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Master thesis

Negotiating for transformation?

- A case study of the negotiation process in the Cyprus conflict

Författare: Hanna Lunding Handledare: Manuela Nilsson Examinator: Jonas Ewald

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Abstract

The Cyprus problem has now been an ongoing dispute for 40 some years. The two main ethnic communities, Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot, has since the unrest following independence in 1960, been separated both in space and mind. A military coup, supported by Greece, followed by a Turkish invasion, caused a violent division of the island in 1974, a division that remains today. The UN has facilitated dialog and negotiation between the communities since the establishment of UNFICYP in 1964.

The objective of this study is to identify whether the parties have been and are aiming for long-term or short-term perspectives in negotiation. With the help of the theoretical framework of Conflict transformation, resolution and management the study aim to answer the question – What signs of conflict transformation could be identified within the high level peace negotiation process in Cyprus?

The study will be done through a process tracing case study of the peace negotiations in the Cyprus conflict. The study aims at depicting the negotiation process from 1974 and onwards. This by exploring UN position papers, resolutions and reports together with descriptions and statements from the negotiating parties.

The study found that the phases of negotiation have differed considerably over time and that a general shift from conflict management to conflict transformation did appear.

Keywords

Cyprus, Cyprus conflict, Cyprus problem, Cyprus peace negotiation, Greek Cypriot, Turkish Cypriot, Conflict management, Conflict resolution, Conflict transformation.

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Acknowledgements

I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Manuela Nilsson. First for motivating me to resume the writing and second for giving me the guidance and advice I needed throughout the process. Your sharp mind and sound questioning gave me the push and support I needed to reach my goal. Thank you!

I would also like to thank my employer for encouragement and facilitation during the time of writing.

Finally, I would like to thank my family for all the love and support received, being my source of energy and inspiration, making this project possible. I love you!

This thesis represents a great personal achievement upon completion as it has followed me through life as a goal for a very long time.

Sincerely, Hanna Lunding

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Table of Contents

1 Introduction _________________________________________________________ 1 1.1 Problem formulation _______________________________________________ 1 1.2 Objective and research questions _____________________________________ 5 1.3 Research relevance ________________________________________________ 6 1.4 Methodological and theoretical framework _____________________________ 6 1.5 Language and terminology __________________________________________ 6 1.6 Outline of the thesis _______________________________________________ 7 2 Theoretical framework ________________________________________________ 8 2.1 Understanding conflict _____________________________________________ 8 2.2 Understanding negotiation and mediation _____________________________ 10 2.3 Conflict management, resolution and transformation ____________________ 11 2.3.1 Conflict management/mitigation _________________________________ 12 2.3.2 Conflict resolution ____________________________________________ 12 2.3.3 Conflict transformation ________________________________________ 13 2.4 How to apply the framework _______________________________________ 15 3 Methodological framework ____________________________________________ 16 3.1 Research strategy and design _______________________________________ 16 3.1.1 Abduction ___________________________________________________ 17 3.1.2 Process tracing method ________________________________________ 18 3.2 Material and sources ______________________________________________ 19 3.2.1 Primary sources ______________________________________________ 19 3.2.2 Secondary sources ____________________________________________ 19 3.3 Quality assessment of resources _____________________________________ 21 3.4 Limitations and delimitations _______________________________________ 22 3.5 Ethical considerations _____________________________________________ 22 4 The development of the Cyprus Problem ________________________________ 23 4.1 Cyprus in the early times __________________________________________ 23 4.2 Cyprus put under British administration ______________________________ 23 4.3 Cyprus road to Independence _______________________________________ 25 4.4 Cyprus independence _____________________________________________ 26 4.5 Division of the island _____________________________________________ 29 4.6 UN good offices in Cyprus _________________________________________ 29 5 Findings ___________________________________________________________ 30 5.1 Negotiation process pre 1974 _______________________________________ 30 5.2 Negotiation process post 1974 ______________________________________ 31 5.2.1 Negotiation Phase 1: 1974 - 1979 ________________________________ 31 5.2.2 Negotiation Phase 2: 1984 - 1990 ________________________________ 35 5.2.3 Negotiation Phase 3: 1990 - 1998 ________________________________ 37 5.2.4 Negotiation Phase 4: 1998 - 2004 ________________________________ 38

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5.2.5 Negotiation Phase 5: 2008 - 2017 ________________________________ 41 6 Analysis ____________________________________________________________ 45 6.1.1 Negotiation Phase 1: 1974 - 1979 ________________________________ 45 6.1.2 Negotiation Phase 2: 1984 - 1990 ________________________________ 46 6.1.3 Negotiation Phase 3: 1990 - 1998 ________________________________ 47 6.1.4 Negotiation Phase 4: 1998 - 2004 ________________________________ 47 6.1.5 Negotiation Phase 5: 2008 - 2017 ________________________________ 48 7 Conclusions ________________________________________________________ 49

References ___________________________________________________________ 50

Appendix ____________________________________________________________ 58 Appendix A. Lederach table on conflict transformation and resolution _________ 58

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List of Figures

FIGURE 1.MAP OVER CYPRUS, DEPICTING THE STRETCHING OF THE GREEN LINE DIVIDING THE ISLAND SINCE 1974. ... 2

FIGURE 2.THE CONFLICT TRIANGLE, BY JOHAN GALTUNG 1996:72 ... 9

FIGURE 3.AN INTERPRETATION OF THE FLAG OF THE REPUBLIC OF CYPRUS ... 26

FIGURE 4.AN INTERPRETATION OF THE FLAG OF TURKISH REPUBLIC OF NORTHERN CYPRUS (TRNC) ... 35

FIGURE 5.TRNC FLAG ON THE KYRENIA MOUNTAIN.PHOTO TAKEN BY HANNA LUNDING,2007 ... 36

List of Tables

TABLE 1.THE THREE THEORIES AND THEIR PERSPECTIVE IN TIME... 11

TABLE 2. SUMMARY OF THE PERSPECTIVES OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT, CONFLICT RESOLUTION AND CONFLICT TRANSFORMATION, BASED ON THE COMPARISON OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION AND CONFLICT TRANSFORMATION BY JOHN PAUL LEDERACH.(LEDERACH 2003:33) ... 15

