scaffold teachers, but limit the incorporation of more modern and innovative approaches.
The quality of English teaching is further compromised by: unfavourable work conditions, heavy workloads, increased demands, and stress (Schad, 2018; Fromm & Hagström, 2011; Kjellström, Almquist, & Modin, 2016; Lärarförbundet, 2011, 2014, 2017). This is also due to the aforementioned reforms (Kjellström et al., 2016), and has led to a decline of
teachers’ health. Due to the heightened demands and workload, teachers experience difficulties separating work from spare time, and are thereby prone to stress-related
illnesses and burnout (Schad, 2018). This leads up to an increase in sick-leave, deprecated ways of teaching, and the previously mentioned resignations. The aforementioned factors are just a few which negatively influence the quality of the education that students receive (Huyghebaert, Gillet, Beltou, Tellier, & Fouquereau, 2018). These problems are
commonly recognized by educators, school leaders and the public in general and are likely the reason why many people avoid pursuing a career in the profession.
As a counter to some of these problems, collegial exchanges between less experienced and more knowledgeable teachers can be used to scaffold them in their teaching profession. At one school in southern Sweden we observed local English-teacher gatherings that
discussed ideas and solutions regarding teaching methodology, as well as other insights, which scaffolded the less knowledgeable teachers in their profession. The educated teachers assumed the roles of mediators of knowledge and experiences in order to support their colleagues’ teaching roles and self-efficacy. The participants shared the perception that these gatherings were fruitful, effective, and that it may serve as a great means to proactively cope with the national shortage of teachers, unfavourable work conditions, workload, stress and the increased demands.
These teachers found that as a collective unit they experienced that they performed much better in their teaching roles, providing a better education for their students. The belief in collectively being able to perform the work tasks successfully, is in line with CTE (Collective teacher efficacy). CTE advocates increased student results when teachers possess a shared belief that it is their own and their collective effort as teachers that makes learning happen (Donohoo, et al., 2018). This aspect of CTE could perhaps be argued relevant for all teachers, in the sense that all teachers benefit from constructive and
continuous collegial communication. This is especially the case for English teachers; some of whom we have interacted with, expressed that English as a subject is under-prioritized. Although dormant for many years, new research of CTE has shown it to be a large factor for improving student results (Donohoo, J., Hattie, J., & Eells, R., 2018). Furthermore, a recent article revealed a local school in southern Sweden focusing on key concepts directly in line with CTE, and were able to lower rates of sick leave, and promote job satisfaction and sense of community (Ekhem, 2019) - further advocating the benefits of CTE.
2. Aim and research questions
2.1 Aim
The ultimate purpose of the study is to contribute towards a foundation for further national research. We want to research English teachers’ perceptions of their current workplace communication and collective efficacy from a national perspective. This includes views on current opportunities for collegial exchanges, supportive measures, and competence
development regarding teaching English, as well as their effectiveness. Furthermore, by mapping out teachers’ perceptions of key factors relevant to effective CTE, we wish to discover if this can be considered as a functional measure against current problems, and to support English teachers in their work.
2.2 Research question
What are English teachers’ perception of their current workplace situation, communication, opportunities for collegial exchanges, supportive measures and competence development in regard to teaching English?
3. Theoretical Review
In this section we will present a few areas relevant to our research. First, the area of Collective teacher efficacy will be explained. Secondly, the policies regarding teaching English in Sweden will be covered, Lastly, the experiences of teaching English in a Swedish context will be discussed.
3.1 Collective teacher efficacy (CTE)
The term collective teacher efficacy has been around a long time, but has recently been highlighted by John Hattie, as the number one influencing factor of student achievement with an effect size of 1.57. This is close to triple the size of the next ranked influential factor (Donohoo et al., 2018).
3.1.1 Definition of CTE
Collective teacher efficacy (CTE) is a research area defined as “a staff’s shared belief that, through their collective action, they can positively influence student outcomes, including those who are disengaged and/or disadvantaged” (Donohoo, 2017). This is in line with the view of Bandura (1997), who originally coined the term. A deeper view of the concept implies that a few fundamental parts of CTE, according to Goddard, Hoy, & Hoy (2000), is mastery experience, vicarious experience, social persuasion, and emotional arousal. Mastery experience can be explained as having a continuous attitude toward evolving by growing with success and learning from failure. Vicarious experience revolves around learning from other good examples. Social persuasion includes actions, workshops and feedback among other things, that strengthen the collective belief that required capabilities needed to achieve goals are possessed. Emotional arousal is associated with a collectives ability to respond to challenges, the response will reflect the level of efficacy. Furthermore, CTE is associated with the tasks, level of effort, persistence, shared thoughts, stress levels, and achievement of groups, and are factors if utilized will support the implementation of CTE (Goddard, Hoy, & Hoy, 2000).
3.1.2 Factors improving the implementation of CTE and possible
outcomes
Donohoo (2017) mentions a few enabling conditions for schools characteristics that increases the likelihood that CTE will successful in making teachers more efficient and in improving student results. To begin with, teachers´ ought to be given the opportunity to way in on important school decisions. Colleagues should also be able to reach consensus on goal expectations for student achievement. Furthermore, the teachers´ ought to have insight in each others work, a form of transparency that encourages trust in peers´ ability to do a good job. In addition, benefits are shown when colleagues agree on fundamental educational issues. Lastly, leader are needed that show concern and respect for their staff, protecting their teachers from time consuming tasks that intrude on their teaching time and focus, this includes having effective systems set up for intervention measures ensuring all students are successful (Donohoo, 2017). CTE has been found to be associated with positive factors such as greater job satisfaction, less stress and burnout, productive behaviours such as school improvement strategies, effective workplace communication, and leadership. The concept has further been found to influence teachers’ approaches to their work, the teacher profession as a whole, and lead them to focus on academic pursuits and setting higher expectations. An extended receptiveness to new ideas, greater
risk-taking and a sense of efficacy towards students’ parents are other outcomes which have been observed. Beginner teachers have also been found to be more positive towards the teaching profession and less likely to resign when CTE was present in their workplace. Finally, the presence of CTE must be complemented with a shared belief that together, teachers can overcome challenges and meet the students’ needs (Donohoo, 2018; Schad, 2018; Eells, 2011; Gibbs & Powell, 2011).
