UPPSATSER
Kulturgeografiska institutionen
Demystifying Smart cities praxis and concept A qualitative study of municipalities in Stockholm region
Alexander Sahlström
Kurs: 2KU035: Masteruppsats i kulturgeografi 30hp Termin: VT2019
ABSTRACT
Sahlström, A. 2019. Demystifying Smart cities as a concept. Uppsatser Kulturgeografiska institutionen, Uppsala universitet. Masteruppsats i kulturgeografi 30hp, VT19
Initially, this thesis arose from an interest in technology and smart city as a concept and how this concept is used practically in urban planning. This thesis focuses on urban planning in four municipalities. Värmdö, Täby, Danderyd and Vallentuna municipality. This thesis analyses the concept of smart cities and praxis in relation to urban planning. Concepts and theories central to the study are processed and explored. In-depth interviews are conducted with planners to then analyse source material using grounded theory analysis with themes. This is done in detail to analyse what impact smart city as a concept has on practices and values regarding urban planning in municipalities.Different theoretical perspectives are also considered regarding the concept itself. The analysis demonstrates that implementing smart city as a concept has an impact on municipality organisation through smart governance, creates new urban planning goals as well, such as digitalizing the planning process, focusing on digital solutions and expanding fiber-networks. The results show that there are several driving factors behind the emergence of both smart governance and smart city initiatives, the most prevalent driving factor is the need to streamline communication and planning in a more competitive contemporary world where efficiency and pragmatism is premiered.
Keywords: Smart city, smart governance, urban planning, municipality, paradigm Handledare: Ismael Yrigoy
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 4
1.1 Purpose and questions 5
1.2 Key concepts 6
1.3 Delimitations 6
1.4 Disposition 7
2. THEORY SECTION 8
2.1 Working definitions of smart cities 8
2.2 From urban planning to smart governance: Shifting approach 15 2.3 Urban planning theory & Smart cities 18 2.4 Linking smart cities with broader debates 21
2.4.1 The emergence of smart governance 23
2.4.2 Creativity in relation to the Smart city 25
2.5 Theoretical perspectives 29
2.5.1 Cities in a relational perspective or place-based perspective 30
3. METHOD SECTION 35
3.1 Qualitative method & Grounded theory 35
3.2 Interviews 37
3.3 Selection for interviews 39
3.3.1 Cluster sampling 40
4. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS 41
4.1 Digitalization in municipalities 41
4.2 Bottom-up governance through digital communication 46 4.3 Reorganization of municipalities through Smart governance 49
4.4 Rural expansion of digitalization 56
4.5 Smart city initiatives based on a national perspective 57
5. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION 62
5.1 Conclusion 62
5.2 Discussion 68
6. REFRENCES 73
7. APPENDIX 78
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1. INTRODUCTION
Making a city smart is emerging as a strategy to develop cities of the future. However, the concept has many different connotations across the spectrum of research, this thesis aims to unpack this concept in connection with municipalities in Stockholm region. “Smart city”
projects encompass many areas of city planning; therefore, this thesis aims to research how municipalities work with digitalization in conjunction with smart city initiatives. In the boundaries of this thesis smart city initiatives are the application of information and communication technology in urban planning. Not only has this concept emerged to plan for future cities but, also to solve issues arising with rapid urbanization. Today more than half of the world’s population live in urban areas (Chourabi et al., 2012). In relation to this Stockholm is the capital in Europe which is growing the fastest (IVA, 2017). There are also other driving factors behind using smart city initiatives in urban planning which will be explored in this thesis. There has not been much research done on smart cities as a concept and it needs to be further explored since technology is becoming increasingly influential, not only in our daily lives, but also in regards to urban planning (Chourabi et al., 2012). The focus of this research is not one single type of project connected to “smart cities” rather how the concept applied and manifests itself in urban planning processes, since municipalities are developing different specific projects. It is more relevant to study which strategies are used, driving factors, obstacles and organization regarding digitalization and the “smart city” concept, than any specific smart city initiative. Smart governance is one of these strategies that underlie the smart city concept and is affecting governance and in consequence organization.
The application of “smart city” projects is not only used to mitigate the impact of urbanization.
Depending on the specific project the aim could be social sustainability such as planning for a more open and accessible city. However, the concept of “smart cities” is also a controversial subject. In relation to this information on projects, it is important to create an understanding for the concept and praxis within the municipalities. Analysing theoretical perspectives related to the concept is key, a place based or relational perspective in relation to smart city as a concept is therefore explored.
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Glauser and Straus (1974) emphasized the importance of induction in this case, since it makes us able to make inferences and develop explanations. Since the thesis is produced through a qualitative inductive method it is imperative to be sensitive to theory. This means that one must remain open to new perspectives and abstract to create theory, the creative city and community are analysed in relation to the concept to broaden the current debates surrounding the concept itself. Therefore, the theoretical perspectives chapter is broad and presents several definitions of the concept, this lends itself to make the thesis more credible. Furthermore, the analysis can be lifted from the level of the concrete level of empirical analysis. Digitalization and “smart cities” are changing the way we plan our cities and with it how we plan for the public. Therefore, strategies and values regarding these projects are important to research, since these new projects are shaping our future.
1.1 Purpose and questions
This thesis aims to research how digitalixation and “smart cities” in theory and practice is being used with urban planning in municipalities within Stockholm region, the researched municipalities are as follows Värmdö, Täby, Vallentuna and Danderyd municipality. To answer the purpose six research questions are formulated;
• What smart city initiatives are prevalent in Stockholm regions municipalities?
- What strategies and driving factors are key in these urban planning projects?
- What patterns and variations are there regarding praxis of smart city initiatives?
• How do urban planners in municipalities plan for smart city initiatives in practice?
- Is community and creativity considered as a part of the smart city concept?
- Are smart city initiatives changing the urban planning process and organization in municipalities?
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1.2 Key concepts
Smart city initiatives are not to be confused with smart city as a concept, the former can be defined through practical application the latter is a concept that encompasses different connotations and meaning depending on the definition in question., which will be further explored in the theory section. Worth noting that all these technical terms are constantly evolving, therefore it is necessary to define them.
