Conservation and Diversity, 180 credits

Degree Thesis

HALMSTAD

UNIVERSITY

Conservation and Diversity, 180 credits

Study on biomass in semiaquatic insects

(Odonata) over a 20-year period in central, Sweden.

BSc thesis in biology 15 credits

Andreas Zsoldos

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Study on biomass in semiaquatic insects (Odonata) over a 20-year period in central, Sweden.

Andreas Zsoldos, NGNTMh15 BSc thesis in biology 15hp Abstract:

This study is about how biomass of dragonflies insects have changed over the past 20-years in a forested area of central Sweden. This was done by analysing previously collected Odonata larvae stored in ethanol where sampling effort corrects the weight per locality. The results display a small but significant biomass increase over past decades, going against the recently observed trend of biomass decline in insects. However, this biomass gain was not even between the families, the ones that increased the most was Aesnidae and Libelluidae. The reasons for the observed increase are discussed, some possible suggestions are less disturbance in their environments and their ability to adapt due to their long evolution giving them a phenotypical advantage.

Introduction:

One of the most diverse habitats in the world are freshwater ecosystems which are also one of the most vulnerable systems globally (Dudgeon et al.2006). The source of threats to these systems can be many, but most are caused by humans, e.g. modifications of the waterways, pollution and colonisation of invasive species (Dudgeon et al. 2006). One example of the effects of human influences is when the natural flow of the rivers and lakes, water levels are changed by draining floodplains and divert water with irrigation (Roland et al. 2012). When altering the flow of water, there is no time for the environment to take up the nutrients from the nearby areas such as run-off from farmlands. This can cause high concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen to build up and create a eutrophication effect that can cause an imbalance in the aquatic ecosystem (Chorus & Bartram, 1999). Eutrophication results in decreased water quality and increased biomass of phytoplankton and less species diversity in general due to less dissolved oxygen available, and in turn, this can create an elevated

mortality rate for some species (Chorus & Bartram, 1999). In overall to show that how important it is with an aquatic system, in an urban environment that is lacking natural aquatic systems, ponds can contribute to ecosystem services and even with ecological functions that are missing (Sayer et al. 2012; Céréghino et al. 2014).

Based on the above, it is clear that extinction risk can be mitigated in some areas. Thomas et al. (2004) presented projected global extinction rates based on climate change and loss of habitat, with some local (Thomas et al. 2004) and regional differences and in recent years indicate that extinction rates are accelerated by climate change (Urban 2015). Even species that aren’t likely to be extinct can be affected by this change in composition within an

ecosystem. As the climate data show that the earth is becoming warmer (Cook et al. 2016), it has been demonstrated that some butterfly species must find refuge in sites on higher altitudes in the Alps just beyond the canopy range to remain within their temporal zones (Konvicka et al. 2003). The background data on conservation species ruled out biotope loss as one of the reasons for this migration in altitude (Konvicka et al. 2003). Another study by Wilson et al.

(2007) concluded that climate change has a tangible effect on the species richness, which was

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lower on low altitudes and with an upsurge on higher ones with a rising structural shift in butterfly species. According to several studies, species in general are expanding towards the poles because of global warming as they seek refuge in lower temperatures, and we can therefore observe a range shift in species (Hickling et al. 2006; Parmesan and Yoh. 2003;

Sánchez-Guillén et al. 2015), One example is barnacles in Tasmania, which moved 250km to the south (Pitt et al. 2010). It has also shown that some species from the insect order Odonata, have been expanding from the Mediterranean Sea to Germany (Ott 2001) this northward expansion can be seen as well in British Odonata (Hickling et al. 2005).

This increase in temperature has led to a surge of speciation (introgression hybridisation) and diversity within aquatic systems (Winder et al. 2004). Species with rapid lifecycles have more opportunity to respond to warming events, e.g. Daphnia spp to fully take advantage of this shift in the water temperature and change the rate of their phenology. This sudden shift of increased water temperature can cause algae blooms earlier in spring and create a timing mismatch, where Daphnia cannot capitalise on the food availability of diatoms (Winder et al.