Results from a recent study by Donohoo (2018) indicated a possible incompatibility
between CTE and schools dominated by a performance goal orientated environment. These environments generally include high test scores, grades, social comparison of ability, and competitive mindsets. CTE was found to be less predominant in such schools, and teachers were unable to experience a sense of community in these schools. This includes
encouragement, collaboration, support, and ultimately - the belief of collectively achieving success. As a final note, the methods and approaches employed in the classrooms of these schools were performance goal-oriented and less likely to function well in conjunction with key factors of a successful implementation of CTE (Donohoo, 2018, pp. 323-345).
3.2 Steering documents
The requirements of being employed to teach English in Sweden are that the individual teacher has the necessary education for the subject, as well as a teacher’s license. If these two requirements are met, a post with conditional tenure can be acquired. This includes full responsibility of the employed education as well as of grading practices (SFS, 2011:326) However, there are several exceptions to this rule.
The Swedish National Agency for Education (Skolverket, 2018b) states that a person who does not have a license, thereby not being licensed to teach in the English subject, may still be employed temporarily. Teachers employed by these means are considered unlicensed and are not allowed to set students’ grades, or fully take responsibility of the education they employ. There are two main conditions that allow for this type of employment. The first, is that no other licensed applicants, that are educated in the subject, are available for the post. The second condition is that there is some other special reason, which specifically takes the students into consideration, that allows for the employment to happen. In the case that an unlicensed teacher is considered for the post, he or she must be considered
appropriate for the teaching profession. This includes having the required competencies to perform the job, as well as having received as much as is possible education equivalent to the professional teacher education necessary for a teacher’s license (Skolverket, 2018b).
While these exceptions make it easier to cope with the national teacher shortage, they do leave room for interpretation and come at a price. Evaluation of the individual applicants competencies, and their previous education in regard to the national standard, is made by head teachers. All attention and expectations, in regard to these evaluations, are focused on the individual head teacher, meaning that these evaluations can be both a hopeful activity or a troubling problem (Peterson & Peterson, 2006). A result of the individual evaluation
of applicants is that the extent of which unlicensed teachers meet the requirements may vary from school to school. This means that some teachers may be more suited than others, regarding both competencies and equivalent education, as well as whatever special reasons bring the employment about. However, head teachers are required to ensure that all
teachers, both licensed and unlicensed, get to continuously develop the competencies needed to perform their work professionally, and get opportunities for collegial exchanges (Skolverket, 2018a).
3.3 Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL)
Competent teachers are crucial to teaching English as a foreign language. Not only should their education be anchored in the steering documents and be connected to the learners’ experiences and prior understanding, it should also be an active process with clear goals and structures (Lundahl, 2014). Teaching should also have a focus on both formative, and summative assessment. Prerequisites for are properly planned, monitored, and followed up learning activities. All of this relies on experience, knowledge, and several competencies relevant to the teaching profession in order to be successful (Gibbons, 2015).Successful teaching in English is influenced by a variety of key aspects. One of these, is to utilize different methods and approaches; not solely for its’ influence over long-time learning, but also since students’ individual needs are met (Lundahl, 2014; Gibbons, 2015; Richards & Renandya, 2002). Teachers’ choice of methods and approaches, as well as views on teaching and learning, is shaped by their unique backgrounds and experiences. Lundahl (2014) further mentions a positive influence; teachers who move between schools or municipalities, get to share more experiences, and are made more aware of the forces affecting their teaching approaches. In short, many forces and factors influence teaching English as a foreign language, but it is clear to us that a competent teacher is the
centerpiece needed in order to facilitate success.
3.3.1 Teaching English as a Foreign Language in a Swedish context
The compulsory school is governed by the steering documents such as the curriculum and the syllabi. The English courses build upon each other, increasing in difficulty while
challenging the students. They contain core content where students are given opportunities to develop their abilities to for example read, speak, write, and use strategies to adapt their language to recipients as well as support themselves when using the language. While English teachers must follow these policy documents, they are given room to choose which approaches or methods they wish to use when planning and teaching (Lundahl, 2014).
When planning education, teachers must refer to the syllabus to see what content to teach. The syllabus also leaves a lot of room for teachers to decide themselves which specific content to teach, and how they want to integrate it in the education. Guidelines, from the Swedish National Agency for Education (Skolverket, 2011), are publicly available for teachers which offer advice on how teachers should plan their education for students. For example, a teacher should first choose which parts of the syllabus they want to work with, and must then concretise how different abilities, that will be developed, relate to the contents of the syllabus. This gives teachers the possibilities to analyze the knowledge requirements and their own education to sure it is beneficial to all students.
4. Method
In this chapter we start by explaining the reasoning behind our research method choices. We then inform about the participants of the study. This is followed by an overview of the research instruments used when collecting the data. Furthermore, we discuss the ethical considerations taken in regard to the study. Lastly, the procedures of the data collection leading and analysis are covered.