Smart city initiatives - Within the framework of this paper smart city initiatives is used to signify urban planning projects that encompasses digitalization.
Smart governance – Signifies the organizational changes that influence urban planning and governance in the researched municipalities. Smart governance is a part of the smart city concept itself, however in this thesis it is also considered as a smart city initiative in itself.
Information and communication technologies (ICT) - is in the bounds of this thesis used as an extended term for information technology that stresses the role of integration of
communication services through different mediums (visual, audio, text).
Digitalization - Encompasses digitalization strategies, the application of information and communication technologies (ICT) to rationalize and automatize processes.
Big data - Signifies a large amount of data that is not easily processed with traditional data- processing application software due to its size and inherit complexity (Breuer, 2016).
1.3 Delimitations
There have been several delimitations chosen for this thesis, first and foremost municipalities within the Stockholm region are being researched. This delimitation was chosen so that variations could be made visible within the Stockholm region. Stockholm has been chosen for accessibility reason since I myself is living in Stockholm. Urbanization is also increasing in Stockholm more so than any other city in Sweden, with that there are a lot of pressure on Stockholm to reassure living standards and adapt. Secondly, Stockholm has been chosen since it has the most municipalities as a region available, also more importantly as previously stated in an European perspective Stockholm is the city that is growing the fastest, so it faces many challenges that are being addressed with smart city initiatives (IVA, 2017). The aim of this thesis is to interview urban planners in municipalities, and it is beneficent to have more
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municipalities to contact. I have consciously chosen not to interview IT experts within these municipalities, since the research questions are best answered by interviewing professionals in direct connection to urban planning, since the impact on urban planning is being researched this is to be preferred. The four municipalities Värmdö, Vallentuna, Täby and Danderyd have been chose due to the differences in geography and relation to Stokholm. Värmdö predominantly an archipelago municipality, Vallentuna being more of a rural municipality, Danderyd which can be considered an inner-city municipality in contrast to Täby municipality.
1.4 Disposition
This thesis contains five chapters. The Introduction (1) contains the problem formulation and gives context to the purpose of the research and research questions. Following this introducing chapter an overview of previous research and theory is presented in the second chapter (2). It contains an account how urban planning is related to digitalization and the smart city concept. It provides more context for the essay and situates smart city initiatives in relation to physical planning through history and different theoretical perspectives. It also gives an account for how urban planning has developed throughout history. In the method section (3) constructivist ground theory is overviewed and the structure of the research is presented, where municipalities have been researched, though semi-structured interviews and are then processed and analysed. Empiricism and analysis are presented in the fourth section (4) in relation to theoretical perspectives and previous research. Conclusion and discussion are lastly presented in the fifth and final section (5) results are summarized and presented, and finally a discussion is presented which focuses on contemporary urban planning as a profession.
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2. THEORY SECTION
The analysis of the literature background is conceptual history, which has its roots in the history of ideas. The purpose and research questions are substantiated by a literature background on urban planning history and smart city as a concept. This is needed since conceptual changes occur throughout history and in contemporary planning, which subsequently affects the development of society at large. Since, the thesis is based on in depth interviews, the concept of development needs to be identified over a long period of time. It is advantageous to identify the thought systems that are displaced when the concepts change. Central to the study is to synthesize the development of smart cities and urban planning in order to be able to provide feedback and changes in results (Bergström & Boréus, 2012). It is then expedient to prove results and conclusions while being able to feed back to the previous development of concepts.
In this section prior research is presented regarding smart cities as a concept. Smart cities can be considered categorized by their different definitions. There are more general definitions, definitions connected to digitalization and definitions that can be linked to urban politics, governance and economy. Urban planning theory and praxis in relation to the smart city concept is also outlined with section 2.4 which link broader debates to the concept.
2.1 Working definitions of smart cities
Smart city is a concept that is connected to urban planning and defined by projects that digitalize the city in different aspects. There are many working definitions of this concept, some are more technical other are more defined by vision. The first group of definitions presented is focused on a smart city being pragmatic and adaptable.
“A Smart City is a city well performing in a forward-looking way in these six characteristics, built on the ‘smart’ combination of endowments and activities of self-decisive, independent and aware citizens” (Griffinger et al., 2007, p.11).
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The six characteristics referred to by Griffinger et al, 2007) are Smart economy, smart people, smart governance, smart mobility, smart environment and lastly smart living;
“Smart People is not only described by the level of qualification or education of the citizens but also by the quality of social interactions regarding integration and public life and the openness towards the “outer” world. Smart Governance comprises aspects of political participation, services for citizens as well as the functioning of the administration. Local and international accessibility are important aspects of Smart Mobility as well as the availability of information and communication technologies and modern and sustainable transport systems. Smart Environment is described by attractive natural conditions (climate, green space etc.), pollution, resource management and also by efforts towards environmental protection. Finally, Smart Living comprises various aspects of quality of life as culture, health, safety, housing, tourism etc.” (Griffinger et al., 2007, p.11).
A second group of definitions is techno managerial definitions, focusing on aspects such as for instance sensors, big data and intelligent management of systems. Hall (2000, p.1) defined it as a city that monitors and integrates conditions of all its critical infrastructures, including roads, bridges, tunnels, rails, subways, airports, seaports, communications, water, power, even major buildings. Moreover, a city having the ability to better optimize its resources, plan its preventive maintenance activities and monitor security aspects while maximizing services to its citizens. Some techno managerial definitions are defined by corporations, for instance IBM, since they recognise technologies growing influence in cities and out society as a whole.
“Smarter Cities are urban areas that exploit operational data, such as that arising from traffic congestion, power consumption statistics, and public safety events, to optimize the operation of city services. The foundational concepts are instrumented, interconnected, and intelligent.”
(Harrison et al, 2010, p.1)
Techno managerial definitions may also be defined by its application and technology in use.
Toppeta (2010) described it as combining ICT and Web 2.0 technology with other organizational, design and planning efforts to dematerialize and speed up bureaucratic processes and help to identify new, innovative solutions to city management complexity, in order to improve sustainability and livability. Vasseur (2010) considers the application of smart
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computing technologies to be used in these areas to make critical infrastructure components and services. He saw use in several areas such as administration, education, healthcare, public safety, real estate, transportation, and utilities––more intelligent, interconnected, and efficient.