2004). However, species with a reduced life-cycle development due to a more complex cycle do not benefit unless it occurs multiple times during the year, this shows that some species benefit more than others (Adrian et al. 2006). It has also resulted in altered food webs that are more complex than before (Winder et al. 2004). One of the limiting factors in an aquatic ecosystem is the temperature; it has been shown that it can affect the size, metabolism, dispersal and phenologies of the organism (Bonte et al. 2008; Daufresne et al. 2009; Manuel et al. 2008; McCauley and Mabry, 2011; Gardner et al. 2011). Most larval development, for dragonflies, occurs in water temperature above 10°C (Norling & Sahlén, 1997). Experiments by Eck et al. (2013) demonstrates that warmer temperatures increase predation by dragonflies on tadpoles.

There are multitude of studies giving Odonata a vital role in the freshwater system as top predators. Further, studies show that they are affected by climate change (Hassall &

Thompson, 2008; Hassall, 2015). Studying organisms such as Odonata could be beneficial

due to their widespread distribution, in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem as a predator and a

food source. They are good indicators for assessing the status of habitat or an ecosystem, but

also to see if something is amiss in the system (Kutcher & Bried, 2014). Odonata has been

used as indicators in many studies, e.g. such as to see if managing ditches has been successful

(Painter 1997) but also as a general species richness indicator in lakes in a boreal forest area

(Sahlén & Ekestubbe 2001). Some species within Odonata have durable eggs that can

withstand low water pH levels which make them able to sustain harsh environments that are

very acidic. This can be one of the reasons that they are so widespread across the globe

(Hudson & Berril 1986).

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In the 20 ^th century, 23 species of flower-pollinating wasp and bees have been extinct due to agriculture changes in Britain (Ollerton et al. 2014). To elucidate the ongoing sixth major extinction event on Earth, Ceballos, Erhlich and Dirzo (2017) estimated that in the last 100 years, 200 vertebrate species have been extinct. In Germany, there has been a decline of aerial insects in protected areas by 75%, over the last 27 years in protected areas (Hallman et al.

2017). As most studies are covering moths, butterflies and wild bees, but to my knowledge, there are none mentioning Dragonflies (Odonata) decline in numbers or biomass. The primary goal of this study is, therefore, to see if aquatic insect (Odonata) biomass has changed under a 20-year period, due to global warming or other anthropogenic activities in the region of Bergslagen, Sweden.

Methods:

The samples that were used in this study are from the research of Göran Sahlén at Halmstad University. The data were gathered over the course of 2-3 weeks each sampling year, and 36 sites in Berslagen Sweden (59° 50′ 0″ N, 15° 45′ 0″ E) were visited three times over a 20-year period (1997, 2008 and 2017). Larvae were collected by water netting where a single

“netting” implied that the water net was dipped and dragged a stretch of ca one meter, repeated three times. Such nettings were carried out along the lake perimeter, sampling from all different larval habitats present, over a 3-meter area where the larvae are most likely to be.

The number of nettings ranged from 15-52 at each site depending on site size and habitat complexity. All larvae were determined to species level and preserved in 80% ethanol.

These vials contained a pre-existent ethanol mixture for long-time preservation; this was replaced with newly mixed 80% ethanol (C 2 H 6 O). After ten minutes in the new fluid, the larvae were ready to be weighed by taking them out of the flask and dab them twice with an absorbent cloth to remove any liquid ethanol residue. They were placed on the scale with a precision of 3 decimals. If there were a large number of larvae in the vial, the contents were weighed in two batches with the second batch still in the flask to avoid evaporation of the ethanol and to get the same time from the cloth to the scale for both batches. The scale was read three seconds after placing the larvae on it; leaving them longer would result in a lower weight due to evaporation. Between each sample, the scale was dried off with another cloth and reset.

The total number of species in the samples was 27 across 7 families and in total 927 samples were measured. I also excluded all sites where the number of nettings was not measured (3).

Some tiny individuals who were not possible to identify to species were removed, but in this case, their weight was very insignificant.

I made a regression analysis with biomass as the dependent value and the 33 samples per year

during three years (1997, 2008, 2017) over a 20-year period as the independent variable. The

data was corrected by the amount of netting for each site to get an average weight (grams) per

netting. I also calculated the biomass of each family in the 33 samples together for each

sampling year to evaluate if and how it changed throughout the years.