TABLE 3.SUMMERY OF THE IDENTIFIED NEGOTIATION PHASES. ... 44

TABLE 4.SUMMERY OF NEGOTIATION PHASE 1,1974-1979. ... 46

TABLE 5.SUMMERY OF NEGOTIATION PHASE 2,1984-1990. ... 46

TABLE 6.SUMMERY OF NEGOTIATION PHASE 3,1990-1998. ... 47

TABLE 7.SUMMERY OF NEGOTIATION PHASE 4,1998-2004. ... 47

TABLE 8.SUMMERY OF NEGOTIATION PHASE 5,2008-2017. ... 48

List of Abbreviations

PSC Protracted Social Conflicts RoC Republic of Cyprus

TRNC Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus

UNFICYP United Nation Peace keeping Force in Cyprus UNSG United Nation Secretary General

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1 Introduction

1.1 Problem formulation

Protracted Social Conflicts (PSC) are puzzling peace building initiatives around the world. PSCs are characterized by the prolonged and often violent struggle among communal groups focusing on religious, cultural or ethnic identity and basic needs such as security, recognition, justice and fair access to political institutions and economic participation (Azar 1990:2). With 40 plus years of continuing dispute the Cyprus problem is today one of the longest ongoing protracted social conflicts in the world (Leventis & Tsokkalides 2007) and therefore an interesting subject for analysis.

When thinking of Cyprus the first that springs to mind is often the steaming sun, the stunning beauty of long beaches and turquoise water – images of a true paradise. This is a genuine picture of the small Mediterranean island; however there is also another side to the Cyprus story. Geographically positioned, in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, Cyprus has through centuries endured the development and fall of numerous of civilizations. Cyprus has thus been, and still remain, a flourishing melting pot of peoples and cultures (Hunt 1990; Stuart 2001; Mallinsson 2005). The island, with a population of 1, 89 million people, is today the home of several ethnic groups such as the Greek Cypriot (77 %), Turkish Cypriot (18 %), Armenian, Russian and Marionite (5

%) (United Nation 2018).

Cyprus was, between the years of 1878 and 1960, under British administration. As opposed to other colonies under British flag the people of Cyprus did not long for independence for the sake of self-sovereignty, but rather for unification with the

“motherland” Greece. A struggle for independence developed into a conflict along ethnic lines between the two main ethnic communities, the Greek Cypriot and the Turkish Cypriot community. The Greek Cypriot community with a strong orientation towards union with Greece (enosis) and the Turkish Cypriot community, being in minority, fearing the domination of Greece were rather advocating partition (taksim) and turned towards Turkey for support (Hunt 1990; Michael 2009).

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Shortly after independence the communities failed to uphold their joint administration and the collaboration crumbled. Greek and Turkish Cypriots were pulling away from each other and eventually intercommunal violence broke out. A military coup, supported by Greece, followed by a Turkish invasion, caused a violent division of the island in 1974, a division that remains today. Large waves of migration took place. Over 200 000 Greek Cypriots were forced from the north to the south and about 50 000 Turkish Cypriots from the south to the north (Hunt 1990; Hannay 2005). After the confrontations, 493 Turkish Cypriots and 1 508 Greek Cypriots were reported missing, many of which are still missing today (Icmp 2019).

Figure 1. Map over Cyprus, depicting the stretching of the green line dividing the island since 1974.

The United Nation Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP), established in 1964, is one of the longest ongoing UN-missions. Since the put down of arms, Greek and Turkish forces have been watching over the cease-fire lines, with the UN forces patrolling midmost the buffer zone. The buffer zone, also called the green line, stretching from Paralimni in the east to Kato Pyrgos in the west divides not only the island and its people in two, but also the capital Nicosia, making it into the last divided city in Europe (United Nation 2019a). The spaces within the buffer zone are frozen in time. Houses and streets are left in their 1974-state, impinged by war and taken over by nature. This could be argued to be much in parallel to the conflict itself.

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Already in 1966 did the UN Secretary General lounge the Mission of Good Offices, with the instruction to encourage dialogue among the two communities on the island.

Since then the United Nation has, in the role of a mediator, been supporting dialogue on different levels and in different forms (United Nation 2019a; 2019c). During these 30 plus years of negotiation the process has been launched, collapsed and re-launched a number of times without the parties reaching any kind of workable solution. The phrase

“It is now or never!” stated in numerous of reviews of the Cyprus conflict is starting to be watered down (Howden 2008).

Some conflicts do stagnate; continue with low intensity without any possible end in sight, they freeze. The concept of frozen conflict is debated and has been lacking a general definition. In their attempt to reconceptualize the term Smetana and Ludvik (2018) argues the following:

“We define frozen conflict as a protracted, post-war conflict

process, characterized by the absence of stable peace between the opposing sides. In frozen conflicts, core issues between the opposing sides remain unresolved, the dispute is in the forefront of mutual relations, and there is a looming threat of the renewal of

violence.”

Smetana and Ludvik also underlines that a frozen conflict must be international. Even though it could be argued if this definition coincides with the Cyprus problem, it a very close call. Contemporary research on the Cyprus problem has also been deliberating upon the conflict having turned into a comfortable conflict, a neutralized state where few actual incentives for solving the dispute are to be found (Dağlı 2017;

Adamides/Constantinou 2012).

The unusual combination of deep conflict, UN presence and a flourishing tourism has made Cyprus into a unique case in conflict history and due to the non-violent character of the conflict in recent years; the implications might not appear that pressing.

Nevertheless, studies are pointing out the intercommunal and the international dimension of the conflict affecting the actors on many levels (Richmond 2006). The Cyprus problem is influenced by the interests of neighboring nation states (such as Greece, Turkey, Great Britain), and correspondingly is the situation in Cyprus affecting

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international relations on a larger scale. For instance has the internal governance of both the European Union and NATO suffered on account of the Cyprus problem (Christou 2010; Jakobsson-Hatay 2002; Joseph 1997) as well has the EU-NATO relationship (Joseph 1997:80, 93). Studies on the Cypriot EU accession process on the other hand suggests that the EU neglected the possibility of transforming the conflict within the framework of the accession negotiations and subsequently leading the conflict into its own jurisdiction. The EU claiming the role of catalyst in the search for a solution to the Cyprus conflict furthermore proved unsuccessful (Eralp and Beriker 2005; Kaymak 2006).

The Cyprus problem is often described as a deep rooted identity-based conflict and the importance of history is prominent. Embedded emotional memories from the violent encounters in the 60s and 70s are still affecting the situation in Cyprus. The colonial heritage, nationalism and the cultural belonging to Greece and Turkey are all crucial elements in the development of the conflict and cannot be overlooked in a settlement (Michael 2009:8).