“A city that monitors and integrates conditions of all of its critical infrastructures, including roads, bridges, tunnels, rail/subways, airports, seaports, communications, water, power, even major buildings, can better optimize its resources, plan its preventive maintenance activities, and monitor security aspects while maximizing services to its citizens.” (Hall, 2001, p.1).
Techno managerial definitions emphasize the systematic approach towards urban planning, where the city is perceived as a complex interconnected system through digitalization. It leans heavily on the aspect that monitoring and digital solutions can be a tool for a myriad of applications.
A third category of smart city definitions regards the city as “smart” if certain requirements are met. Investments in human and social capital, transport and modern (ICT) communication infrastructure sustain and work in tandem with a sustainable economic growth. This in turn means an existing creative class according to Caragliu et.al (2011). Community is also a part of this definitions, since the “smart” city is evaluated according to how much it gives back in terms of quality of life and for communities (Batty et.al 2012).
“We believe a smart city to be smart when investments in human and social capital and traditional (transport) and modern (ICT) communication infrastructure fuel sustainable economic growth and a high quality of life, with a wise management of natural resources, through participatory governance” (Caragliu, et al, 2011, p.6).
“We find that the presence of a creative class, the quality of and dedicated attention to the urban environment, the level of education, multimodal accessibility, and the use of ICTs for public administration are all positively correlated with urban wealth. This result prompts the formulation of a new strategic agenda for smart cities in Europe, in order to achieve sustainable urban development and a better urban landscape.” (Caragliu et.al, 2011, p.1)
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There are many factors in this definition, and it can be hard to discern their meaning, however they all relate to efficiency, and the complex system which is the city. The management of resources in relation to the challenge of increasing urbanization increases the complexity of the ecosystem. To manage this, we have an advantage and that is information, information that is abundant if we can process it. These definitions make this clear cut and define a
“smart” city on how well technological solutions are implemented to serve its inhabitants, in some cases community and also according to Caragliu, et al (2011) sustaining a creative class.
“Cities however can only be smart if there are intelligence functions that are able to integrate and synthesise this data to some purpose, ways of improving the efficiency, equity, sustainability and quality of life in cities.” (Batty et.al, 2012, p.482).
These definitions emphasize ICT to operate the city, Batty et.al (2012) believe that coupling, coordination and integration will be a challenge, but is required for future emerging technologies, so that they can be used to the advantage of the community at large.
This third category of smart city definitions is important to consider, since the municipalities researched are placed in the context of Stockholm region. Stockholms läns landsting recognizes that in Stockholm region economy is the main segregation factor. High-income takers live close to other high-income takers and so on, this trend has been growing since the 1990s. It is also recognised that this economic form of segregation strengthens other forms of segregation (Stockholms läns landsting, 2015). This is to show the importance of both nurturing development and identifying problems. Both Täby and Danderyd municipality are home to an above average amount of high incomes takers in relation to other municipalities in Sweden.
Mandanipour (1998) focused on the relationship between social exclusion and space. What affects the people in the cities is the economic, political and cultural sphere that exists in a city, where you find yourself having a class affiliation. Mandanipour (1998) further explains that this is partly because we create differences between the private and public sphere. In contrast to how Richard Florida (2002) views the creative class and the service class where there is a clear boundary between these, in terms of community and workplace. Where one draws boundaries, in consequence means that exclusion becomes a mechanism. She believes that exclusion is created on several different levels, where not only the physical and social barriers
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play a role, but that also economic aspects must be taken into consideration. The lack of access to work, which she believes is the biggest factor in exclusion, since it also secures one's position in the economic arena, which is a deciding factor in e.g. a family’s inclusion in the city.
Figure 1. Smart cities initiative framework. Source: (Chourabi et al., 2012, p.2294).
This framework summarizes the different factors connected to the smart city. It also shows how they are interlinked. The inner circle being most influential. It is a representation of the smart city initiative. Outer factors (governance, people and communities, natural environment, infrastructure, and economy) are influenced by inner factors, which can be considered filtered through these factors. Technology, management, and policy are considered the core since they directly affect the success of smart city initiatives (Chourabi et al., 2012).
However, it may become problematic when, for example, we study the city empirically based on theoretical frameworks when the actual geographical area cannot be classified as urban or rural. Sassen (2012) comes with relevant criticism that we are constantly seeking distinction of
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what constitutes the city. Lifestyles and people run the risk of being marginalized in the peripheries of the cities, as the urban strategy is a paradigm in planning. Smart city initiatives are a part of the urban strategy and that leaves it open for discussion how some municipalities that are not considered urban or rural will incorporate said digitalization strategies. Therefore, rural perspectives will be taken into account in the analysis section, this is also important to factor since Vallentuna municipality can be considered to be a rural municipality.
Chourabi et.al (2012) identifies factors of the built infrastructure, dimensions and challenges that affect smart city initiatives. These are categorized by three dimensions, each one with their own set of challenges.
Figure 2. Factors of built infrastructure. Source: (Chourabi et al., 2012, p.2294).
The built infrastructure is central when considering the success of smart city initiatives. It comprises the base from which the ICT infrastructure is built upon. Initiatives such as fiber optic channels, Wi-Fi networks, wireless hotspots and other service oriented information
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systems are built upon the physical environment (Chourabi et al., 2012). The built infrastructure is a consequence of urban planning. It is therefore necessary not to separate these when thinking about smart city initiatives in general (even though not all initiatives are linked to the physical environment).
If we consider how many smart cities that can be said to exist today, which are very few we can discern how important “the smart infrastructure” is. Dubai, Malta, Kochi and Singapore are smart cities at the time of writing according to Al-Hader and Rodzi (2016). The common denominator of these cities is that a “smart infrastructure” is already implemented. This means that infrastructure monitoring and GIS initiatives can be successfully implemented because the infrastructure itself supports it. This begs the question what the approach towards smart city initiatives is, do we focus on form or process? The relationship between the process and form is something important according to Harvey (1987). He argued for the need to plan for community and change, a mobile neighborhood which plays a big role in this aspect, as urbanization affects ecological development. Harvey (1987) considered it impossible to “design away” social problems. He also discussed various projects that will create community,
"neighborhood cities", which would subsequently stimulate social processes, this perspective raises the question regarding what is more important the built infrastructure or social processes?
