H The Fighting Man and the Beginning of Professionalism

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H

ISTORISKA INSTITUTIONEN

The Fighting Man and the Beginning of

Professionalism

The East India Company Military Officer 1750–1800

Master’s Thesis, 45 Credits, Spring 2020 Author: Celicia Widell

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Table of Figures

Graph Ia. CORPUS I. The Ratio of Occurrence between Categories of Verbs Performed by

Company Officer in Documents about Wars, Mutinies and Campaigns. ... 28

Graph IIa. CORPUS II. The Ratio of Occurrence between Categories of Verbs Performed by

Company Officer in Charters, Statutes, and Acts. ... 34

Graph IIb. CORPUS II. The Ratio of Occurrence between Categories of Verbs Performed by

Company Officer in Charters, Statutes, and Acts with the specific Search Words “officer” and “officers”. ... 37

Graph IIIa. CORPUS III. The Ratio of Occurrence between Categories of Verbs Performed

by Company Officer in Letters. ... 39

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Abstract

Earlier research has claimed that the British officer corps did not go through professionalization until the emergence of institutionalized education for military officers in the 19th_{century. This study}

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CHAPTER 1. Introduction

“Professionalism distinguishes the military officer of today from the warriors of previous ages”1_.

This is one of the introductory sentences by Samuel P Huntington in his famous work about the soldier and the state from 1957. This work has been important to form the discussion about civil-military relations and to contribute with theory in that field. According to Huntington, the professionalization of the British officer corps is a phenomenon tied exclusively to the nineteenth century.

Huntington is not alone in this respect. A great deal of attention has been given to the professionalization of the British officer corps during the nineteenth century, but these works have neglected developments during the eighteenth century. This thesis will use digital methods to analyse a large corpus of 20 primary source documents from 1750–1800 for evidence about the early professionalization of British officers operating in British India during the eighteenth century.

1.1. Roles, Actions, Verbs and Categories

Some of the words that will occur through this thesis are “roles”, “actions” and “verbs”. The word role will be defined further under section 2.7.1., but can be said to have a minimalistic definition in this thesis. Role will be referred to as a social role, built upon expected, performed and accepted behaviours of the officer.

Actions and verbs will be treated equal, and the use of them both is simply a matter of convenience. The method has consisted of searching for verbs, but at times a larger part of the context needed to be included. For example, “be struck by surprise” would have to be called an action, not a verb.

The relationship between roles, categories, verbs and actions are as follows: The verbs and actions are divided into and presented in predetermined categories moulded according to the primary sources to capture different themes in activities of the officer. The categories can but do not always result in a role, depending on how recurring that category is. Several categories or parts of categories can together make up roles, since roles can be cross-boundary and also verbs fit into several roles.

1_{Huntington, Samuel P., The soldier and the state: the theory and politics of civil-military relations, Belknap}

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1.2. Key Concepts

This section includes a short overview over key concepts of this thesis. In-depth presentation will be done under the theory subchapter (2.5.).

1.2.1. Professionalization

The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries saw great changes regarding urbanization, industry, technology as well as population growth. These processes led to increased division of labour, as well as beginning professionalization. Regarding the military, professionalization has been claimed to take place during the nineteenth century.2_{Professionalization could be explained as developing}

a sense for what is good practice in a field and targeting and enforcing that good practice through institutions.3_{In this thesis, Huntington’s theory about professionalization in the army will be used}

as definition for professionalization. This definition is built upon three criteria: expertise, responsibility and corporateness.4

1.2.2. Bureaucrats

Military staff is according to Huntington a professional institution. The military staff collects technical knowledge and applies it practically to the management of violence. Although, in the eighteenth century, the development of staff as an own section had more or less been standing still for over a century, which meant that more of that responsibility fell on the operative5_officers

themselves.6_{Consequently, officers in general and commanding officers specifically, had work}

tasks that later would be connected to staff and professionalization. These tasks will be caught by viewing officers partly as bureaucrats defined as using means to reach desired ens.