Other researchers argue that there are more important factors for the negotiation failures and the continuation of conflict, than the historical baggage. First and foremost since the understating of history is one of the first areas where the two communities differ substantially. Factors such as the actual ethnic segregation that new generations grow up with are said to spark fear and prejudice and reproduce opposition, this in all areas such as governance, economy, identity and the fear of the ‘other’ (Tocci 2000:2ff). This together with extensive militarization and immigration keeps the conflict alive. Another dimension Tocci argues for is the elite interests in the conflict. Claiming that the Cyprus problem cannot be solely seen as a dispute among two ethnic communities, the interest of other actors such as Greece, Turkey and the EU must be acknowledged (Tocci 2000:12ff).

UN third party intervention in the Cyprus problem have been honored for persistence and respect as well as criticized for not addressing the appropriate issues. The communities have also objected to what they found UN action being more of an arbitration rather than mediation (Fisher 2001; Mirbagheri 2010; Tocci 2000).

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Indications of the patience of UN Secretary General running low with the process (Smith 2017). The conflict continues to render costs both for the island and the international community, where only the UN-mission require a budget of about 55 million dollar each year (United Nation 2019a).

Time pass by, the conflict remains, negotiations continue with little progress, expenses proceed without further change. Given these circumstances, could the Cyprus problem be turned into something life-creative rather than continue in the tracks of present destructive deadlock? Could the theory of conflict transformation contribute to the understanding and development of the Cyprus negotiation process? This thesis seeks to examine the content and characteristics of the negotiation process in order to determine whether any signs of conflict transformation are to be found. Whether the negotiation parties are going for the long-term perspectives in the process.

1.2 Objective and research questions

The objective of this study is to contribute to the discussion on conflict transformation.

By doing an in depth case study of the Cyprus conflict peace negotiation process the study is aiming at identifying whether the parties are aiming for long-term solutions or short-term perspectives in negotiation.

To achieve the objectives of the study it is framed by the following research questions:

• What signs of conflict transformation could be identified within the negotiation process in the Cyprus conflict?

◦ What were the major issues managed in the negotiation process from 1974 until today?

◦ What actors have been involved and what has characterized their attitudes and behavior towards the process?

◦ In what way has the structure of the relationship between the negotiating parties altered over time?

◦ What major domestic and international events have affected the negotiation process?

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1.3 Research relevance

Protracted social conflicts, such as the Cyprus problem, has been puzzling mediators and peace builders for years and years. Alongside occasional hope and anticipation a good amount of frustration colors the process. The Cyprus problem is influencing politics on many levels; local, regional and international. As well as the present context in which Cyprus finds itself, where surrounding powers are influencing the ongoing peace process as such. The perceived frozen state of conflict where Cyprus remains, with rather limited results continue to render large costs for both the republic of Cyprus, Greece and the international community.

This study intends to render knowledge about whether and how the selected theoretical perspectives correspond to this particular negotiation process. Such a theoretical discussion is awaited to illustrate how the negotiation process has developed over time which in turn could contribute to further studies on the process.

As the negotiation process has been ongoing for over 30 years, with a rather lukewarm international interest, the study also hopes to stimulate the discussion on the challenges in Cyprus and in Europe today. The study gives a comprehensive overview of the negotiation process and a humble evaluation of the strategies applied which may indicate in what direction the process is going. Which hopefully could be of use for others working with negotiation analysis?

1.4 Methodological and theoretical framework

The research is made out of a case study of the Cyprus problem peace negotiation process. Through the process-tracing method the study aims at depicting the negotiation process from 1974 and onwards. By exploring UN position papers, resolutions and reports together with descriptions and statements from the negotiating parties. This in order to identify whether there in the process could be found signs of conflict transformation.

1.5 Language and terminology

The conflict is recognized under a number of different names and descriptions, such as the Cyprus problem, Cyprus issue, Cyprus dispute, Cyprus question or Cyprus conflict.

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In this study the term Cyprus problem will be used when referring to the conflict as such. This bridge to the term of the actual negotiation process which often is referred to as the Cyprus peace talks, Cyprus talks, Cyprus problem negotiation where in this study the last alternative will be applied.

The official language will be used when referring to the country Republic of Cyprus.

This is in practice the southern part of the island and the northern part will be mentioned as self-proclaimed Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus TRNC. Thereby will the leader of the Greek Cypriot community also be referred to as the President of the Republic of Cyprus and the leader of the Turkish Cypriot community will be denoted as such. Finally, when in Cyprus and when reading literature on Cyprus, depending on the language or author, you often come across different names of places and cities around the island. In this study the English names will be applied.

1.6 Outline of the thesis

Following this introductory chapter, where the aim and outline of the study is presented, the theoretical framework of conflict management, resolution and transformation is presented. This is followed by a description of the methodological framework, dealing with both the method applied and the sources used. The fourth chapter gives an introduction to the history of Cyprus and the development of the Cyprus conflict in the mid-20th century. Chapter five reports the main findings of this thesis, the structure and development of the Cyprus conflict negotiation process from 1974 and onwards. In chapter number six the identified phases of the negotiation process is discussed from the three theoretical perspectives chosen and the research questions will be answered. In the seventh and final chapter of the thesis the main conclusions and recommendations are made. This is then followed by the references and the appendices.

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2 Theoretical framework

In the following section the theoretical framework will be outlined and discussed. An introductory remark will be made on the understanding of conflict, negotiation and mediation. This only to serve as point of departure for the following theoretical framework, consisting of the concepts of conflict management, resolution and transformation.

2.1 Understanding conflict

There are a number of different ways in which conflict could be analyzed and understood. Being a natural part of life it could be found almost everywhere, only in different apparels. Conflict could be political conflict among states, biological conflict among species, cultural conflict among groups or psychological conflict within man.

(Boulding 2018:6; Ramsbotham et. al 2016:9) Conflict is often defined as destructive and harmful, which often is the more apparent perspective in many conflicts. However, a conflict could also be understood as an opportunity for change. Professor Johan Galtung, a distinguished theorist within the field of peace and conflict research, argues that conflict is a great opportunity for development and change (Galtung 1996:70ff). As one of the founding members of the International Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO) Galtung himself also has been professionally involved in the search for peace in Cyprus (PRIO 2010). PRIO is based in Oslo but has an additional office in Nicosia; The PRIO Cyprus Centre, since 1999. This is focusing on research and dialogue on the Cyprus problem and on improving the cooperation between Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot community (PRIO Cyprus Centre 2010).