4.1 Choice of method
The aim of the study was to explore the teachers’ perceptions of their current workplace communication, as well as to gain insight about teachers´ perception of collective efficacy from a national perspective. To collect relevant data we chose a mixed methods approach that consisted of two methods: a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. For us to get a general understanding of English teachers’ perceptions of key aspects of effective CTE, we used a questionnaire - a quantitative method. This was chosen due to the
opportunities for a wider spread of data collection, as well as a simple means of mapping out attitudes and perceptions relevant for CTE in a wider geographical area (Ejlartsson, 2005; Ary, Jacobs, Razavieh, & Sorensen, 2009).
To further discover the teacher context and explore teacher perceptions further, we chose to conduct semi-structured interviews which were done in a qualitative manner. These are in line with Mackey (2005), who partly describes this kind of research as discovery orientated. Furthermore, it is a way of exploring the subjective view of the participant’s feelings and opinions as well as experiences (Dörnyei, 2007). By combining multiple research techniques and sources for data, such as the results from a quantitative method and from qualitative interviews, while cross-referencing it to previous research, we are able to view issues from more feasible perspectives. This in turn improves the quality of our findings and analysis, and is called triangulation (Mackey 2005).
4.2 Data Analysis
When analysing the data from the interviews, we decided to use the transcripts as a base for our reasoning, and to not analyse the audio recordings directly. The transcribing of such data is important since there is a potential data loss, distortion, and the reduction of complexity if neglected (Cohen, et al., 2011). Moreover, by using transcriptions,
researchers are enabled to identify and discover important and interesting features when analyzing the data - an example being what was being said, in what mood, and in what tone. The analysis of the qualitative data was based on McKay’s (2006) suggested approach of content analysis. Researchers should first thoroughly examine the collected data many times. They should then code and identify key topics in the data. Once a list of different categories has been produced, the data can be listed according to the stated categories (McKay, 2006, p. 57).
As for the quantitative data, the statistics analysis software SPSS was utilized as it served as a tool for organizing, as well as analyzing and presenting data. Benefits of using the application were that it reduced the risks of human errors, and that it helped us sort through the data - letting us find specific themes or variables to explore. The program was further chosen for its built in calculating features, one of them being cross tabulations, which would help us examine relationships between certain variables. By using both qualitative and quantitative methods - a mixed methods approach, we could triangulate the data - letting the two sources of data mutually compare and strengthen each other (Mackey, 2005; Bryman, 2011). This allows for a higher amount of validity, but also aids in giving both width and depth to the research. Furthermore, when using a mixed methods approach, one of the methods may produce unexpected results; which can be further understood and interpreted from the other methods’ perspective. Therefore, using a mixed methods aims to increase the credibility of our research, and improve the integrity of the study (Bryman, 2011).
4.3 Participants
A total of 67 primary school English teachers between Göteborg, and Skåne in Sweden were invited to participate in a questionnaire aimed to visualize their perception of aspects central to Collective teacher efficacy. A wider geographical area was chosen to give us some variety of the participants. A total of 34 teachers participated in the questionnaire - resulting in a turnback of 51%. According to Bryman (2011), this turnback is considered to be an acceptable response rate, although barely. However, the most common reason for not participating in the study was due to a heavy workload - further contributing to the
seriousness of the research area. Regarding inclusion and exclusion criteria for the questionnaire, only English teachers who worked 50% or more were included in the results. Both licensed and unlicensed teachers were included and no requirements were set regarding teaching experience or time of employment at the current workplace.
Two English teachers in Skåne, Sweden, participated in both the questionnaire as well as the qualitative interviews. These two teachers were chosen based on their availability in regard to limitations of time, but offered valuable information by giving us a local perspective. Both of these teachers were licensed for teaching English and had extensive experience as English teachers. A valuable insight we wanted to include in this research was an interview with an unlicensed teacher. However, due to time constraints no such interview was made.
4.4 Research instruments
The questionnaire (see Appendix C) used in this study was comprised of 6 demographic questions, and 51 assertions answered with the help of a likert-scale. The likert-scale was
used due to it offering consistency in how the questions were presented, making it more efficient and easier for the respondents to answer. The scale encompassed five levels, ranging from 1; I strongly disagree, to 5; I highly agree. The typical format of the likert-scale was not completely followed, due to the exclusion of a variation of the third level’s answer. This was done in order for the results to encompass the qualities of both the
ordinal and interval types of variables (Bryman, 2011). With inspiration from Schad’s (2018) dissertation, some of her questions were reformulated, and complemented with assertions relevant to the study and the area of CTE, which made up the content of the questionnaire. The reason for the sole use of assertions was to maintain consistency and ease the intelligibility of the questionnaire. Two assertions were reverse-scored in order to identify and exclude unserious participants (Bryman, 2011). Regarding the structure of the questionnaire, the assertions were sorted based on themes in order to make it easier for the participants to orient themselves. The order in which the assertions were presented was also considered in order to maintain consistency and intelligibility for the respondents.
The interview checklist (see Appendix A) used in the semi-structured interviews was based on recommendations presented by Bryman (2011). First, the checklist intended to provide a general structure that contained the line of questionings needed to answer the main research questions. The interview questions were not required to follow a certain order, but themes which grouped similar questions together were created to offer respondents a certain sense of cohesion. This was also done to encourage respondents to answer freely, offering a more flexible environment. Secondly, certain steps were taken to ensure a higher level of understanding and fluency in the interview. For example, the language used was adapted to fit the respondent, and leading questions were avoided (Bryman, 2011, pp. 419-423).