2_{Huntington, 1967, pp. 32–33.}

3_{Golembiewski, Robert T., “Professionalization, Performance, and Protectionism: A Contingency View.”,}

Public Productivity Review, vol. 7, no. 3, 1983, p. 252.

4_{Huntington, 1957, p. 8.}

5_{Operative would mean that they were appointed to command and fight not to do administrative tasks, although}

operative was not used in that sense back then.

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1.2.3. The Fighting Man

This thesis explores a paradigm shift in the roles of military officers in the early modern period. The old role prevailing before the assumed shift is framed by the concept of “the fighting man”. This concept, which also was an ideal, consists of officers being foremost practical men and strong fighters. As officers, the fighting man ideal also consisted of commanding their men in a nuanced way, both being strict as well as generous.

1.3. Research Problem and Questions

This study will look closer at military officers (henceforth, officers) in service of the East India Company (henceforth, the Company) in India during the formative years between 1750–1800 to find signs of early professionalization of the officer corps. The aim of this study is to show the varying roles of the military officer in service of the Company and how they relate to the classical role of “the fighting man” as well as the role of the professional, which hitherto has been connected to the 19th_{century. This will be done by scrutinizing the actions of Company officers performed}

in letters, official acts and accounts on armed conflicts in India, with the help of digital tools. The research questions are as follows:

1. What roles emerge from the actions of the Company officer?

2. How do these roles relate to the a priori roles of the fighting man, the bureaucrat and the professional?

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CHAPTER 2. Research design

2.1. Historical background

The history of the Company and its activity in India is long and eventful. Therefore, only the most important developments will be explained to provide an overview of the context of officers in service of the Company.

The Company was established in the year 1600 and has been called the mother of modern corporations.7_{It was formed by merchants and granted by the Queen to conduct trade in the Indian}

Ocean region. Under its 275 years of existence it reached accomplishments in many respects. Regarding the Company’s army everything changed as the Company started claiming geographical territory in India. In its early stages, the army had hardly been that. It started out only as a few guards guarding commercial outposts. In 1642 the Company was granted almost unlimited jurisdiction over Madras on the Coromandel coast, which has been said to be the birth of the Company’s army, then holding only 35 European soldiers.8

Different methods were used for extending the Company’s territorial control in India. Collaborations with Indian rulers started economically and politically before there was any military confrontation. In India, the Mughal ruler had appointed nawabs, rulers of provinces, in the 16th

century, with whom the Company started cooperating with on several matters, partly by joining together forces in their conflicts with the Portuguese.9

As conflicts also arose with the French, the Dutch and local nawabs, there was an increased use of military force for claiming opportunities of trade and revenue. During this period, the need for an army increased since the Company needed to protect captured territory as well as expand to new territories. This meant that the army was swelling, and a swelling army needed larger numbers of officers. Many officers were appointed at the same time to handle this quickly growing army,10

and there was a conscious choice of appointing British officers as commanders.11

The Company had their own armies established at the three presidencies of Bombay, Madras and Bengal. Later during the eighteenth century, the Crown would also provide with troops to serve in India in the British interest. The British army serving in India and the Company army were

7_{Robins, Nick., The Corporation That Changed the World: How the East India Company Shaped the Modern}

Multinational, Pluto Press, 2012, p. 5.

8_{Lawford, James P., Britain's army in India: from its origins to the conquest of Bengal, Allen & Unwin,}

London, 1978, p. 24.

9_{Lawford, 1978, p. 22 and for example pp. 25–26, 36.}

10_{Heathcote, T. A., The military in British India: the development of British land forces in South Asia,}

1600-1947, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1994, p. 28.

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not always in symbiosis for different reasons.12_{One difference constituted of that higher ranks}

could be purchased in the British army, meaning that the higher ranks were held by men of money, not necessarily of merit.13_{This system has been accused of delaying the professionalization of the}

military officer occupation.14_{The Company’s own officers on the other hand advanced in the}

hierarchy based on merit, and have been acknowledged for their great experience and competence when they finally reached officer ranks after years of service.1516_{This alone constitutes a greater}

incentive for professionalization. From the mid eighteenth century, the Company started to appoint experienced officers from British regiments.17_{However, in 1764 they started to appoint}

officers only from candidates sent out to India specifically as cadets, which did duty in European regiments as private soldiers.18_{In practice, officers of backgrounds both in the British army as well}

as in Company service commanded troops, and an officer of the British army in the same rank as a Company officer always outranked the Company officer19_.