4 Results:

There was a small but significant increase in biomass in Bergslagen over a 20- year period

(F = 10,501, R

= 0,104, P= 0,002) , from the two families (Aesnidae & Libelluidae) which distinguish themselves from the others and are the main cause of the increased biomass (figure 1.) In the first sample year Aesnidae has the most biomass, but in the following sample years, it is most abundant. The year 2008 contained the most biomass, both per netting (figure 2) and within the families (figure 1). In 2017 two new families were found, Calopterygidae and

Platycnemididae. Table 1 gives an overview of the data, including the total biomass for each year and the number of locations and how many samples, were taken, but notice that in 2008 the weight almost increased by tenfold and more than doubled the sample size.

Table 1. The total sample sizes. sites and biomass weight (g)

Sample year: 1997 2008 2017 Combined years

Total weight (g):

34,35 329,05 186,11 549,51

Samples amount:

166 (– 3) 483 322 971

Sites: 30 33* 30 93

* It is the same places every year except 2008, where three additional sites were sampled.

Figure 1. The total biomass found per family and sampling year; this is represented in columns. The biomass of Calopterygidae (0,16 g) and Platycnemididae (0,03 g) found in 2017 are too small to be visible in the figure.

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

1997 2008 2017

(g )

Total weight of each family

Aesnidae

Coenagrionidae

Corduliidae

Lestes

Libellulidae

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Figure 2. The total netting attempt on each site were used to correct the data so it would be representative for that year. So the biomass netting average is the average catch for each netting attempt, on the sites.

Discussion:

My results show that there has been a small and significant increase in Odonata biomass per netting in Berslagen, Sweden, over the last 20-years according to my regression analysis. My study, therefore, goes against the recent trend of decline in insects observed over the world (e.g., Shortall et al. 2009; Hallman et al. 2017). The results of Hallman et al. (2017) show that most loss in biomass for flying insects occur around midsummer, coincidentally when the biomass should be highest. Temperature has a positive effect on biomass. However, it does not mean that the biomass will increase, Hallman et al. (2017) also mention that it is

improbable that climate change and changes in the landscape is the cause of this loss in flying insects biomass (Hallman et al. 2017), but they were studying protected areas which are always more sensitive to anthropogenic disturbances due to fragmentation (Martínez-Ramos et al. 2016). My results exempt Odonata from the decline and possibly shows that this insect order is more resistant to climate and landscape change alike. There is an indication that there is something behind this growth over the years in biomass and number of samples. It could be that they are maybe recovering from 1997-2008 and then stabilises at 2017 (figure 2.), there was an recovering occurrence in the Netherlands but this was probably caused by improved habitats (Termaat et al. 2015). It is doubtful it applies to my present study, because of the forest landscape near the sites, but interesting at least. Another observation is that the family Coenegrarion has been stable more or less through the years, it could be that because they are major family within the damselflies (Pandey & Mohapatra, 2017), and are not affected as much as dragonflies.

The climate controls species range, so if the environment is insufferable, the species in question must adapt by moving or die (Coope 2004). We can see this as a range of individual species has been increased to new heights or to new countries to suit their needs (Huntley 1991: Lovejoy & Hannah 2005; Kwon) and because Odonata can fly long ranges they maybe have the advantage to survive and avoid extinction (Troast et al. 2016). While extinction rates are increasing (Urban. 2015), we would assume that the amount of biomass or species would decrease in general. If there are fewer species to hunt or eat, then some species would reduce in biomass, and some would benefit from lack of rivalry, e.g. as a niche void occur there is an

0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6

1997 2008 2017

(g )

Biomass netting average

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opportunity to take this its place. Thomas et al. (2004) go in depth at variable extinction rates based on the familiar scenarios of climate change in the future and base a prediction on extinction rates on species orders. However, there is a disproportion between global estimates and local ranging from 1% up to 47% (Malcom et al. 2006; Urban 2015; Thomas et al. 2004).