4.5 Ethical considerations
To protect the participants integrity, regarding the questionnaire, some ethical considerations were taken which were inspired by a guide in Enkäten i praktiken by Ejlertsson (2005). First, no information was collected that would reveal the individual's identity. Secondly, the respondents were notified about the purpose of the study and of its’ voluntary participation. Lastly, the use of the data was limited to the study alone
(Ejlertsson, 2005).
Regarding the ethical considerations taken in the qualitative interviews, the participants were informed that participation was voluntary, they could refuse to answer any questions,
and could cancel the interview at any time (Bryman, 2011, p. 137). Furthermore, the audio recordings from these interviews were transcribed, and anonymized by replacing the respondents actual names with aliases. The chosen aliases were: Karen for teacher 1, and Helen for teacher 2. The use of the audio recordings and the transcriptions were limited solely to this study. This information was relayed in conjunction with a consent form (see Appendix B) which the participants were to sign before the interviews.
4.6 Pilot study
A pilot study of a questionnaire was produced and sent out as a small-scale trial, which aims to help researchers revise and finalize the materials and methods used in the study (Mackey, 2005). This was the predecessor of the final comprised questionnaire and was comprised of 29 assertions aimed to be answered with the help of a 5 level likert-scale. Some of these assertions were reformulations of Schad’s (2018) interview questions, and others originated from key aspects of successful CTE. The pilot study was sent out per email to two teachers who both participated and offered response on the questionnaire. This helped pinpoint several flaws of the questionnaire. First, the structure was not clear - several of the assertions were closely linked yet located far from each other and caused confusion. Second, some formulations were in need of revision due to not satisfactorily offering us the insight we wanted, as well as a few grammatical errors. Thirdly, large gaps in the data we wanted to acquire for our final results were identified with the help of the pilot study.
4.7 Procedure
Since we wanted to collect data on teachers´ perceptions on a larger scale we first created the pilot study questionnaire which was sent out and answered. Using the feedback and the results from the pilot study, we revised the general structure of the questionnaire, along with some formulations, new additions and added variables. As a means to distribute the questionnaire, we emailed head teachers in Sweden, between Göteborg and Skåne. We received contact information to individual English teachers. These were invited to
a reminder one week after the initial inquiry. After a total of two weeks, the results were compiled and analyzed with the help of the data processing application SPSS. With SPSS we compiled a descriptive analysis of key variables.
With the insight from the quantitative results, an interview checklist was made in order to scaffold the semi-structured interviews. By searching local schools we found two teachers willing to participate in the interviews. They were invited via email and we agreed to meet at their workplace for the interviews. To ensure ethical considerations were being taken seriously, consent forms were created prior to the interviews for both us and the
participants to sign at the very start of the interviews. With the help of the interview checklist, the interviews were conducted and documented in the form of notes and
audio-recordings. The audio-recordings were transcribed and anonymized. The transcribed data was then carefully sorted after its’ characteristics as a way to easier identify
perceptions, opinions and moods. Finally, a deeper insight and analysis was sought by triangulating key aspects of CTE, the data from the quantitative questionnaire and the qualitative interviews.
5. Results
The following section aims to present the collected results relevant to answering our research question based around exploring English teachers’ perception of certain areas in regard to teaching English. First, a section of demographic background is presented. We then present our quantitative results and finally our qualitative results.
While the quantitative results are not as big of a sample as other research, it still offers a valuable overview which is further complemented with qualitative data.and is thus
presented. In order to make the quantitative findings more structured and easier to read, we identified five major themes in our research question: workplace situation, workplace communication, collegial exchanges, supportive measures, and competence development. The quantitative data is presented with the use of arithmetic mean (M), and standard deviation (SD). The arithmetic mean describes what the average attitudes were; 1
representing a strong disagreement towards the individual assertion, while 5 represents a strong agreement towards the individual assertion. The standard deviation visualizes the spread of attitudes among the respondents - a higher number indicating a wider spread, while a lower number indicates more consistency in the responses.
The qualitative results are presented through summaries of the interviews, in an order similar
5.1 Demographic background
Out of the total 34 participants whoparticipated in the questionnaire, 22 were female, and 12 were male. About a quarter of the teachers who participated in the questionnaire are considered unlicensed to teach English. For a list of selected
The two English teachers who participated in the questionnaire and the interviews were both licensed to teach English. They both had 10 years of experience, or more, of working as English teachers. Both teachers were female and worked at schools in Skåne, Sweden.
5.2 Quantitative results
5.2.1 Workplace situation
Teachers showed very positive views on being dedicated in their work (M = 4.65, SD = 0.544) but were less unified regarding how perseverant they were (M = 3.88, SD = 0.946). As for teachers views on working to inspire students to believe in their own abilities the majority felt that they did so (M = 4.74, SD = 0.511).
Regarding how English teachers perceived their own ability to influence student results, both licensed (M = 4.23, SD = 0.765) and unlicensed (M = 4.50, SD = 0.535) teachers displayed a positive attitude towards this. In regard to teachers beliefs of collegially influencing students, licensed (M = 3.96, SD = 0.871) and unlicensed (M = 4.00, SD = 0.926) teachers were still positive towards this, but both showed a slight decrease. As for if teachers felt that some individuals on their workplace believed only in the individual efforts influencing students, licensed teachers were not completely convinced of this (M = 2.35, SD = 0.977) , while unlicensed teachers indicated slightly higher attitude (M = 3.13, SD = 1.553). The large number on standard deviation of the unlicensed response implies a very varied perception on the matter. As for sense of community, licensed teachers (M = 4.50, SD = 0.762) felt more positive in this area than the unlicensed teachers (M = 3.75, SD = 1.165) who further had a wider spread of attitudes. However, regarding if all teachers were part of the community at the workplace, unlicensed teachers showed a more positive attitude than their own sense of belonging to the community (M = 4.13, SD = 0.835), while licensed teachers displayed a slight decrease (M = 4.35, SD = 0.689).