Due to the purchase system, the British officer corps consisted of men of money, and they were almost solely aristocrats. Because of this, it has been claimed that there took place a straight transaction of ideals from the aristocrat stratum to the officer corps; an ideal of courage, luxury and individualism. This individualism also brought a lack of discipline, which the British army have been accused for in this period.20_{On the other hand one might speculate that there might have}

been another mixture in the Indian context; the officers of the Company’s troops were very young and inexperienced, at least in the beginning of this studied period.21_{That would decrease the risk}

of them bringing a run-in ideal with them to India, and increase the chances of them creating something of their own. At least, they have been said to be very competent and talented, managing to take large responsibility in spite of their low officer’s ranks.22

12_{Heathcote, 1994, p. 51.}

13_{See The Purchase System in the British Army, 1660–1871 (1980).}

14_{Manning, Roger B., An Apprenticeship in Arms : The Origins of the British Army 1585-1702, Oxford}

University Press, Oxford, 2006, p. 431.

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2.2. Previous Research

This subchapter will be dedicated to looking at earlier research regarding the Company officer, his profession, character and surroundings.

The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil–Military Relations (1957) is the work that is probably the most well-fitted with this study.23_{Samuel P Huntington makes an argument for the}

military officer being a professional, claiming that there was and had been a reluctance to it for a long time and still was in 1957. He detangles the nature of the military officer as a professional, giving both a clear theoretical framework for professionalism, and a relevant historical background of the military officer as a professional. Huntington marks the professionalization of the military officer as a nineteenth century phenomenon, and he mentions the importance of Napoleon for the development of European armies after 1800. Nevertheless, Huntington does, like other scholars, put an emphasis on the institutions that framed the professionalization of the officer.24_These

claims by Huntington, especially his rigid emphasis on the nineteenth century, makes this study and its questions even more interesting.

Huntington also claims that the ideal presented in eighteenth century literature on officers and war was the officer as a natural genius. This ideal meant that one was born to be an officer, a commander, and that it could not be taught: a truly anti-professional thought, one might think.25

Furthermore, Huntington speaks of the development of military staff as a sign of professionalization in itself. The beginning of the modern military staff has its origins in the armies of Cromwell and Gustavus Adolphus in the seventeenth century. However, the staff part of the European armies saw little change from there until the nineteenth century. One of the most basic and early military staff was the Quartermaster General, who oversaw everything logistical which needed thorough planning. The responsibility of tactics and strategy was still the commanding officer’s domain.26

If looking further back than Huntington, we can establish that the discourse about the officer and his training, role and character has been going on for a long time. In 1930, H. C. Westmorland, himself an officer at the time serving at the Hampshire regiment, discusses the military officer and his lack of proper training. Westmorland points to the fact that officers were promoted partly based on the number of men they had made join the army, as late as 1794.27_{He also states that the Royal}

23_{Huntington, 1957.}

24_{Huntington, 1967, p. 7–10, p. 16.} 25_{Huntington, 1957, pp. 29–30.} 26_Ibid.

27_{Westmorland, H.C., “The Training of the Army Officer”, Royal United Services Institution, Journal, Volume}

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Military College founded in 1800 gave some discipline and training for the officer corps. This would give some indication that the time period studied in this thesis did not have the most well-educated officers when it came to their profession, since there was no institution for it. This is strengthened further, as Westmorland mentions that many officers before 1860 were self-educated, since there was no provision for officer training. Apart from this, Westmorland highlights a few interesting perspectives. He states that officers on foreign service are placed at a disadvantage, since they might be away several years without seeing the latest developments in education affecting their profession. Interestingly enough, Westmorland also says: “It is far easier to conduct a tactical exercise without troops in the military atmosphere of Aldershot than in Multan in India.”28_{, which might say}

something about the environment in India not particularly promoting the want or possibility to develop professionally as an officer. I interpret this as a question of a lack of education-promoting institutions and organization when in service in India. 29