Returning to the thoughts on conflict, about the very existence of conflict Galtung stated

“Conflict is about life, pointing straight to contradictions as life-creative or life- destructive.”According to this perspective, conflict is both a source of creation and development as well as a source of destruction, depending on how it is encountered, either way it is always a natural part of life (Galtung 1996:71). Galtung further suggests that conflict could be perceived as a triangular relationship between the three components behavior, attitudes and contradiction (Figure 2). The behavior of the conflicting parties could for instance be coloured by suspicion or hostility and thereby

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be a destructive behavior causing harm. On the other hand, there could also be a constructive behavior leading towards a more positive development. Making it even more complicated, these two types of behavior could appear at the same time. Although, underneath the behavior, whether it be destructive or constructive, there is always something more, a deeper feeling or conception. This is what Galtung refers to as attitudes. The attitudes signify the actual perceptions of the involved parties; it could be the perception of themselves, of each other or perhaps both. Finally, the third point in the triangle, the contradiction, describes the actual situation in conflict, the content of the conflict. The contradiction is the clashing opinions, the separate intentions or incompatible goals of the conflicting parties (Galtung1996:70ff).

When all three components are present we experience a manifest conflict, on observed and conscious level. When only one or two of the elements are present there is a latent, or an incipient conflict. This for instance, when there is no actual conflict behavior among involved parties or if only one of the actors recognize a possible contradiction.

Galtung thereby recognizes the dynamic aspect of conflict and argues that there is a mutual influence and a continuously changing process between the three components in conflict (Galtung1996:70ff). The triangular shape of the model also witness of the relationship between the three, there are flows along all sides and the three components are therefore influencing one another. There could accordingly be a conflict situation, a contradiction, that cause a conflict behavior and attitude but there could also be an attitude or behavior causing a contradiction among involved parties (Galtung 1996:72).

Figure 2.The conflict triangle, by Johan Galtung 1996:72

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Due to its dynamic nature conflict does not appear out of nothing and cannot disappear into anything, but can only transform into something else, like a form of energy, Galtung argues. It is impossible to solve all contradictions and it is impossible to reach an entirely steady-state-conflict-free life. New contradictions will appear when the old ones are solved (Galtung 1996:89f).

In more recent years a number of models have been meeting up in the discussion on conflict. One of which maintains that conflict arise out of social change, leading to conflict transformation through violent or non-violent action. (Ramsbotham et. al 2016:28ff) Where John P Lederach is one of the advocates of this line of thought.

Many perspectives could be elaborated upon in relation to conflict, however in connection to this particular study the perspective of ethnic conflict is vital to touch upon. Ethnic conflict such as the Cyprus problem, where ethnic groups are in strong opposition to one another is nothing rare. These types of conflicts usually arise as difficulties among peoples within state boundaries, yet the consequences and implications often reach much further than to the actual borders. Even though ethnic conflict often is spoken of in terms of internal disturbances and oppositions causing civil wars, there is usually an international dimension to it as well. Ethnic groups search for support from outside, among neighbors and allies (Joseph 1997:7 and Zartman, 1995:4; Ramsbotham et. al 2016:65). The international dimension of the Cyprus problem, which will be described more into detail in chapter 4.

2.2 Understanding negotiation and mediation

Another concept important for this study is naturally the concept of negotiation. The simple way of putting it is “the process of discussing something with someone in order to reach an agreement with them, or the discussions themselves” (Cambridge dictionary). This is a process that could take place on all levels, from interpersonal to international level or multinational through unions or associations of various kinds.

Reaching deeper there are different approaches to negotiation. Two different approaches of negotiations are described by Morton Deutsch, the competitive and the cooperative approach. One of the most important elements for what approach is chosen by the conflicting parties is the nature of the dispute and the goals set out by the opponents and

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whether the interdependence between the two (or more) sides is positive or negative. In other words whether the chance of one reaching their goal increases or decreases in case the other side achieves their goal (Coleman et al. 2014).

Mediation is defined “the process by which someone tries to end a disagreement by helping the two sides to talk about and agree on a solution” (Cambridge dictionary).

Third party involvement became more common after the cold war era (Ramsbotham et.

al 2016:212).

2.3 Conflict management, resolution and transformation

Inspired by the thoughts of Galtung the theoretical frame for this study was developed out conflict transformation. Judging from the amount of books published in recent years, this line of thought has gained increased support in the public discourse (Galtung 2000; Lederach 1996, 2003; Dumont 2013; Dayton & Kriesberg 2009; Ramsbotham et.

al 2016:9). This bore the interest for investigating whether there were any transformative tendencies to be found in the Cyprus problem negotiation process. The writings of John Paul Lederach, who in his book the little book of Conflict transformation develops his understanding of conflict transformation as opposed to conflict resolution, provided a suitable framework for the forthcoming analysis of Cyprus negotiations.

However, having adopted the theories of conflict transformation and conflict resolution, with their long-term vs. short-term perspectives the study was lacking something that could capture the more immediate reactions in a negotiation process. To make sure the timeline in the analysis was comprehensive Therefore a third perspective was added – conflict management. This allowed the analysis to determine whether the actors in the process seem to be aiming for immediate, short or long term solutions (table 1)

Table 1. The three theories and their perspective in time.

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2.3.1 Conflict management/mitigation

Conflict management could be understood as: “Elimination, neutralization or control of the means of pursuing” the crisis/conflict (Zartman, 2003:8). An immediate effort to reduce the danger of a conflict, reduce the suffering and increase the confidence among the parties is described as Conflict management. Conflict management is focusing on the armed aspect of a conflict and is therefore trying to achieve/reach ceasefire, end fighting, and prevent violence from spreading and a like. Measures are called to avoid or restrain the parties from being able to use violence, by separating them or detracting arms, initiating talk s instead of fights. (Wallensteen 2007:4f, 50, Zartman, 2003 p.9). It could be understood as a more limited method for settlement and containment of violent conflict (Ramsbotham et. al, 2016:34).