The majority of teachers felt that they often worked in a high tempo (M = 4.63, SD = 0.604). Regarding the feeling of stress, results indicated that unlicensed teachers (M =
3.88, SD = 0.916) felt slightly more stressed than licensed teachers (M = 3.58, SD = 1.447). Important to note is that even though the licensed teachers score lower on stress, the higher than average standard deviation shows a wide array of answers. As for teachers managing their work tasks in time, licensed (M = 2.58, SD = 1.206) and unlicensed (M = 2.63, SD = 0.916) teachers shared the perception that they struggled to do so, with the slightly larger spread of answers by licensed teachers. Furthermore, regarding their views on colleagues managing their work tasks in time, licensed teachers (M = 2.62, SD = 0.941) felt similarly convinced that they could do this, while unlicensed teachers (M = 3.25, SD = 0.707) displayed a slightly more optimistic view.
On the subject of teachers themselves being able to take part of important school decisions, licensed teachers generally displayed a neutral attitude (M = 3.00, SD = 1.233) with a wide spread of answers, while unlicensed teachers showed a lower attitude (M = 1.75, SD = 0.707) with a less significant spread. Regarding views of colleagues taking part of school decisions, licensed teachers attitudes varied but remained relatively neutral (M = 3.08, SD = 1.093), while unlicensed teachers were more positive (M = 3.50, SD = 0.756).
5.2.2 Workplace communication
Regarding the presence of structure in the formal communication at the workplace, licensed teachers (M = 3.31, SD = 1.123) were generally more positive than unlicensed teachers (M = 2.63, SD = 1.408). However, licensed teachers were less positive towards the amount of such formal communication (M = 2.73, SD = 1.218), while unlicensed found the amount more satisfactory (M = 3.13, SD = 1.356). Regarding the effectiveness of this communication, licensed teachers were neutral (M = 3.00, SD = 1.095) while unlicensed teachers were slightly less positive (M = 2.75, SD = 1.581). Regarding if teachers felt that someone at their workplace was a burden instead of a resource, licensed (M = 2.58, SD = 1.474) and unlicensed teachers (M = 2.50, SD = 1.414) displayed a wide spread of attitudes towards this, but generally felt that this was not always the case.
As for competence differences causing problems in the communication, the participants displayed a wide variety of attitudes towards this (M = 3.06, SD = 1.324). Regarding if the participants felt they had enough time for informal communication at the workplaces,
results also indicated a wide variety of attitudes (M = 3.15, SD = 1.282). As to having enough time to talk about subject didactics, licensed (M = 2.31, SD = 1.087) and
unlicensed teachers (M = 2.00, SD = 1.414) felt less positive towards this. As for the time allotted to talk about lesson changes, both licensed (M = 2.62, SD = 1.203) and unlicensed teachers (M = 2.63, SD = 0.916) shared a less positive view.
As for if the participants attitudes towards listening to others at the workplace, both licensed (M = 4.73, SD = 0.452) and unlicensed teachers (M = 4.88, SD = 0.354) shared a positive view. However, when compared to the previous views, licensed (M = 4.42, SD = 0.809) and unlicensed teachers (M = 4.00, SD = 1.069) showed slightly less positive views on the idea of being listened to.
5.2.3 Collegial exchanges
Regarding teachers trying new methods and approaches in their work, licensed teachers (M = 3.42, SD = 1.172) were slightly more positive towards this than the unlicensed teachers (M = 3.13, SD = 1.246). As to if the teachers felt they were willing to offer help and insight into what methods or approaches to use, licensed (M = 4.00, SD = 0.864) and unlicensed teachers (M = 4.12, SD = 0.926) were both positive towards this. However, in regard to receiving insight into what methods or approaches to use, unlicensed teachers (M = 4.63, SD = 1.061) displayed a more positive attitude than licensed teachers (M = 3.81 SD = 0.895). As for the perception of colleagues trying new methods and approaches, results indicated that unlicensed teachers (M = 3.38, SD = 0.916) shared a similar perception of licensed teachers (M = 3.31, SD = 0.884).
In regard to giving colleagues help and insight in offering students extra support, licensed teachers (M = 3.77, SD = 1.107) were more positive than the unlicensed teachers (M = 3.25, SD = 1.035). However, unlicensed teachers (M = 4.63, SD = 0.518) showed greater positivity regarding faith in their colleagues’ insight of giving students extra support than the licensed teachers (M = 3.73, SD = 0.518).
Regarding offering their colleagues help and insight of challenging the students, licensed teachers (M = 3.54, SD = 1.303) were slightly more positive than unlicensed teachers (M =
3.25, SD = 1.035). However, unlicensed teachers (M = 4.63, SD = 0.518) showed greater positivity regarding their faith in their colleagues’ insight into challenging students than the licensed teachers (M = 3.62, SD = 1.235).
As for teachers views on reaching consensus when setting goals in the education, licensed teachers (M = 4.04, SD = 0.662) shared views on doing this more than unlicensed teachers (M = 3.13, SD = 1.126). As for the views on reaching consensus regarding expectations on students, licensed teachers (M = 3.81, SD = 0.849) were slightly lower here, while
remaining the same for unlicensed teachers (M = 3.13, SD = 1.126). Finally, regarding the presence of gaps of competencies causing problems in the collegial work, licensed teachers (M = 2.96, SD = 1.280) were less convinced that this was the case than the unlicensed teachers (M = 3.25, SD = 1.165).