Continuing our walk down memory lane, Sir W.E. Ironside, major-general, presents a description of the general view of the officers’ education, and his staff education in particular. He states that there for over a century was a reluctance to send officers to Staff College. There was pride in not sending one’s regimental officers there. He touches on the burning question of the professionalization of the officer, claiming that the ideal of the “practical officer” was widespread still at the turn of the 20th_{century, and he even calls it a “cult”}30_{. Ironside also says that the lack of}

enthusiasm for professionalization amongst the officer corps was not a question of dignity, it was a question of not fitting with the ideal of the fighting man. Apart from this, Ironside also concludes that there were misconceptions of what a staff officer is (as late as 1928) and that many officers did not understand the diversity that this word contained.31_{Important to note is that both}

Westmorland and Ironside are writing their articles in an educational purpose, for cadets. Ironsides article is a script of a lecture held at the Royal United Service Institution.

These older texts are valuable in a way that modern research is not. Particularly, they are interesting because they are multidisciplinary in their character, not suffering from endless specialization. They contribute with a picture of their current discourse, self-reflection upon their profession, as well as giving a historical background and explains how history has affected the here and now. They provide us with proof of the ideal of the officer being a fighting man, even a hundred years after the studied time period. Modern research on the officer and his surroundings tend to be uninterested in the time before 1900, maybe because the way wars are waged today has 28_{Westmorland, 1930, p. 583.}

29_{Westmorland, 1930, pp. 583–584.}

30_{Ironside, W.E., “The Modern Staff Officer”, Royal United Services Institution, Journal, Volume 73, Issue}

491, 1928, p. 436.

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changed too much. Because of this, these texts from the first half of the 20th_{century are still}

interesting. On the other hand, as these two authors are themselves military men and not researchers, one might question their objectivity. This has been taken into account, and it is the reason for these articles being used as a complement to larger academic works, like Huntington.

The officer becoming more of an administrative bureaucrat are the very early stages of professionalization. In The Victorian Army and the Staff College, 1854–1914 (2015), Brian Bond inter alia explains the professionalization the British Army officer. Bond stresses the importance of an officer corps having loyalty to one authority only.32_{This might have proved difficult to the}

Company officers, since they were as mentioned, both officers and employees. Regarding loyalty, it is important to stress that British officers and Company officers had different loyalties. Whilst the British officers had their foremost loyalty to the Crown, the Company officers had their primary loyalty to the Company.

There is modern research about the military man, although it usually does not touch upon the early stages of professionalization of the officer, as we would like. In “Defining Soldiers: Britain's Military, c. 1740–1815”, Kevin Linch and Matthew McCormack discusses a few flaws, or rather gaps, in military history concerning the narrative of the soldier in general. Linch and McCormack claims that military history has been doing one of two things: either the classical approach of writing solely about strategy and politics of war or the more modern approach of trying very hard to view the soldier in a social perspective without viewing him as a soldier and a part of the military system.33

Even though Linch and McCormack thereby become spokesmen for another type of social history that might not be in line with this study, their argument shows that military history has tended to be polarized. There is a gap that this study aims to fill.

The modern works concerning the military officer within military studies tend as mentioned to focus mostly on modern times, from 1900 and forward. These works also usually focus on the officer as a commander.34_{If the research is about something other than the officer as a commander,}

it is common for it to focus on his social origins.35_{These rarely come to any more interesting}

conclusions than that the British officer corps was dominated by the elite for a long time. P.E. Razzel does reveal that it is from the 1890’s that education rather than landownership started to determine status, which could also be seen in the officer corps.36

32_{Bond, Brian, The Victorian army and the Staff college, 1854-1914., London, 1972.}

33_{Linch, Kevin & McCormack Matthew, “Defining Soldiers: Britain's Military, c. 1740–1815”, War in History}

20(2), 2013, pp. 158–159.

34_{For example: Sheffield, G.D. & Till, Geoffrey. (red.), The challenges of high command : The British}

experience, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 2002.