This is important regarding this thesis, since we need to discern if smart city in practice focuses on the legitimization of the planning process or the built environment. Community and people are a part of the framework as we can see in figure 1, but how does influence and participatory planning change when smart city as a concept impacts planning?
Scott and Storpers (2014) place-based analysis of the social versus the physical constituting the city is relevant, as it supports a system of commodities between different kinds of cities and organizational processes that bind the two together. This allows us to see similarities between cities and systems and hence can withstand rushed policy changes through comparison. Being able to make boundaries between what should be studied theoretically and empirically is the key in the approach to the city. Smart city initiatives are the characteristics which this thesis focuses on, since the purpose is centred around governmental urban planning and said organisation. Smart governance helps to clarify the motives for smart city initiatives and create a clearer picture of smart city as a concept itself. Definitions of smart city as a concept tend to be very broad, motives behind smart governance help clarify why we aim to make a city “smart”
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overall. This is important since motives makes it easier to inductively research the concepts in terms of certain contexts. The thesis aims to find these connections, variations and patterns and in a knowledge producing way understand and explain these patterns, this is true for whatever perspective one uses in research. To not explore every facet of the study is to falsify the theory created.
Smart governance is a central for this thesis, since it explores facets of smart city initiatives that go beyond technology itself and the physical environment being planned. It explores accountability, participatory planning and organization of planning. Therefore, this thesis argue that smart governance is a crucial part of smart city initiatives and the concept of smart cities itself, since it can be said to influence all aspects of urban planning which will be outlined in section 4. Positionality in the case of qualitative research is important, interpretations are based on our perspectives and as previously mentioned it may be impossible to be unbiased, however a well thought out theoretical perspective increases credibility and transparency, therefore different definitions are explored and put into perspective in section 2.4.
2.2 From urban planning to smart governance: Shifting approach
Urban planning theory and practice had a long history, where smart city initiatives fall into the category of contemporary urban planning. This subchapter will outline the development the theory and practice of urban planning through history and the emergence of the smart city concept.
Urban planning as it is had its beginning in the 20th century when many urbanized nations had created courses for the academic education of urban planning. Hall (2006) describes that the utopian age of urban planning was already over by the 1950s, since the education out of place and static in relation to a developing world. Urban development was increasing rapidly at the same time as changes to the urban space were underway, this explains why we see many shifts in urban planning throughout history. Coupled with the baby boom after the second world war made planning gradually more complex. The distinction of this era was that there was some theory in planning but there was no theory of planning, universities rather taught direct
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approaches for urban planning (Hall, 2006). Planners goal was to make plans and subsequently enforce these, in other words they were trying to develop the optimal land use plan for different areas. There was little reflexivity to the system at place, since planners developed intuitively from his or her own values naturally. In definition they were “expert” and apolitical. This was then followed by a shift in planning that to this day is seen as monumental. Between the ´1960’s to the 1970’s Hall (2006) suggests that the subjects changed from a craft based on personal knowledge and a myriad of concepts about the city, into a more knowledge based and scientific activity. Urban planning has always been adapting to change ever since we started building cities, whether it be environmental change or societal change. Jacobs chose to liken urban planning with clothing something is fashionable and then inevitably goes out of fashion. “There are fashions in building. Behind the fashions lie economic and technological reasons, and these fashions exclude all but a few genuinely different possibilities in city dwelling construction at any one time” (Jacobs, 2005, p.216). One might argue that since the inception of urban planning it has constantly needed to justify its position, due to its rather static and deterministic beginning. This is important to note regarding urban planning, since paradigm shape and contextualize the city not only in form as Jacobs (2005) perceived, but also in theory and praxis, this means that urban planners need to have a reflexive stance towards societal change.
Friedmann (1987) was the first to point out to critique the rational process model of planning, since it tended to emphasize the task of making decisions over that of acting.
This led urban planning to adapt, now large amounts of information were collected and processed by the planner so they could instead could device sensitive systems of guidance and control. The effects in turn could be monitored and if need be modified. This led to city’s being viewed as more complex systems. Planning was not anymore, a question about finding the perfect solutions to problems, but rather a continuous process in which the planner had to control and modify these systems (Hall, 2006). This more continuous process of planning gained traction and was considered more realistic at the time, not making grandiose claims about “the final solution” for a city.
“I believe that the idea of the totality, the finality of the master-plan, is misguided. One should advocate a gradual transformation of public space, a metamorphic process, without relying on a hypothetical time in the future when everything will be perfect. The mistake of planners and
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architects is to believe that fifty years from now Alexanderplatz will be perfected.” (Libeskind, 2001, p.197).
Peter Hall (2006) never discussed paradigm shifts, he rather preferred to see paradigms that can parallelly develop over the course of time. Other authors like Kuhn (1999) saw urban planning as something that did shift paradigms. The idea of paradigms and paradigm shift was first introduced by Thomas Kuhn, he viewed the gradualist evolutionary view of scientific knowledge as something that is flawed. Instead he described every field of science as something that had certain fundamental theories. These are important since they constitute the “world view” of their respective field of science. This enduring world view is what Kuhn described as being paradigms. This thesis argues that smart cities is the emerging “world view” and in turn a new paradigm for urban planning. Fundamental new values, praxis and theories are prominent, such as the need for smart governance, digital communication, flexibility and a digital planning process.
In order to change the paradigm a subject areas fields world view needs to fundamentally change, other smaller developments in the field will only act towards being incremental to the present paradigm. Taylor (1999) perceives the paradigm shift after the 1970’s where the planner transforms from a technical expert towards a more managerial position as a “communicator”.
This shift was a result of an increasing concern over implementation during the 1970’s and 1980’s. Harvey (1989) describes it as a shift towards entrepreneurialism in urban governance, where societal change and economic development may end up becoming separated. He emphasized enquiry in the technological revolution among others that might influence urban processes, in relation to the radical restructuring that is underway in geographical distributions of human activity. Also, the political and economic dynamics in relation to uneven geographical development, which Harvey points out we can see in recent times.