2.3.2 Conflict resolution

Conflict resolution, at its core, suggests a way of solving a problem by ending a bad/destructive or less desired situation. Whether it is a problem among individuals, communities or states, conflict resolution seeks a final stop to destructive matters and behaviors. The peace agreement is a vital part of conflict resolution. A peace agreement could however be composed in a number of different ways, from the more narrow cease fire agreements ending fighting to the more inclusive documents taking into account justice and cooperation (Wallensteen 2007:7).

As it tries to make the parties, in cooperation, find a way of living with their incompatibilities or to make them find a way of solving these issues, conflict resolution is one step up than conflict management, when it comes to complexity. (Wallensteen 2007:7, 50). An agreement granting cease fire is a victory for the moment and a good start for future peace nevertheless there is no sustainable peace to be built on a written agreement resulting in a sole absence of violence. A sustainable peace needs a resolution addressing the incompatibilities and how to handle the future (Wallensteen 2007:7f). Conflict resolution could be defined as a situation

“Where the conflicting parties enter into an agreement that solves their central incompatibilities, accept each other’s continued existence as parties and cease all violent action against each other”. (Wallensteen 2007:8).

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An advocate of Conflict resolution is to be found in William Zartman, previous professor and researcher at Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS). In his early works he describes conflict resolution as something taking place when the time is right. With the expression “Ripe moment for resolution” he argues that there is a particular moment when the conflicting parties are ready for resolve a situation, it is then and only then the process and be successful. This is a matter of perception of the involved parties and when a situation becomes ripe cannot be predicted (Zartman 2003).

2.3.3 Conflict transformation

The understanding of conflict transformation is debated, whether it is to be seen as a collective term covering the broad perspective of conflict management, resolution and transformation or whether it is to be defined as a theoretical track of its own (Ramsbotham et. al, 2016:35; Miall 2004:3).

Primarily, conflict transformation focus on the relationship among involved parties.

John Paul Lederach, by many described as one of the more distinctive writers on Conflict transformation in more recent years (Miall 2004), refers to how conflict transformation goes beyond, taking one step further or deeper than the specific problems and connects to the more relational issues in conflict (Lederach 2003:4f, 17ff).

Defining the concept as followed:

“Conflict transformation is to envision and respond to the ebb and flow of social conflict as life-giving opportunities for creating constructive change processes that reduce violence, increase justice in direct interaction and social structures, and respond to real-life problems in human relationships” (Lederach 2003:14).

Conflict transformation is a way of approaching destructive conflict by transforming it into something new and constructive, in a long term perspective, with a certain emphasis on bottom-up processes (Galtung 1996:90, Lederach 2003:17ff; Ramsbotham et. al, 2016:29; transcend.org).

Human beings, communities and relationships are dynamic phenomenon in continuous change. Conflict affects us in different ways and on different levels in life, both on

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personal, relational, structural and cultural levels. Conflict transformation aims at reframing the positions of the conflicting parties. Focusing on the dynamic nature of conflicts, the importance of a transformative capacity and the ability to deal with continuous transformations in a good and sustainable way is underlined in this perspective (Galtung 1996:89f; Lederach 2003:23).

Further Lederach argues that people often tend to focus too much on the pressing problems and thereby missing out on the larger picture, resulting in shortsightedness. In order to be able to understand the conflict one must look at the conflict as well as see the conflict for what it is, in other words see beyond the most obvious and pressing problems (Lederach 2003:8f).

We need different lenses to see different things in our surroundings. The perspective of Conflict transformation could be described as having three lenses in one. First one for the immediate situation, another for the deeper patterns of the relationship between the disputing parties. A third lens for keeping the other two together, to create a framework of the situation. In this way you are able to take a more comprehensive approach and the whole conflict could be analyzed (Lederach 2003, p10f). With a transformative approach the most immediate problem becomes an opportunity to see the

“rest”of the conflict. Conflict transformation addresses the issues beyond and around conflict, namely the content, context and structure of the relationship between the feuding parties and offers an opportunity to see, understand and deal with the reason and core problems in conflict (Lederach 2003:12f).

Since the goal of transformation is to reach a new situation, where the needs and interests of the conflicting parties can be fulfilled, to reach a sense of win-win situation, creativity and innovation is highly important. Further, in order to find out what this new state could be, it is important for the parties to initiate dialogue and negotiation. Third party involvement is often important contributors in reaching actual transformation (Galtung, 1996, Wallensteen 2007:34f, Lederach, 2003; Ramsbotham et. al, 2016:213).

Critics argue that Conflict transformation is too unclear, diffuse and scattered (Ryan, 2007). Opponents also maintain that the thought of spreading “liberal peace”, with both

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economic and political liberalization in conflicted areas together with doing it in a too rapid pace could be troublesome for societies coming out of conflict (Hannum, 1990).

Change can be hard for those who have not experienced conflict, some might value the status quo and some might be part of a traumatized society where direct transformation could be perceived as dangerous and frightening more than anything else (Ryan in Sandole et al, 2009:309).

2.4 How to apply the framework

In table 2 below the three theoretical perspectives are assembled and summarized. This table will be used as an analytical tool in the final analysis. Each selected phase in the negotiation process will be discussed on the basis of the research questions and subsequently by comparing with the content of different parts of the table. By doing so it could be analyzed whether each selected phase, and the process as a whole, contains any transformative tendencies or if it rather is leaning towards conflict resolution or management. The table is based on the comparison of conflict transformation and conflict resolution made by Lederach, with the addition of the perspective of conflict management (for original Lederach model see appendix A).

Conflict Management Conflict Resolution Conflict Transformation The Key

Question How do we end violence?

And make the situation bearable?

How do we end

something not desirable? How do we end something destructive and build something desired?

The focus It is content-centered. It is content-centered. It is relationship-centered The Purpose To stop violence from

spreading and end danger for civilians.

To achieve an agreement and solution to the presenting problem creating the crisis.

To promote constructive change processes, inclusive of, but not limited to, immediate solutions The

development of the process

Make people put down arms. It is embedded and built around the immediacy of the relationship where the symptoms of disruptions appear.

It envisions the presenting problem as an opportunity for response to symptoms and engagement of systems within which relationships are embedded.

Time frame Immediate relief of violence, through the establishment of ceasefires.

The horizon is short-term relief to pain,

anxiety and difficulties. The horizon for change is mid- to long-range and is intentionally crisis- responsive rather than crisis-driven.