35_{For example: Razzell, P. E. "Social Origins of Officers in the Indian and British Home Army: 1758-1962.”}

The British Journal of Sociology 14, no. 3, 1963, pp. 248–60.

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Arthur N. Gilbert presents an account of the eighteenth-century British Army officer’s character related to honour. He says, that although the honour code existing amongst the British officer at this time affected everyday life, it was not very present in the law. This still meant that they were in practice governed by honour code as well as legal principles. It could be valuable to bear in mind that there was a general want to behave as it became a gentleman or an officer.37_{How to in reality}

be a gentleman and an officer was not clear in the Articles of War, but still it was common to be charged for behaving unbecoming a gentleman and an officer on regimental level.38_{Since the law}

was vague on this matter, the commanders of regiments had a say on how harshly to force the gentleman ideal.39_{Although the code of officers as gentlemen was not clear, there were some}

recurring traits: loyalty to one’s commander, being part of a brotherhood, fighting for glory, and maybe foremost, courage at all times.40_{This gentlemanly ideal in the officer corps is especially}

conspicuous since the Company for a long time had had the policy of specifically having “no gentlemen” in their employment (which was a heritage from the merchant guild wanting to be their own, without aristocracy). This policy changed right in the beginning of the studied period, since their army was growing, and they needed as many officers as they could find.41

Further on the British officer and his undertakings, Anthony Clayton provides a solid description of the officer in different periods of British history. Regarding the Georgian period, the period of which this study concerns, he points out a few patterns in the circumstances around the officer. Officers remained cold and harsh in their attitudes towards their men during the Georgian era. Much literature also shows that discipline left a lot to be desired.42_{Even though}

discipline was lacking, the officers were very regulated,43_{showing that there was a gap between}

ideal and practice. Clayton also brings up the fact that artillery officers were more educated than other officers, since they had the first training college set up for them in 1741.44_{The unique}

expertise of the artillery officer is also mentioned by Westmorland, who as mentioned above thought officers in general to be uneducated.45

37_{Gilbert, Arthur N. “Law and Honour among Eighteenth-Century British Army Officers.”, The Historical}

Journal, vol. 19, no. 1, 1976, p. 87.

38_{Gilbert, 1976, p. 76.} 39_Ibid.

40_{Gilbert, 1976, p. 75.} 41_{Heathcote, 1994, p. 27.}

42_{Clayton, Anthony, The British Officer: Leading the Army from 1660 to the present, Routledge, 2014, pp. 49–}

56.

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2.3. Historiographical Relevance

The time period 1756-1800 is an interesting one for the Company in general, as well as for their army. In this period, administrative, civil and military matters were mapped out in India, which also meant potential for the officer’s role to be redefined. This study will not only try to examine these phenomena in a different way, through digital methods, but will also look at a topic which in this specific time period has earlier been neglected. Furthermore, this study will also contribute with a small glimpse of what the officer did in practice, not only norms and ideals.

2.4. Borrowing from other Disciplines

This thesis is a case of using puzzle pieces from other disciplines to answer questions about history. When one’s own discipline does not provide the appropriate methods and theories, interdisciplinary approaches have a lot to contribute, although it should be done carefully.

Although digital methods are widely used these days, the method for this study can primarily be said to be borrowed from linguists. The word “corpus” which will appear first in the method and later throughout the whole analysis has its origin in linguistics and simply means several texts put together in a group. Concepts as roles comes from sociology, and theory about professionalization and bureaucratization are used in several fields, from political science, to sociology, to management studies. Theories about the officer and what his role should be crosses the field of military studies.

It is important to remember that every borrowed element is here as tools to help us say something about the past. Not the other way around.