So global extinction rates are not a useful measurement right now but can be an excellent tool in the future, when the data is available on more species. The complexity of integrations between threats, and the lack of long-term data on species can make this unreliable but not completely useless, as this could be a pillar for more future studies using this model when the data set is more substantial and with less unknown variables. There is no question that climate change has a role in the equation but cannot entirely be assessed at this time. Therefore, measuring biomass can be a viable method until better systems are available.

Temperature-driven changes in food webs can be seen due to a mismatch between

communities changing their interactions, e.g. in a marine system the abundance of plankton can change the availability of Cod or Mackerel and their phenology (Beaugrand et al. 2003;

Perry et al. 2005). One other is when phytoplankton can bloom earlier, but zooplankton comes later and the timing mismatch each other (Greve et al. 2001), so, generalists that feed on both is more favoured compared to specialists. This could be one of the reasons Aesnidae and Libellidae have increased due to the abundance of generalists (Hassall & Thompson 2008;

Akram and Azhar Ali-Khan, 2016). Maybe being a generalist can benefit the survival rate and biomass of species due to more available food.

The photoperiod affects many species because they respond to light and temperature to come out from diapause if the temperature increased (Bale et al. 2002). Because it can trigger a physiological change earlier and terminate this state, e.g. overwinter in diapause to survive the winter months (Bale et al. 2002). Now the emergence of some species earlier than usual may change their phenology. Due to increasing temperatures, some insects can shorten their development cycles, and this will decrease the time between new generations changing their phenology (Tobin et al. 2008; Stoeckli et al. 2012). However, land-based insects that are in their larval stage often requires a specific plant to complete this event, and if the plant

develops earlier or later than usual, it can cause a decline in the population (Moir et al. 2014).

Odonata is a semiaquatic species, so it does not affect them so much, as we see crashes in populations in some regions due to increased temperature and weather changes that it is not typical for the region (Pounds et al. 1999). As mentioned before some species benefit from higher temperatures such as Dragonflies larvae (Norling and Sahlén, 1997; Eck et al. 2013) this can give a small benefit to Odonata distribution because when it gets warmer they predatory behaviour intensifies for some species increasing their velocity (Quenta Herrera et al. 2018). So, there is another example where Odonata is exempted from the problem of timing mismatch because they only need to move and hunt. As plants blossom earlier than before, the arrival of insects is has led to phenology change in birds, laying their eggs earlier before to match their prey-species emergence, which is controlled by spring temperatures (Visser et al. 1998).

There could be something else behind the feat that land insects are more susceptible to anthropogenic disturbances. It is known that pesticides and agricultural practice has a

significant effect on the population of pollinators. The most common pesticide in agriculture

is the group neonicotinoids. They have been vital to protect crops from insects and increase

the profits substantial, but it has also decimated the wild bee population, and this has led to

some restrictions and bans in the world (Chau et al. 2015; Woodcock et al. 2016). To protect

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honeybees, the European Union banned three neonicotinoids clothianidin, imidacloprid and thiamethoxam (European Commission 2013). It is known, that these pesticides runoff goes into the water and affects birds and invertebrates, these neonicotinoids is one of the causes for mass biomass loss in insects, e.g. by hampering their growth (American Bird Conservancy, 2013). It could be that Odonata larvae is more resilient to these effects and also that they do not get direct contact with it, like other flying insects that pollinate and forage in arable land.

Even though there is a substantial decline in species and biomass in many organism groups, but mostly in terrestrial insects, my results show that in central Sweden it is the opposite case for semiaquatic insects. Therefore, the responses of various species in nature may not be so easy to anticipate causing us to misinterpret the data and draw the wrong conclusions which led to an incorrect nature conservation measure.

Other processes are working on these semi-aquatic groups, In comparison to a forest, arable landscape exhibit more anthropogenic disturbances than the latter. As the farmer will plough and spray pesticides and put fertiliser on the land, but forest landscape does not change that much, sure it has changed to a different forest type due to the forest industry, but not like the fields that were forests once are now farmlands with ditches. The most usual cause of

deforestation is to make new farmland available (Hosonuma et al. 2012), and this decreases

the biodiversity and increases the extinction risk (Clement et al. 2009; Brooks et al. 2003). It

seems that Odonata benefits from their lengthy evolutionary processes, making them highly

adaptable (Córdoba-Aguilar, 2008), to resist environmental effects like climate change.

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