View of conflict

It envisions the need to de-escalate

conflict processes. It envisions conflict as an ecology that is relationally dynamic with ebb (conflict de-escalation to pursue constructive change) and flow (conflict escalation to pursue constructive change).

Table 2. Summary of the perspectives of conflict management, conflict resolution and conflict transformation, based on the Comparison of conflict resolution and conflict transformation by John Paul Lederach. (Lederach 2003:33)

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3 Methodological framework

The following chapter will present the methodological framework of this study. First the research strategy is presented and the concepts of abduction, case study and process tracing are introduced. The chapter is closed with a description of the data selection process, quality analysis of resources and finally limitations and delimitations.

3.1 Research strategy and design

The study has a descriptive approach as well as an analytical purpose and is built upon a qualitative research design. To give the reader a good, both historical and contemporary, understanding of the Cyprus problem and the peace negotiation process, a qualitative research strategy was found to be the most appropriate way to seize the project. As opposed to the quantitative research method, qualitative research concentrates upon the essence, wholeness and context of the chosen material. As the aim of study was to explore the negotiation process together with the attitudes and opinions of negotiating parties the qualitative research method was chosen. A qualitative approach also allows a deeper examination of the multiple variables that could have been of importance for the development of the negotiation process (Esaiasson et al. 2004:233; Bryman, 2016).

The year of 1974 became a natural point of departure since the most decisive event in Cypriot contemporary history, the division of the island, took place this year. The negotiation process could be dealt with as a whole; however I decided to divide it into five distinct phases. This to make the thesis easier to read and more nuanced. Seeing that the process could be characterized by different perspectives at different periods of time, shorter phases would likely highlight the changes and make the analysis stronger.

The five phases following the cycle of the process and the breaking points rather naturally are found in connection to more severe collapses of negotiation. During these 40 some years there has been times when the negotiations has been entirely closed down with little or no communication among the two parties. The years excluded in between the phases are those kinds of episodes in time when the process was put on hold.

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3.1.1 Abduction

In the undertakings of science there are not only the activities of collecting, structuring and describing data. In order to render new knowledge there is also a concluding step of inference. Using your mind and thought to analyze, relate and interpret what you see in your data. Connecting the dots from separate observations, ending up in a result that could be generalizable. The activity of inference could be carried out in four different ways; Deduction, Induction, Abduction and Retroduction (Danermark 2018:145ff).

Danermark argues that scientific conclusion, first and foremost is about following strictly formulated rules for logical reasoning and evidence. But he also underline that the ability of the researcher to interpret and make conclusions outside of the rulebook is central, where creativity and association skills could be of great importance (Danermark 2018:146,161). While deduction and induction are logic types of inference, abduction and retroduction constitutes a more general mean of delivering an argumentation.

Abduction embodies something essential to research, namely the discovery of something new, outside our normal way of thinking. Abduction is linked to the notion that there can be no final truths, only a broader knowledge, about a particular case or a general context (Danermark 2018:162). The researcher bases his/her understanding on the context and the worldview of the subjects studied. “The crucial step in abduction is that, having described and understood the world from his or her participants’

perspectives, the researcher must come to a social scientific account of the social world as seen from those perspectives (Bryman 2016:394). For this study this means to enter into the understanding of the two parties in negotiation and analyze the development from this perspective then in the following draw conclusions from this particular case.

The study is conducted through a case study. A case study focuses on an in-depth examination of one particular case, or through a comparison of a small number of cases.

A “case” could be an activity, a situation, a problem, an event or a process. This means to study a phenomena within its context and “to develop or test historical explanations that may be generalizable to other events” (George & Bennet 2005:5; Bryman 2016).

When George and Bennet formulated their concept of case study in 2005 they were looking for a strategy that could examine whether correlations between independent variables and outcomes that are identified through statistical methods are causal or not.

Focus is therefore on causality and the mechanisms that produce outcome. (George &

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Bennet 2005; Bryman 2016). In this study the case is made out of one single case that of the Cyprus problem negotiation process from 1974 up until today. The intention is to analyze the causality in the negotiation process from a perspective of conflict transformation.

3.1.2 Process tracing method

Process tracing is a type of case study where the researcher “attempts to trace the links between possible causes and observed outcomes” (George and Bennet 2005:6). This is done by examining materials such as document, descriptions, transcripts and other sources, to explore the causal process a theory suggests is in fact confirmed by the sequences and variables identified in the particular case. Process tracing could be used to compare cases to study whether there is any identified causality in relation to their outcome. Further process tracing could also be used for intensive study of one puzzling case to reach a deeper theoretical or empirical understanding. The aim of process tracing method is to “trace casual mechanisms behind an observed phenomena” through close up analysis (George and Bennet 2005:6-7, 206-7; Bryman 2016).

In a more recent publication, by Beach and Brun Pedersen, the authors argue that the concept further could be defined and clarified by differentiating between three directions within the process tracing method. All directions have the ambition to trace casual mechanisms, however with different purposes:

1. Theory-testing process-tracing (theory-centric) - The purpose of analysis is to find evidence that there exist a casual mechanism lining X and Y.

2. Theory-building process-tracing (theory-centric) - The purpose of analysis is to “build a plausible causal mechanism linking X and Y based on evidence in case.”

3. Explaining outcome process-tracing (case-centric) - The purpose of analysis is to “explain particularly puzzling historical outcome by building minimally sufficient explanation in case study” (Beach and Brun Pedersen, 2013:21).

Since the aim of this study is not to find evidence for particular casual relationships between parts of the process and outcome but rather study the negotiation process as a whole the last category of case-centric process tracing is the most applicable.

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3.2 Material and sources

When assembling the information on the negotiation process the questions presented in table 1 was employed, together with my research question, as guidelines. This to reach a clear and upright structure in my pursuit of identifying and presenting the content of the different phases.

When applying a qualitative research method one aims at capturing the gist of what people are trying to communicate, this type of research is often done through close up reading or in to depth interviewing (Esaiasson et al. 2004:233). This study will be focusing on material written on the Cyprus problem negotiation process. A couple of writers reoccur on the subject. Researchers such as Oliver Richmond, Michális Stavrou Michael and Ronald J Fisher, who have dedicated a lot of time an effort in this particular conflict.