2.5. Theory

2.5.1. The Professional

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Responsibility concerns performing the services which are expected from the profession. For officers, these expectations come from the state. In case of the Company officers, the waters are more muddied, since they were expected to be loyal both to the Company as well as the King and their country. Huntington goes on to tell that these expectations are guided through law but also formed in custom, tradition, and “the continuing spirit of the profession”.46_{Corporateness is}

explained as sharing a collective mentality and structure within a profession. When presenting corporateness specifically in the case of officers Huntington starts by saying: “Officership is a public bureaucratized profession”. He goes on stating that the officer corps is a bureaucratic profession as well as a bureaucratic organization, and that ranks are the key factor of showing competence. Huntington weighs the officer corps against their subordinates, saying that they are not professionals: there is a difference between application of violence and management of violence, of which the last-mentioned concerns the officers.47_{These definitions of officers as}

professionals will be taken with to the analysis.

2.5.2. The Bureaucrat

Since we have established that there was only education for the artillery and engineer officers during the latter part of the eighteenth century, that part of professionalization based on organized education cannot be measured as it can, and has been done, during the nineteenth century. Due to this we need take other aspects of professionalization into account. The development of staff and administration has been said to in itself be a sign of professionalization.48_{The “paperwork” and}

logistics-matters, one could say; the work tasks that paint a different picture of officers other than being practical fighters. The bureaucrat captures these work tasks as well as officers as a part of a large organisation. Furthermore, it has been claimed that officers held several different duties at the same time, due to persistence from the Company’s civil officials. This meant not only having staff appointments, but also extra-regimental duties and responsibilities in the civil administration.49_{This raises questions about whether this decreased officers’ role as military leaders}

in general, and commanders specifically, or if they simply took the learnings from their different responsibilities to create a military commander with elements of the civil administrator. These extended responsibilities, that seem somewhat official but goes outside of the officer’s role as a commander of a military unit, has been put under the category of Commissions in the analysis.

46_{Huntington, 1957, p. 16.} 47_{Huntington, 1957, pp. 15–16.} 48_{Huntington, 1957, pp. 25–26.}

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The bureaucrat in a military context has been dealt with by several authors. In this thesis, theory by Jaques van Doorn (1965), who has become an acknowledged scholar in this subject, will be used. Van Doorn is especially interesting since he touches on the differences between a bureaucrat and a professional. The professional is claimed to have his foremost commitment to his vocation and is connected to central values in a society. These features have also been captured by Huntington and can be found baked inside the previous subsection. What is new to the table is Van Doorn’s definition of the bureaucrat. The bureaucrat is, in difference to the professional, claimed to in most cases not be driven by value, but rather focused on goals and methods to reach those goals. Furthermore, van Doorn stresses the difference in loyalty: the professional being loyal to his profession, and the bureaucrat being loyal to his organization. Apart from establishing the differences, van Doorn is also clear about the merging of these two categories that had taken place the decades before his article in 1965.50_{Van Doorn’s definition of the bureaucrat contributes with}

a new aspect not covered in the three criteria of Huntington. This is the “means and ends” mentality, that should be seen as a complement to the three earlier criteria. It could capture all in between work that does not fit within expertise, responsibility or corporateness, like communicating or doing administrative tasks; all of it methods for achieving goals of themselves or their “organization” – the Company, or their country. These tasks align with the categories of Organization and Administration, and Communication. This fourth element will simply be referred to as the bureaucrat or the bureaucratic element.

2.5.3. The Fighting Man

The fighting man does not come with any earlier theory, which means that we have to make our own theoretical framework based on what we know about it from several sources. The model will be kept as simple as possible. While reading Ironside, we find a few attributes connected to officers as fighting men:

(1.) He is a fighting man by nature (2.) He is found in the centre of danger

The fighting man ideal meant that officers were born to be officers, and by being so they would make the right decisions when tough situations arose based on instinct and not on education. This was naturally an argument against professionalization through education. If one was born ready,

50_{Van Doorn, Jacques, “The Officer Corps : A Fusion of Profession and Organization.”, European Journal of}

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there was nothing to learn. Second, the fighting man being in the centre of danger meant what his title already has revealed: he was a fighter.51

This ideal is captured and can be complemented by authors writing about officers during the studied period as well as modern scholars. Henry Lloyd, an army officer, writes in 1781 that the officer amongst other things needed to be able to persuade and coerce his men, as well as be kind and generous with them.52_{Jonathan Taylor (2020) concludes that there was, although nuanced, an}