5.2.4 Supportive measures
Regarding if teachers felt that they got the support they needed to complete their work tasks, unlicensed teachers (M = 4.00, SD = 0.756) showed a greater positivity than the licensed teachers (M = 3.12, SD = 1.017). As for receiving the support needed to complete their work tasks from their head teacher, both licensed (M = 2.38, SD = 1.098) and
unlicensed teachers (M = 2.00, SD = 1.197) were less convinced. unlicensed teachers (M = 3.88, SD = 0.641) showed a greater positivity towards supporting their colleagues with completing their work tasks than the licensed teachers (M = 3.12, SD = 1.033).
Regarding support from the head teacher to offer extra support for students, licensed teachers (M = 3.38, SD = 1.061) displayed slightly higher positivity than unlicensed teachers (M = 3.13, SD = 1.458). Yet, both licensed (M = 3.50, SD = 1.030) and unlicensed teachers (M = 3.50, SD = 1.069) shared the views of the head teacher
supporting all the colleagues at their workplace regarding this. As for the presence of an established and effective system for managing extra support for students, licensed teachers (M = 3.50, SD = 0.707) showed a more positive attitude than the unlicensed teachers (M = 2.50, SD = 1.069), who felt a more negative attitude towards this. Finally, the majority of teachers did not feel that their head teacher protected them from work tasks which invaded on their focus and time for teaching (M = 2.13, SD = 0.835).
5.2.5 Competence development
Regarding head teachers supporting individual teachers competence development, licensed teachers (M = 3.69, SD = 1.087) were quite positive to receiving this support, while
unlicensed teachers (M = 2.75, SD = 1.753) answered very differently, but generally shared a more negative view. However, as for the head teachers supporting all teachers competence development, unlicensed teachers (M = 3.63, SD = 1.188) were much more positive to this, while licensed teachers (M = 3.58, SD = 0.902) showed just a slightly less positive view.
5.3 Qualitative results
When asked about collegial exchanges, Helen expressed a distinct value of this in general and when, for example, planning education. Karen felt that the effectiveness of working collegially varied greatly between workplaces. She felt that at her current workplace, the collegial work was not very present due to the lack of collegial discussions, exchanges, and collective planning. She believed that limitations of time obstructed them from doing this at her school and emphasised on the missed potential. Karen mentioned strengths in collegial exchanges when trying new methods and approaches. She believed that when trying new methods and approaches, evaluation of these is of great importance. By having colleagues exchange ideas and collegially evaluate how it went, she had found that the results to be more fruitful. However, she felt that the limitations of time again obstructed her and her colleagues from actively trying new methods and approaches.
When asked about individual teachers influencing students, Karen expressed this is definitely the case, but that there is a lot more to be gained collegially. She gave an example: one teacher may use certain methods and approaches that fits one group of students, whilst other teachers may have different ones which fits another group. By working collegially, she felt that they are able to easier meet the needs of the students by complementing each other’s styles. Helen on the other hand, firmly believed that a teacher should never work individually. She explained that the teachers always have each other, their students, the student health team, and head teachers as colleagues. She believed that
individuals might be able to influence students, but strongly agreed with Karen in the sense that, collegially, more can be gained and should be preferred. When asked about goal orientation, Karen expressed that she actively works with the idea of it being okay to be wrong and to make mistakes. She mentioned that some students try to do really well in school and that they can be very goal oriented - something she tries to play down. This is something she further believed to influence the whole school. Finally, she believed that the methods and approaches to teaching that the individual teacher uses, influences what kind of goal orientation students have.
Both interviewed teachers expressed that they, together with their colleagues, often reached consensus regarding what goals they set for their lessons and what content to cover. Karen further felt that they often agreed on expectations of students, but that they had their differences regarding which methods and approaches to use on their lessons. Helen appeared more tentative regarding this, and mentioned a difference of what was expected between workplaces.
Karen felt that communication was one of the more important factors in the collegial work. Furthermore, trust, being able to work together, utilizing each other positively and being equals in the collegial work were other factors important to her. She mentioned one-sided relationships in the workplace and its’ negative influence, but that this goes together in what is expected collegially from the colleagues. Helen felt that the workplace
communication at her workplace could be very effective but that it depended on the
subject. She further expressed that she would like more opportunities for it since it was not enough. Regarding communication, Karen felt that formal meetings were very valuable to her, but mentioned that the meetings between the teachers at her school only met twice a term - impacting their effectiveness negatively. She stated that time was the limiting factor regarding this. Helen was also positive to such meetings, which she had once a month. When asked if the amount of formal communication was enough, she felt appreciative to the amount but that more would be positive. Karen gave a few examples of important factors for effective collegial communication: listening actively, being flexible, trusting each other, being able to exchange ideas, and chemistry between people. Further, she
mentioned the importance of being able to both give and take equally, interacting with each other as equals, and having manners in the collegial interactions.
Karen argued about the importance of scaffolding each other in their work. She expressed a positive view on the idea of collegial exchanges extending outside of work hours as well. However, she felt that collegially helping each other was not something that nuanced her current workplace. In regard to providing challenges for stronger students, she expressed that this was something they did individually. Neither did they help each other out when supporting weaker students as special pedagogues were relied upon for this.
When asked about stress and workload, Helen felt that she was stressed quite often and Karen experienced that she was working under a very high tempo for the full duration of her workdays at her current workplace. Karen further expressed that the tempo in which one works varied from workplaces but that she managed to do all of her work tasks during her work hours. She further expressed a concern regarding substitute teachers and their effect on the education. She had seen the negative effects of this on previous workplaces and felt that they stood in the way of the general planning of the education - ultimately leading to more work and stress.