The fact was that planning is an academic discipline, as an academic discipline it was subjected to criticism, to such an extent that it almost denied its own right to existence. This later led to the "paradigm crisis" of the 1970s, according to Hall (2006). When society develops also so must urban planning.
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2.3 Urban planning theory & Smart cities
A prominent change in urban planning is how planning shifted in normative planning thought from modernist to postmodernism. It had an impact on urban planning practice and theory. The shift from modernism to postmodernism meant that ideas of making targeted and almost surgical incisions to into city’s where discredited a long with the “comprehensive”
development. However, at local level the system and rational process did not completely supersede the importance of the urban design of town planning. Control of development and design control are still considered important in urban planning. Postmodernism was followed with the use of urban design as a term which in turn superseded “urban planning”.
Postmodernist discourse embodied the city as ephemeral, diverse and fractured (Irving, 1993).
This view of urban planning has had a renewal since the 1980’s (Taylor, 1999). In tandem with this we can see the rise of “the wired city” a precursor to what we today view as the smart city.
The holistic notion of smart city initiatives as understood by urban planners had its beginning in the late 1960’s. Experiments with cables, interactive television, videophones and satellites paved the way for what we today regard as the smart city. Dutton (1987) reviews this period in history with his book “The wired city”, however initial experiments where met with varying success. Regardless the notion Dutton planted about “the information highway” has stuck with us and is today highly influential when it comes to smart city concept especially if we consider techno managerial definitions.
As Harvey (1989) predicted technological revolution did influence urban processes. However, one can argue that the technological revolution started a societal change that subsequently influenced urban planning. Our reliance on technology and more specifically smart cities in contemporary society cannot be understated in this regard. Traditional infrastructure was attributed more diverse perspectives, which in turn opened for new possibilities, it was not farfetched that communication technologies could work in tandem with this traditional infrastructure. Neat as the history of urban planning might seem there are different perspectives on contemporary urban planning and its history as Harvey, Friedmann and Kuhn demonstrate.
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Kaiser and Rodschalk (1995) accurately predict that our physical development plans today are more adapt, participatory, electronically based, increasingly concerned with complex issues such as the smart city initiatives today. They predict that planners will need to hone new skills of consensus building and conflict management. Duton’s “information highway” would come to influence urban planning according to Kaiser and Rodschalk (1995), their outlook was optimistic on how this change would be handled. Important to note is that they emphasized the urban planner’s new future role of compiling information and communicating it fairly. These predictions were accurate since the field increased in complexity with more actors becoming involved in the planning process and as new technologies being introduced. Also, new interest groups increasingly became involved with urban planning, since it is more accessible through new technologies. Moreover, this thesis argues that the emergence of smart cities is symbolising this encompassing shift. Figure 3. shows the different paradigms mentioned previously and how smart cities and smart governance as an approach can be situated within it. Smart governance is the next step in the evolution of urban planning governance, considering how technology is increasingly becoming a meta factor in societal change, consequently urban planning adapts with a new approach.
Interesting to note is that urban planning as well as society needed time to acclimate to a more technology dependant society. We can discern that it took a few decades before Dutton’s (1987) vision of the “wired city” could go from being experimented on to implementation. One might consider this emerging paradigm to still be underway, since there are a few fully fletched smart cities in existence today, depending on how one defines a smart city. However, as we can discern from history the role of the urban planner is the first bastion of change, which this thesis will explore in the analysis in section 4.
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Paradigm Approach Goal
Hall (2006) utopian age of planning 1800-1950’s
• Hands on approach towards urban planning
• Aimed at making plans and
subsequently enforcing these Rational model of planning
1950-
• Planning is seen as a continuous process
• Systematic
• Aimed at controlling and modifying systems
Postmodernism 1970-
• Rejection of the
“comprehensive planning model”
• Urban design supersedes urban planning
Smart cities • Technological
infrastructure
• Digital solutions
• Big data
• Economic sustainability
• Enable better decision-making
• Increasing quality of life
Figure 3. Paradigm shifts in urban planning.
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2.4 Linking smart cities with broader debates
Living standards and the interconnectedness of physical infrastructure is to be found in smart city definitions, this entails a social dimension attached to the concept. This makes it important to analyze from different perspective in a knowledge producing way. David Harvey saw the twentieth century as the century of urbanization, which is indeed true especially for Stockholm as outlined in the introduction. This in turn has massively changed demographics, a great reorganization of the world’s population, coincidently its institutional structures. In this regard Harvey (1997) preferred to analyse processes and in consequence view things as products of processes.If we consider Harvey’s perspective, the emergence of smart cities is a process, we can discern how smart governance and digital solutions is changing the way the institution of urban planning works, if we consider it to be a complex structure comprised of people, ideas and tradition.
To further this argument this thesis considers Holgersen’s (2015) dialectical approach, which suggests that planning is often regarded to be an inherently good practice. He points out that planning theory traditionally has emphasized the normative tasks a planner should focus on.
This critique is aimed at stakeholder consensus and the predominantly process-based analysis.
The issue being that critical societal issues like wealth polarization, profiteering through land development and a greater environmental impact becomes less emphasized (Holgersen, 2015).
This is as much a critique of planning as it is neoliberal society, it is an important point of analysis as well, since it places planning within the social context.
This debate is relevant for smart cities as a concept since it can be considered a part of the evolution of planning and cannot be analysed in a vacuum. Holgersen (2017) mentions that, as a starting point, urbanization processes are not sustainable, therefore, how we plan, and build becomes even more important. Therefore, Holgersen (2017) suggests we should emphasize and analyze the “dark side” of planning as he calls it, which is to see power structures where
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planning works. This outlook on planning is given the name “dark” as it presumes that planning can have negative effects. It is a standpoint from which academics can see planning rationally and analyze it in a critical knowledge producing way. It is important to have a critical view when planning is analyzed from a power perspective to be able to influence and change.
The complex structure can indeed be influenced by concepts like the smart cities, therefore exploring influences from politics, governance and culture is important. There are academic debates regarding how we should consider theory building, social context and practice in relation to urban planning. Cities are shaped by paradigms so the discourse surrounding concepts and paradigms play a vital role in shaping our future.