Akilles ideal through the eighteenth century, valuing brave fighting. At the same time, there was also a line of preference for the Aeneas ideal as a commander keeping good order, building fortifications, and not being in the centre of bloodshed.53_{The Akilles ideal falls into the already}

established criteria (1.) and (2.). The other attributes have strong connections to command and can be summarized in one criteria of the fighting man as a commander with both harsh and soft attributes. When put together, all criteria of the officer as a fighting man looks as follows:

(1.) He is a fighting man by nature (2.) He is found in the centre of danger (3.) He commands both firmly and softly

These are the criteria that will follow into the analysis, and they somewhat align with the categories of Command and Operational. Criteria (1.) and (2.) do in themselves resist professionalization through locking the officer to the battlefield and to his instincts. The third criterium does not necessarily resist professionalization but is a natural part of officers as fighting men.

Before moving on from the theory subsection there is a need to acknowledge modern theories that could on some levels capture the fighting man. One could very easily be tempted to dive further into the pool of research about masculinity. However, although the ideal of the fighting man might fit into a larger discourse of masculinity, the larger discourse about masculinity does not fit into this thesis. What we need to use to answer the research questions of this study is simple model capturing what the ideal was during that time,54_{which has already been summarized in other}

literature and presented above. On the same note, to only use concepts like “heroism” and “masculinity” instead of creating own criteria about the fighting man would be putting a modern label on an old phenomenon; this could have been accurate if studying the officer through these

51_{Ironside, 1920, pp. 436, 442.}

52_{Lloyd, Henry, Continuation of the history of the late war in Germany […], Printed for the author, and sold by}

S. Hooper, the Corner of May's Buildings, St. Martin's Lane, 1781, pp. 70, 79.

53_{Taylor, Jonathan, ‘Who Bravely Fights, and Like Achilles Bleeds’: The Ideal of the}

Front-Line Soldier during the Long Eighteenth Century”, Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies, Vol. 43 No. 1, 2020, p. 80–81.

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specific perspectives of heroism or masculinity, but not when trying to summarize the ideal in its entirety.

2.6. Method

As the scope of digitized material grows, as they have been doing the last decade, the opportunities to use digital methods grows equally. The main reason for using these types of methods are that one can process large amounts of data quickly as well as find patterns that the naked eye cannot see. This also means that you can ask new types of questions.

In this thesis, a rather primitive digital method has been used for data mining: that is, discovering patterns and concordances in large amounts of text. The software that has been used is AntConc, which is a corpus analysis software for concordancing and text analysis. For this study mainly the “Concordance”-tool has been used for searching for words and working with the context around these words. The search hits and the context around these search hits have been extracted to Excel-files where they have been processed through removal of inaccurate hits, and through extraction of verbs or actions by officers into a separate sheet.

Since the research questions want to pinpoint the role of the military officer, the word list uploaded into AntConc has been made up of different terms that signify military officers in the Company context in some way. The words range from very broad terms, like “officer” and “officers”, to titles signifying military officer ranks like “lieutenant” and “major”, and even further to more specific titles like “major of brigade”. The best-case scenario is that these ranks will give more interesting and nuanced results, and worst-case scenario is that including these titles at least will give a broader foundation of data about the military officer in general. Nevertheless, both of these scenarios will enhance the quality and accuracy of this study.

The words for the word list have been chosen carefully, one the one hand by looking at ranks used within the British army in the eighteenth century, and on the other hand working closely to the material and having a sensitivity to it, finding different versions of words directed at officers in abbreviations and period spellings. The word list in its entirety is available in Appendix I. Since there only is one wordlist used for the method, it will henceforth be referred to only as “the wordlist”.

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of 75 characters on every side of the search word. Then, all hits have been extracted to Excel to be processed. The main process in Excel has consisted of two elements. Firstly, the verbs or actions of the officers found in the context around them have been manually removed a placed in a separate sheet, together with the search word. The actions of the officers consist of single verbs as well as nouns or other words needed to support the verb to understand the context. Secondly, the verbs have been categorized into predetermined categories, the backgrounds of which will be explained further under 2.3.