Helen felt that collegially helping each other out was quite common at her workplace. In fact, all planning of education was done collegially, due to the benefits gained by doing so. Karen explained that she and her colleagues helped each other out with smaller tasks such as printing and fetching things, but that, for example, correcting student texts collegially was not something they did. Furthermore, Karen believes that the most important support colleagues could offer each other at her workplace was the informal communication - for example, being able to exchange ideas and speak one’s mind about anything, something Helen supported.
When asked about if the head teacher supported their competence development of English, both of the interviewed teachers had focused on developing competencies in other subjects than English. However, both of them had a positive attitude towards the idea of the head teacher supporting them in their development should they ask for it. Helen further felt that
all teachers at her workplace had this support, licensed or not. Karen talked about stagnation and the importance of continuous development. Something she had
experienced, which she felt was valuable, was moving between different workplaces every now and then. She had observed that it was easy to get stuck in the same methods and approaches, affecting the job satisfaction, and that working with new colleagues offered fresh insight. Consequently, she felt that stagnation did not only affect the classroom negatively, but the workplace as well.
6. Discussion
The following section aims to triangulate the qualitative and quantitative data with the contents of the theoretical review to. The research question aims to has been divided into five separate sections to make the discussion more structured and intelligible.
6.1 What are English teachers’ perception of the
following areas in regard to teaching English?
6.1.1 Workplace situation
One of the crucial components for successful CTE is that a group of teachers share a belief of together being able to influence students’ results positively (Goddard, Hoy, & Hoy, 2000; Donohoo, 2017). The participants in the questionnaire responded positively to the idea of influencing students’ results positively, both individually and collegially. The interviewed teachers were also positive towards this. Karen gave an example that when teachers used different methods and approaches, while collegially supporting each other, different styles could complement each other and be better utilized to meet the needs of the students. This is in line with both Lundahl (2014), Gibbons (2015), who argue the
importance of methodological variety in English teaching, and is further supported by the national curriculum (Lundahl, 2014; Gibbons, 2015; Skolverket, 2018a). However,
regarding whether teachers worked with colleagues who believed that only their individual efforts could influence students’ results positively, a minority of the questionnaire
participants experienced that they did. Although this might imply an unwillingness to work collegially, their choice to work individually could also arise from, for example, a lack of structured collegial communication.
Mastery goal orientation is often dominant in schools where CTE is present (Goddard, Hoy, & Hoy, 2000; Donohoo, 2018), and both of the interviewed teachers felt that this nuanced their workplace and that they worked actively to promote it. Further, Karen
believed that the kind of goal orientation students had, were often contracted from the methods and approaches teachers used. Methods and approaches used in schools with effective CTE often varies from schools without it; due to not all methods being
compatible with the concept (Donohoo, 2018). Conclusively, since individual teachers’ methods and approaches often differ, incompatibilities are bound to exist.
Most of the questionnaire participants felt that they worked under a high tempo (M = 4.63). Furthermore, many participants felt that they often were stressed, and that they did not have the time needed to complete their work tasks during work hours. There are many reasons why head teachers should protect their teachers from tasks which intrude on their focus and already limited teaching time (Donohoo, 2017). Despite this, the questionnaire participants did not feel like they had this support (M = 2.13). While our results indicate a negative trend, a recent article by Ekhem (2019) reports on the benefits of having such support at schools. The municipality about which the article is written, has gone against the flow and embraced certain aspects central to CTE and implemented structures to support and protect their teachers from tasks which limit their teaching time. Stress and sick leave rates were much lower, and teachers felt a greater sense of community and job satisfaction. The reasons for not offering this support at the questionnaire participants’ schools remain unclear, but should be seriously considered due to the benefits of doing so.
6.1.2 Workplace communication
Establishing functional communication is important for working collegially and ensuring effective CTE (Donohoo, 2018). The participants of the questionnaire were generally neutral regarding the amount, effectiveness, and structure of the formal communication at their workplaces. Regarding the amount of informal communication, the results also remained neutral. However, the widespread attitudes may indicate that some workplaces value these types of communication more than others. CTE also stress the importance of informal communication (Donohoo, 2018), which is in line with the interviewed teachers, Helen and Karen; the latter seeing it as one of the most important collegial supportive measures. The results may indicate that its’ priority varies from workplaces, and due to the
absence of positive views on the amount of communication, time may yet again be a factor which limits its’ opportunities.
6.1.3 Collegial exchanges
Collegial exchanges is a big part of CTE, with vicarious experience; the learning from established good examples of other persons or organisations, and social persuasion; colleagues supporting each other with feedback and helpful actions (Goddard, Hoy, & Hoy, 2000). Results from the questionnaire showed that teachers were open to both giving and receiving help and insights of what methods and approaches to use. Unlicensed teachers showed a very positive attitude towards having faith in their colleagues in the collegial exchanges, but felt that the time allotted for this was limited. Licensed teachers stayed rather neutral on this, however. Both of the interviewed teachers strongly supported the benefits of collegial exchanges, but noted that the formal occasions scheduled for this was limited. Furthermore, Karen believed time to be the number one inhibiting factor to regularly having structured collegial exchanges.
Regularly reaching consensus regarding expectations on students, as well as setting goals for student achievement is a crucial aspect of CTE (Donohoo, 2017). Licensed teachers showed very positive views on this, while unlicensed teachers remained neutral. A possible reason for this may be that unlicensed teachers are not as included in the assessment practices of the English education. Unlicensed teachers are not qualified to assess students, but the the lack of inclusion might be further related to gaps of
competence, which may make collegial exchanges more difficult. This is in line with our questionnaire results which indicated that unlicensed teachers to a higher degree perceive gaps in competence to be an issue.