3.2.1 Primary sources

The primary or firsthand sources used in this study are the Secretary general reports on his good offices and the Secretary general reports on UNFICYP both published approximately every sixth month by the United Nations and the Security council resolutions on Cyprus and the joint statements by the two leaders where the latter is published more seldom and only when there is a strong message to communicate from the negotiation table. All accessible at the special website for the negotiations uncyprustalks.org. Results in form of white papers/frameworks/propositions on suggestions on a solution, such as the Annan plan and the Boutros gali plan have also been included.

3.2.2 Secondary sources

Due to the nature of the research problem, the historical perspective on the negotiation process tracking back to 1974, the main weight of material is collected from secondary resources. Beyond being very cost and time effective the secondary sources are also most likely to offer high-quality data composed in the frame of acknowledged research structures and associated control procedures. Another advantage with conducting an analysis of already existing data is that more time could be devoted to the analysis.

(Bryman, 2016:309f).

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The selected texts are both printed materials such as books and reports and digital material published on the internet. Organizations and research institutes like International Crisis Group and PRIO - Peace Research Institute of Oslo has been good gateway to the subject. Cyprus review – A journal of social science, publishing on Cypriot political, social and economic issues has been another source of information for this study. Google scholar was nonetheless the best tool in the search for appropriate materials for the study. A structured search for materials was made through the following keywords: Cyprus problem, Cyprus negotiation, Cyprus negotiations + Conflict transformation. The internet search was delimitated to academic articles, books and organisational websites, forums where private discussions and speculations flow where deliberately excluded due to strong risk of bias. Due to my personal linguistic limitations I was automatically delimitated to materials written in English.

Articles used are both based on literature reviews and field studies in Cyprus. Such as Ronald J. Fishers expose from 2001 on third party interventions in Cyprus: the failure of mediation and the escalation of an identity-based conflict to an adversarial impasse.

Two websites, trancend.org and beyondintractability.org, have served as important resources for the study. Both with a considerable knowledge base and chaired by experts in the field of peace and conflict studies, with a certain focus on intractable conflicts and conflict transformation. Here are essays, studies and interviews to be found.

A literature review was made and a great deal is written on Cyprus and the material on the history and development of the Cyprus problem is extensive. The conflict could be analyzed from many different perspectives; political, economic, human rights, law, tourism, culture. A good amount of books describe this in a rather overall yet detailed manner (Tocci 2000; Hannay 2005; Diez Tocci 2009; Michael 2009; Ker-Lindsey 2011).

Focusing on the perspective of conflict transformation in relation to the Cyprus conflict a couple of studies are to be found. These are applying the concept in the discussion on alternative settlements of the Cyprus conflict, deliberating on the potential of the perspective for future solutions, where the negotiation process of course is included

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(Nicolaides 2011; Christou 2010; Galtung, Jacobsen, Brand-Jacobsen 2000; Zunzer 2004) However, no research could be found on classifying the different parts of the process as intended in this study.

Since the history of the Cyprus problem is rather contested finding neutral material describing both the Greek and the Turkish Cypriot perspective of the events was of great importance. The books Footprints in Cyprus (Hunt 1990), Världspolitikens dagsfrågor 2002 (Jakobsson-Hatay, 2002), Globalt uppdrag (FN-förbundet 2005) Cyprus ethnic conflict and international politics (Joseph 1997) was selected.

Turning to the materials used for the center piece of the study, the negotiation process.

Several books are unfolding the story of the negotiation process and many cover the early years of negotiation and up until the Annan plan in 2004, which was a major milestone. Cyprus – the search for a solution; Resolving the Cyprus Conflict – Negotiating history; The Cyprus problem – What everyone needs to know; Cyprus – a conflict at the crossroads; Political settlements in divided societies – consociationalism and Cyprus are all examples of important and solid descriptions of the process.

For additional information on the recent years of negotiation I had to turn to newspapers and magazines such as the Cyprus mail, BBC and le Monde Diplomatique.

Still the information about the negotiations, the issues, the attitudes and concerns of the two parties, was limited.

3.3 Quality assessment of resources

It is important to be critical and attentive in the process of selecting material in research. In order to secure the reliability of the material one is about to appoint in research the critical source analysis is a valuable tool. The following four criteria from critical source analysis (Esaiasson et al 2004:307f) have been taken into consideration in the selection process, and it is done in the following way:

• Authenticity – To ensure the authenticity of the material, meaning that the material is produced when it is said to be produced, the information has been compared with other sources.

• Independence – To ensure the independence of the material, the substance and

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content of the material is reliable and truthful, the material is again comparison with other sources.

• Simultaneousness – The simultaneousness in the materials used, refers to the time passed between the actual incidence or occurrence and the registration of the information. This has been thought of in the selection process, when possible using material as close as possible to the event.

• Tendency/Bias – To avoid the material being biased neutral sources have been applied as far as possible, such as the UN. When information from the conflicting parties has been used it has mainly been for determining their attitudes in the process. When needed the information have been checked towards another source to ensure the correctness in the information.

3.4 Limitations and delimitations

The study is delimitated to the post-1974 part of the peace negotiations process up until 2018. Since this is a desk study the material is delimitated to written texts. In order to limit the amount of material the selection is made of texts written from the division in 1974 and up until 2018. Although, since the amount of material written on Cyprus and the Cyprus problem is substantial I do not maintain that this is an all covering/extensive investigation but an overview of the most relevant events and opinions in the process.

Consequently this does not mean that further material on the matter is not available.

3.5 Ethical considerations

Due to the nature of the research there are no ethical considerations applicable.

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4 The development of the Cyprus Problem

This chapter offers an introduction to Cyprus and the Cyprus problem. Stretching from 8500 B.C. until the division of the island and the immediate time before the launch of the post-division negotiations.

4.1 Cyprus in the early times

Situated in the eastern corner of the Mediterranean Sea Cyprus has always been a crossing point for people from different cultures and continents. Activity on the island has, by archaeologists, been dated back to around 8500-8000 B.C. and Cyprus has since then been conquered and ruled by numerous of empires and peoples. (Hunt 1990:1) After a Hellenistic (325-30 BC), Roman (30BC-AD330) a Byzantine (330-1191) and a Frankish period (1191-1489) the Venetians arrived to the island. The Venetian period is often described as a dark time in Cypriot history, this owing both to extensive exploitation and migration from the island. In 1570 the island was invaded by Ottomans and the following year they gained full control over Cyprus (Hunt 1990:98ff; Linge 1997:34ff).

The Ottomans were not interested in putting many resources into this rather poor region and the Turkish period (1571-1878) did as a result not leave many visible traces.