The techno managerial smart city definitions raise questions regarding socio-economic growth.
It is important to present these different viewpoints since the question of intellectual capital, innovation and equity in urban planning has a political dimension to it. Technological- based solutions have been put into questioned regarding how future prosperity in urban areas can be assured (Alawadhi et al., 2012; Dirks, Keeling, & Dencik., 2009; Nam & Pardo, 2011; Nijaki
& Worrel, 2012). In this debate, Smart Cities as a concept (Hollands, 2008) has been gaining increased attention and some consider it to be called a new paradigm of intelligent urban development, and also sustainable socio-economic growth, this development can be traced back to the smart growth movement of the late 1990s (Harrison & Donnelly, 2011). On the other hand, we have academics that are skeptical towards smart city initiatives. So, is the “smart” in smart cities manifested within the walls or related to community and people? This is reflected differently depending on the context. As studies has shown of southern Europe smart cities can be used as a label. Rossi (2015) studied smart cities within the context of Southern Europe, he recognized that when these changes take place in parallel to a global economic crisis smart city is viewed as an attractive label to put on a city. This does not merely influence the city’s image, moreover it also works as a flexible policy-framework. In hard hit regional and national political economics this provides an opportunity for political-economic elites to use the concept to tackle legitimation crisis caused by economic recession and associated austerity measures.
In critical urban studies this is regarded as a way for multinational corporations to reduce residents and local administrators to act as data- providers, in consequence creating a digital playground where many different measures can liberally be undertaken in the name of progress
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and digitalization. Some academics argue becomes a consequence of depoliticizing smart cities as a concept, many authors hold reservations towards if these devices will serve citizens or if indeed citizens will serve devices (Rossi, 2015; Calzada & Cristobal, 2015; Söderström, Paasche, Francisco, 2014; March & Ribera-Fumaz, 2016). March & Ribera-Fumaz (2016) show that in the case of Barcelona this playground may be in effect. The city council openly admits that Barcelona is a unique opportunity to apply solutions, in consequence acting as a laboratory for smart city initiatives. In Barcelona, the shift from discourse to implementation has led to both intended and unintended consequences. One may consider this to be a manifestation of the
“dark side” of planning as Holgersen (2015) suggested we should emphasize. One can interpret the implementation of smart city initiatives in Barcelona as a case of stakeholder consensus that undermined the planning process to the benefit of profiteering. This emphasizes the importance of urban planners stand towards smart city initiatives are they to be applied liberally or with restraint and contemplation?
2.4.1 The emergence of smart governance
One influential factor in smart cities is smart governance and as with smart cities itself our conceptual understanding of smart governance is also limited (Giffinger et al., 2007). The digital transformation is not only changing the urban landscape but also government.
Governance itself can be defined as interaction and collaboration between different stakeholders in the decision-making process, which in this case is the urban planning process (Alonso & Lippez-De Castro, 2016; Albino, Berardi & Dangelico, 2015). The concept is most commonly known for defining the actions or way a state is governed. Smart governance is furthermore defined as the capacity in which the subject can employ intelligence, pragmatism and acts to make decisions about something (Scholl & Alawadhi, 2016). It not only correlates to smart city initiatives but also participatory planning, how to better reach out to citizens in an effective way. In turn digitalization plays a significant role regarding how smart governance is implemented and the success of the particular action. This makes smart governance related to democratic aspects of smart city as a concept. The efficiency and intelligent decision making emphasized with smart governance makes it a prerequisite for making a city “smart” and can
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therefore also in itself be considered to be a smart city initiative, indeed the first smart city initiative taken for a city to become “smart”.
Smart governance therefore provides a good basis for studying smart city initiatives, urban planning and the development of smart city initiatives, in the context of the municipalities analysed. This will be further explored in the results and analysis section (4). Smart governance is a distinct restructuring of how daily governance is practiced in planning in order to be more efficient and communicative. In the context of Swedish municipalities governance has increased importance, municipalities have a plane monopoly, therefore governance is an aspect that must be emphasize in terms of this thesis, since the organisation has influence over how urban planning is practiced. Participatory planning is often an outspoken goal for municipalities in Sweden to further develop. This means that smart governance becomes a crucial part of this kind of development since it is tied to policy making. There are certain elements that define smart governance as well as values. Ideas and actions are the core from which it is then filtered through technology to be used with initiatives. The defining element is the modification from previous organizational processes. Bolivar and Meijer (2015) identify values in these projects from a comprehensive literature review, many values that might seem familiar from theory section of smart cities. Governance is becoming more uniform and efficient through smart governance to keep up with an ever more digitalized society, in which digital communication and pragmatism is highly valued
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Figure 4. Identification of Dimensions of smart governance in literature (Bolivar & Meijer, 2015, p.7).
The importance ICTs cannot be overstated as is the case of smart governance and smart initiatives. ICT is the applications and systems that combined allow people and organizations to interact in the digital world.
2.4.2 Creativity in relation to the Smart city
Stockholms läns landsting (2015) associate creativity primarily with entrepreneurship, public sector and academia, emphasising their integration. They regard the cohesion of these sectors will facilitate that productivity is high and that the regions strengths are being utilized. It is perceived that entrepreneurship and new enterprise act dynamically with changes, so that there is no lack of competence in sectors, the supply of competence is subsequently adapted to the labour market (Stockholms läns landsting, 2015). Culture and identity are also emphasised and in accordance with the creative city concept, a buzzing lifestyle and culture are facilitating factors for new acquaintances and strengthening bonds between people (Stockholms läns landsting, 2015). Social inclusion in the context of Stockholm is a major point due to the rise
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of increased segregation. Policies and vision are central factors in urban planning, these helps shape both the physical environment and what the city aspires to be in terms of social aspects.
Communication is essential for this to happen on many levels, through technology virtual meetings and direct communications should be a given, locally cultural events and public space should be inviting for everyone. A smoother and more creative cooperation between actors regarding existing legislation and a comprehensive view of the need to developed legislation is considered by Stockholms läns landsting (2015). Creativity is emphasized as an underlying theme, smart initiatives is providing tools to facilitate creativity, in the public sector we see the emergence of smart governance that aims to streamline the urban planning process. Smart city initiatives that increase accessibility such as fiber-networks and quality of life improvements is aimed at supporting entrepreneurship and also increase competitiveness.