Although our findings suggest that teachers are positive towards collegial exchanges, the main inhibiting factor seems to be a lack of time. The reason as to why time is an issue could be explained by the concept of CTE, which advocate that organizations need to schedule time for collegial exchanges. Further, school leaders can influence collective efficacy by having expectations of formal, frequent, and productive teacher collaboration,
as well as making sure this kind of collaboration are to be trusted and respected (Donohoo, Hattie, & Eells, 2018). In contrast to Karen, who suggested that there simply was no time available to do this, Helen felt that she did have the time, even though it could be
increased. Potential collegial exchanges offers teachers the opportunities to perform their jobs more efficiently, as well as improving the quality of their teaching. This could, in theory and if utilized to deal with the increasing demands, allow more time for collegial communication - a condition for teachers to learn from each other and improve their English teaching.
6.1.4 Supportive measures
One of the enabling conditions for CTE, is that teachers support each other in the collegial work and when scaffolding and challenging students (Donohoo, 2018; Schad, 2018; Eells, 2011; Gibbs & Powell, 2011). The questionnaire results indicated that unlicensed teachers were quite positive to the support they received from colleagues, while licensed teachers remained rather neutral. This includes supportive measures for challenging and supporting the students who needs it, but also regarding help and insights of methodology, lesson improvements, and subject didactics. The interviewed teacher, Karen, was also very
positive to the idea of supporting each other in the collegial work. Finally, since unlicensed teachers showed a very positive attitude towards having faith in their colleagues’ help and insight, this may be an indication that supporting each other in the collegial work is considered of great importance and help to the less qualified teachers.
6.1.5 Competence development
According to Katz, Dack, & Malloy (2017), student results can be maintained and improved by having teachers develop their competencies, which is accomplished by reflecting, learning, understanding, and practicing a mix of approaches when teaching. This is supported by national steering documents in Sweden, which state that head teachers must support all teachers’ development of competencies (Skolverket, 2018a). This may prevent possible stagnation and ensure professional quality of the English education. The results from the questionnaire indicated that licensed teachers’ attitude towards this varied, but that they generally felt that they had this support (M = 3.69). Unlicensed teachers’
attitudes were even more varied, but generally did not feel they had this support (M = 2.75). While the interviewed teachers were also positive towards having this support, they were both fully qualified. This could indicate that non-qualified teachers are less supported in their own competence development - compromising the quality of their teaching.
Unlicensed teachers felt very positive towards getting help and insights from their
colleagues, though they felt it was limited in regard to time. A possible explanation for this may be that head teachers focus on developing the competencies of licensed teachers. Even though this potentially improves their competence, it may also mean that head teachers put additional demands on the licensed teachers by having them share their knowledge and insights with their colleagues. If head teachers choose to include this kind of transferral of knowledge in their schools, it seems necessary to reallocate adequate amounts of resources for this. This should in turn protect teachers from performing tasks that intrude on their focus and time educating - a contributing factor for successful CTE (Donohoo, 2017).
7. Conclusion
In this section, a summary of the key findings will be presented, followed by the limitations of the study, and suggestions for future research.
7.1 Key findings
Though many teachers were positive towards collegial exchanges, lack of time was found to be a factor which greatly limited its’ opportunities. The effectiveness, structure, and amounts of collegial communication may vary from workplaces, yet time was again identified to be a possible contributing factor to its’ limited presence. Schools who want to improve teacher efficacy and student results may consider a CTE approach, but need to ensure that the time for collegial exchanges are made available, and that teachers are protected from tasks which intrude on their work-time - something our results indicated was currently not the case.
Results indicated individual exceptions to the idea of influencing student results collegially, but teachers were generally very positive towards this idea - a strong
prerequisite for CTE to exist. Teachers are further individuals who differ regarding their methodology, meaning some incompatibilities between workplace and CTE may arise if the employed methods are performance goal orientated.
Licensed teachers generally felt that their competency development was supported, while unlicensed teachers did not. However, unlicensed teachers showed more faith in their colleagues’ assistance which strengthens the notion of head teachers investing their resources in licensed teachers, and having them share their knowledge with their colleagues.
Though a negative trend has been identified, regarding the resources made available for collegial exchanges and communication, local exceptions exist (Ekhem, 2019). This comes to show the fruits of labor, should the resources be allocated schools be given the time and
the support needed to get accustomed to the changes. Results indicate that CTE may be used as a proactive measure against the current problems in Sweden, and should the effort be made, positive results may be yielded.
7.2 Limitations
There was a few limitations of our study. Firstly, the time available for our data gathering was quite sparse, and this was worsened by the fact that many municipalities had spring break leaving a lot of teachers absent. This gave us less participants for the study, which we realize to some extent decreased the reliability of our study. Secondly, the aim of the study was partly to gather perceptions from teachers about, for example, their workload. This was revealed problematic because quite a few teachers declined to participate due to not having the time. Aside from this irony, this actually limits the quality of our study since we lost valuable insights of teachers that seemingly struggles more than others.
7.3 Suggestions for future research
As for further research, it may be beneficial to research which components would be considered important for collegial exchanges to work in a more practical and national context. Additional efforts may also be placed on researching CTE’s specific implications on English language teaching as this study offers a limited insight into this. A larger quantity of participants, and a wider geographical mapping, might also give a more
accurate scope of the compatibility of CTE in Swedish schools. Lastly, since support from school leaders are crucial for CTE, research of possible implementation methods that might scaffold them, might be research of great value to the teacher profession as a whole.
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