However, they brought about two important changes which were to have great impact on the future of Cyprus. First and foremost, they altered the composition of the population. Around 20,000 Turks was encouraged or even forced to immigrate to the island. Furthermore, the Ottomans brought the tradition of combining religious and political power. The church and the religious leaders were thereby given more of a political position in Cypriot society after the Ottoman take over (Hunt 1990:226ff).

4.2 Cyprus put under British administration

Seeing that Cyprus was considered to be a Greek island it was included in the Greek war of liberation from the Ottoman Empire in 1821. The Ottomans intervened with force and the killings made large numbers of Greeks to leave the island and the Ottomans could stay in power. In the mid-19th century the Russian position in the region

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was vastly meliorated making both the Ottomans and the British uneasy. It subsequently became a part of British policy to support the Ottomans against Russia and in 1878 was Cyprus handed over to Britain administration as a part of a mutual security understanding (Hunt 1990:251ff). But the desire to make Cyprus officially Greek was strong. When greeting the British to the island in 1878 the bishop of Kition said:

“We accept the change of government inasmuch as we trust Great Britain will help Cyprus, as it did the Ionian Islands, to be united with mother Greece, with which it is naturally connected”

(Hunt 1990:265).

The British strategic and geopolitical interests in Cyprus was high, attaining land in one of the more turbulent areas of this time gave the colonial rule influence and power in the region. In 1923 Britain was, through the treaty of Lausanne, given the full control over Cyprus. It did, however, not take long until the British administration was confronted with Greek Cypriot doubt and distrust. The Greek Cypriot community felt they did not receive what they expected from the British takeover and the protests began. The Greek Cypriot found themselves to be rather Greeks than Greek Cypriot at the time and the struggle for union with Greece (enosis) had been a goal since Greece was founded as a nation state in the early nineteenth century. Turkey and the Turkish Cypriot on the other hand found Cyprus, due to hundreds of years under Ottoman rule, to be a Turkish island and demanded on their part taksim (partition), a division of the island into one Greek and one Turkish part. This was the start of a long dispute over Cyprus which until this day stands without a solution. (Michael 2009:7, Jakobsson-Hatay 2002:4; Joseph 1997:37).

Changes made by the British administration contributed to transforming the structural conditions on the island, politically, socially and economically. The church was pushed further from the governing process, infrastructural changes established both telecommunication and roads for transportation, the educational system was improved and printed press was introduced. These changes worked as a catalyst for the enosis- movement. (Michael 2009:12ff)

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4.3 Cyprus road to Independence

Cyprus was a complicated matter for the British authority and the fact that there was an ethnic diversity made the issue of independence even more complex. A dissatisfaction with the British administration, both for its economic policies and its inability to unite Cyprus with Greece, spread within the Greek Cypriot community and in the 1950's the EOKA-movement (National Organization of Cypriot Fighters) was founded. EOKA became the main actor in the Greek Cypriot anti-colonial and pro-enosis movement and their main goal of independence was to unite Cyprus with its Hellenic roots in Greece (Hunt 1990:277ff; Michael 2009:13f; Jakobsson-Hatay 2002:10f).

In 1954 Greece raised the issue of a Cypriot independence in the UN General assembly.

Britain called Greece and Turkey for a conference where they hoped to find support for a continued British rule in Cyprus. Even though both Greece and Turkey agreed to a continued status quo in Cyprus, for the time being, they also expressed their firm believer of Cyprus being rightfully connected to them (Richmond & Ker-Lindsey, 2001). To satisfy both parties Britain agreed to give Greece and Turkey a consultative status in its colonial administration over Cyprus (Jakobsson-Hatay 2002:10f). In 1955 EOKA fighters engaged in militant action against British bases in Nicosia, Limassol and Larnaca. The rebellion went on for four years causing over 500 deaths (Michael 2009:24; Jakobsson-Hatay 2002:4ff, 20f; Hannay 2005:8)

At the time, when Greek nationalism was on the up rise in Cyprus, the Turkish Cypriot was supporting a continued British rule even though they did not find the administration fully satisfying. Nevertheless, it was found to be a better alternative than enosis and a full Greek take over. With the establishment of the Turkish state in 1923 the Turkish Cypriot identification as Turks started to grow stronger and by the time of the EOKA revolt the Turkish Cypriot felt a need for mobilizing themselves. A political party Kibris Türktür Partisi (Cyprus is Turkish-party) was established, this was shortly followed by the establishment of the militant organization TMT or Türk Mukavemet Teşkilatı (Turkish Resistance Organisation) where Turkish officers was leading Turkish Cypriot fighters. The conflict now moved from being a struggle against the colonial rule to a fight along ethnic lines (Jakobsson-Hatay 2002:8f; Joseph 1997:18). Since the Turkish Cypriot community felt discriminated against from the Greek Cypriot majority they

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urged for separate ethnic municipalities with self-government in the main towns (Bose 2007:68f).

To stop violence the British began their negotiations with Greek Cypriot-leader Archbishop Makarios. Makarios wanted a majority rule on the island, in other words Greek Cypriot rule. When he refused to condemn the EOKA violence he was deported to the Seychelles. In 1957 the Turkish Cypriot left the municipalities in favor of establishing their own councils and the mixed villages, which up until now had been common all over the island, started to decrease in numbers (Michael 2009; Jakobsson- Hatay 2002:13,15,20f).

In 1958 the tension among the two communities, which now lived in separate ethnic blocks in the main towns, was extremely harsh. In the attempt to ease tension the Brits established Green Line to separate the two communities in Nicosia. Makarios, who up until now strictly had been aiming at enosis, announced that he could agree to an independent Cyprus at the expense of union with Greece (Bose 2007:68f; Levisson &

Svanberg 2004:23f; Jakobsson-Hatay 2002:15).

4.4 Cyprus independence

In 1959 Greece; Turkey and Great Britain met in Zürich, and the negotiations for setting out a political framework for an independent Cyprus began. The negotiations were practically carried out between Athens and Ankara. Britain agreed to accept any solution the other two found appropriate as long as Britain was

granted military presents on the island. This was

accepted and Britain received the two sovereign base areas – Akrotiri and Dhekelia – and Cyprus was given its independence (Michael 2009:25f; Jakobsson-Hatay 2002:18f).

Figure 3. An interpretation of the flag of the Republic of Cyprus

References

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