If we consider that the place-based perspective has a place in the global sphere and flows, policy makers and politicians can influence cities without losing space perspectives, as innovation is not entirely based on flows. It becomes a definition issue about what makes a successful world city flow, connection and performance ability? From an economic
perspective, attractiveness and flows weigh heavily on the outside world and the city itself, but place-based civil society and citizen involvement should not be overlooked. Jacob's (2012) fears that the consequences may be that urban geography only becomes an expression of neoliberal thought are not unfounded. Places where differences in mindset and performance are significant empirical elements of differentiation. From a place-based perspective smart city initiative has a place in the global sphere and flows, focusing on efficiency and progress.
However what place does the civil society and citizen involvement have in this paradigm?
In contemporary academic studies there has been a surge in interest directed at culture as a development strategy, culture seems to be put as a basis for development in several regards, especially in the creative city concept. Lysgård (2012) points out culture is increasingly interwoven with economy in several ways. Culture is said to undergo the risk of becoming more and more symbol-oriented and economized. Not only this, but related to globalization and competition, it is evident that attractiveness has gained new meaning as a strategy in which cultural life is key.
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Many scholars point out culture-led urban strategy has its roots in the western since the 1980s.
Keynesian welfare state models were exchanged for a neoliberal ideology, cuts in state subsidies and revision of the economic basis for cultural policy were the results. The use of culture in urban development transformed into a tool for economic development, instead of diverse culture and cultural life being a goal in itself. In consequence culture became a medium for creating economic growth, innovation and urban development (Basset, 1993; Stevenson, 2004; Hall, 2006). This relates to the critique surrounding the creative class, Florida’s creative class is focused on economic growth. Peck (2005) critiques this as a neo-liberal agenda focused primarily on consumption. The need of managing and responding to core economic and social breakdowns are evident in Stockholm. The main imperative according to Scott (2014) should be to rectify the huge discrepancies of income and quality of life that distort the social landscape. Stockholm has good institutional framework, but regarding economic segregation and communal life there are disparities. In contrast to smaller cities there exists potential for Stockholm to create value through growth in employment and hence better living conditions, perhaps through a strategy based on cultural industries. Florida’s theory is based on distinctive features characterized and primarily found in large cities (Bell & Jayne, 2006).
The creative city, which Richard Florida coined corelates to some smart city definitions. The smart city’s vision being the strive toward diversity and openness, which is also a core principal in Florida’s creative city. However, Florida himself sees a problem with the use of these terms, as his research shows with the creative class, which can be considered diverse elitism, people which are highly educated. Florida (2002) suggests that even though the creative class has created venues to integrate a diversity of people into different sectors of the labour market it has not come to fruition. This is conflicting since Florida points out that the service class exists mainly as a supporting infrastructure for the creative class and in consequence to the creative economy.
“A city connecting the physical infrastructure, the IT infrastructure, the social infrastructure, and the business infrastructure to leverage the collective intelligence of the city”. (Harrison et.al, 2010, p.2).
Harrison et.al (2010) definition of smart cities raises the “collective intelligence” rather than a specific “creative class”, however It is recognised that as with Florida’s creative city, the smart
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city wants to leverage intelligent and entrepreneurial individuals. Richard Florida’s creative class and creative economy seem to coincide with previous mentioned smart city definition and is therefore interesting to explore in this regard. It seems as the creative city and the smart city are in some cases used interchangeably in terms of goal and vision.
Both the creative city and smart city value the quality and attractiveness of cities, creative city emphasizes the cultural part of the attractiveness while the smart city values a well-performing city. The lack of apparent mention of culture in smart city concepts is interesting to analyse in contrast to the creative city, since smart cities conception can be said to stem from our reliance on technology in culture. Government prioritize as well as the culture of a place plays a significant role in the adoption of smart city initiatives. Even regions such as Silicon Valley that have a history of engagement with technology and digitalization have trouble adjusting to a new world of business. Creative city places value in understanding these knowledge clusters, simultaneously recognizing the importance of emerging digital communication reminiscent of how the smart city concept values digital communication (Yigitcanlar & Velibeyoglu, 2008).
It is importance to position smart city culturally within a context. Point being it is not what links the creative city and smart city concept, but rather the apparent lack of consideration of culture in the smart city concept, not recognizing differences. Implementation of smart city initiatives in a rural municipality may play out different to a big city. In contrast the creative city emphasizes culture, but as Florida (2002) himself suggests it fails to integrate people into different sectors. Critical scholars that raise the question if the smart city concept itself is being depoliticised is relevant to analyse in a relational perspective. Smart cities can be perceived an attractive label to put on a city, this is aimed at making the city attractive to the outside world through digital networks on the global level. However, as Sassen (2012) highlights economic segregation and other problems related to power may be obscured in the process. We can therefore not view smart city concepts in a vacuum, instead analyse what affects the discourse and problematize potential effects.
A key factor for both the creative city and smart city concept is that quality of life is seen as a major factor, Courabi et.al recognise that is critical to avoid viewing individuals detached from communities (2012) Interestingly enough smart city concept does detach people from
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communities through using collective formulations. Further, he states the need for smart city concept to acknowledge communities and no only individual quality of life.
It is critical also not to refer to members of the city not only as individuals, but also as communities and groups and their respective wants and needs within cities. People and communities is a component that requires smart cities initiatives to be sensitive in balancing the needs of various communities (Courabi et.at, 2012, p.2293).
The quality and attractiveness of a city is decided by both physical living conditions and the cultural environment, these have both influenced the creative city and smart city. However, one may also regard smart cities as a further development of the creative city. Creativity is less emphasized to be connected to the people but rather considered to be a part of the digitalization process itself, when it comes to smart city initiatives. Komninos (2008) definition emphasizes individual intellectual capital and the overall social capital of the city. Yet again we can see ambiguous wording “overall”, “collective” suggests a detachment from communities. Smart city as a concept is connected to creativity, but with less emphasize on it being linked to community, instead it is aimed at increasing the life quality of citizens and management of its complex systems such as transport and services (Neirotti et.al, 2014).
2.5 Theoretical perspectives
To put smart city as a concept into perspective, a place-based perspective and a relational perspective will be considered, which has been touched upon previously. There are arguments for and against each perspective, in terms of which bestows the most knowledge this discussion will be explored in this section in relation to the smart city concept. Concepts such as world cities and city-branding will also be discussed in relation to the smart city concept to broaden the analysis.
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2.5.1 Cities in a relational perspective or place-based perspective
Brenner and Schmidt (2015) exemplify how urbanization is something global and, like the economy, we will first in retrospect wholly understand how it influenced our contemporary world. In this case, theoretical perspectives that are formed from the global, among other things, fit, how other continents' emergence of cities looks. In the future we may get insights on how cities in the global south will develop form this perspective, or perhaps new theoretical frameworks around cities and urbanization will be formed and determine the future. It is in this regard smart city initiatives and smart governance s important to discuss. Especially if we are to theorize about the worldwide urbanization and how cities today become more globally interlinked and digitalized.
The underlying problem of absent-minded theories about how cities become "worldwide" is emphasized by many researchers. Implications of urban studies and policy changes should be substantiated more, which can be done from an increased understanding of cities and the urban from different context and regions' mutual context. Further exemplified with the case of the smart city concept integration in Europe’s southern countries. Rossi (2015) inquire for more substantiated urban studies and policy changes. His study of smart city initiatives in the context of Southern Europe shows that the concept can be used for more than merely a tool for urban planning, it can also impact democratic processes and citizens influence trough flexible policy- frameworks. In conjunction with economic recession regional and national political economics, smart city initiatives can be used as a tool for economic elites. They can use smart city initiatives for city-branding to tackle a legitimation crisis caused by austerity measures. In this regard surpassing democratic processes.
This causes administrative zones to lose their agency, to the advantage of investors. Brenner and Schmidt (2015) recognizes this major problem in studies regarding the urban area, is if we should view it as a theoretical category or empirical object? Does it make sense to study administrative zones? In the case with smart city initiatives in Southern Europe we gain knowledge through direct and indirect observation, rather than gaining knowledge from how smart city initiatives work in theory. It is possible to turn its head on urban studies. Urbanization is also difficult to study as an empirical object but is understood as a concept that influences
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contemporary societal development, which comprises more and is larger than urban development. Scott and Storper (2014) construct theoretical frameworks across the city, but at the same time claim that in the end, each city is a special case. It would disagree with this approach, if everything is a special case, why then create theoretical frameworks that must constantly be revised or interpreted? At the same time this in sense is is he way research is conducted constant revision and repositioning. However, encompassing developments may be overlooked if everything is a special case.
Doel and Hubbard (2002) point out several limitations which stem from the policy maker's image of the city, strategies revolving around entrepreneurship. Conceptualization of urban competitiveness is significantly locally oriented, and location based. Doel and Hubbard (2002) criticism is aimed at world cities as a concept, they believe that the structural attempts to contextualize the city have failed. The structural theories are notably a zero-sum game where world cities are an effect of a structure. Karvonen et.al (2019) link the world city concept to the smart city. They state that the smart city as a concept has indeed evolved into a paradigm of urban development. In relation to world cities it becomes a major branding tool for world cities.
This creates an increased traction where several cities and towns aim to follow suit. Doel and Hubbard’s (2002) own relativistic theory suggests that world cities create a global environment where the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. They believe that competition exists between cities, but at the same time they collectively manage and mediate global flows, both formally and informally.
outlook on world cities results in the concept constantly being transformed, expanded and deformed. Contrary to Castell's structuralist thoughts, this new economy is not pre-determined, by "framing" the relationship between production, consumption, experience, and power. It should be an ongoing effect of conditional meetings: structure of pure interaction (Doel &
Hubbard, 2002).
This point of departure, I believe, opens for a broader analysis of the global and world cities, activities and everyday life are not a consequence or parts of the global, but form themselves what constitutes the global. This post-structuralist thinking means Doel and Hubbard (2002) analyzes the flows and interruptions that individualize parts of the world, thereby adding thought to consistency. Criticism is directed at city-branding, which I agree with, however, the
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criticism is not sufficiently nuanced. Doel and Hubbard (2002) does not emphasize how there may be consequences that world cities or aspiring world cities often conceal their shortcomings through city-branding. The regime theory fills these gaps in the way of thinking, less citizens' influence can be a consequence, which should be addressed in the discussion.
Doel and Hubbard (2202) therefore rejects the assumption that underpins entrepreneurs' site marketing, "overflowing" capital cannot be embedded in specific locations through policies that focus on local infrastructure manipulation. Not studying the local context of world cities or city- branding or being ambivalent to it is not beneficial for knowledge-building. It can be considered as an effect of the "space of flows" mindset on good and evil. The city is not analyzed as a fixed place with administrative boundaries as the case of smart city initiatives in Southern Europe demonstrate, which entails a new way of thinking about competition. The urban economy is thus not reducible to its local embedded resources but is shaped by global flows and power structures.
Regarding competition between cities, Doel and Hubbard (2002) believes that it may be disadvantageous for cities, but not for the success of a city over another. Smart governance emphasizes progress through efficiency, however there are competitive elements present such as the perceived attractiveness of said city. Quality of life is premiered, which in turn creates room for competitiveness which municipality is more attractive for companies and citizens.
In summary, to completely abandon the place-based perspective for a focus on flows, relationships and performance ability is to lose context and with it also the historical perspective. The place-based perspective fulfills a function in studying urban planning. In the prevailing discussion surrounding world cities there is a risk that grass roots movements and communities are misunderstood based on flows when a local, regional dimension is lost in the mindset.
From an individual perspective, Doel and Hubbard (2002) mean that the city (place) hatred has lost its occupation. Communities, companies and knowledgeable individuals are often divorced from the city they live and work in. I would disagree with this sentiment when considering some smart city initiatives, which enhance the bond between the individual and where they live.
Quality of life is tied to governance through smart governance where efficiency in services and