However, the division when putting different verbs into categories should be discussed a bit further. By putting verbs in different categories, there are choices made constantly, of which some choices are more obvious than others. For example, the word “communicate” is easy to place in the category Communication, but how about “give advice”. Would that be a communicative task, or a sign of the officers free thinking and hence be placed under Independence? To avoid making arbitrary choices, the most important aspect of this part of the method has been to be consistent. To be able to count percentage of different categories in each corpus, the method to count the same verb several times in different categories has been deselected. Therefore, the clearest association has decided the choice of category. This might sound arbitrary, but in nine out of ten cases, this has proved to not to be difficult. In more difficult cases, like “give advice” it has, as mentioned, been put in the category to which it has the clearest association according to the definitions of the categories. For example, this action would be put in Independence, since it is not a simple action of information transfer, but a subjective view.

A few things about processing the hits from AntConc in Excel should be mentioned. In the primary documents the word “officer” is used for military officers as well as for civil officers and a variety of servants of the Company. Hence, the sentences related to civil servants of the Company have been sorted out. Another example would be when “French officers” or a “Nawab’s general” or the like are mentioned. This study is about the Company’s officers. Thus, these hits, about French officers and military men belonging to other forces than the Company’s, are sorted out. Furthermore, the hits might not be an accurate result for other obvious reasons. For example, if the officer is passive in the sentence (thence, not “doing” anything), there is no data to extract from that hit.

One factor that blurs the landscape a great deal is the fact that there were officers with military ranks everywhere. What I mean is, that there were many people hired in the company as (civil) officials that still had a military title.55_{In that way, it would be easy to say that yes, officers were}

55_{Lees, James, “Administrator-Scholars and the Writing of History in Early British India: A Review Article”,}

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indeed in many cases primarily employees of the company. But that would not be tackling the questions correctly. If this person with a military rank were hired as an official, going to India as a civil servant, that would not be interesting to our question. This has meant that the sorting of the Excel-sheets has been done very strictly, as mentioned in the section above.

Something that should be stressed further is the core of using a digital method, which is not having to put down years to go through materials to, for example, search for words. Since large data also provides large results, it is necessary to go through the hits in Excel with great tempo. If you do not –and look into each hit individually or go back to the sources to find out more on every single hit– you have made your choice of method less valuable. Therefore a few choices have been made in the process of sorting and cleaning out the Excel-sheets, to keep stringency throughout the method. For one, if there has been any uncertainty whether a hit indicates a military officer or a civil officer, the hit has been struck without further investigation. Furthermore, if there is a suspicion that the hit would provide further hits out of the context range on each side of the search word, these have been ignored. The time spent on going back to the sources, which have a 50/50 chance of gaining results, is just too valuable to take the risk.

As a last note I would like to stress that a digital method never stands solo and is never exclusive. It can almost be compared to simply saying that you have worked with a quantitative method. Surely, this is what you have done, but every method no matter how mechanic, always demands a qualitative analysis. Naturally, also this study has qualitative elements. For one, all search hits and the contexts around them have been analysed separately as if reading running text and doing a text analysis. This method simply has the comfort of having a software providing all accurate places in the text, instead of having to look for them manually. Furthermore, in-depth investigation has been done when finding contexts that are either representative of a category, or very unique. A few of these examples have been presented in the analysis.

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2.7. Categories and Choices 2.7.1. Defining a Role

The sociology field strictly connects the word “role” to a social role.56_{This type of role would mean}

that the role of the officer would be a purely socially constructed one. In this case, it is not quite a perfect match: this thesis rather has a practical approach to the word “role”, as if something consisting of concrete actions and not abstract norms and theories. Although, factors as norms should not be denied as being part of creating the actions of the officer. Because of the focus on concrete actions rather than norms and expectations, we will use a rather simple view on a social role, as stated by Masolo, Vieu et al. (2004). The authors explain that the “social” in social roles can be viewed in two ways. The one we will use, is when social is made a synonym to conventional. A view like this contains that the agents “by means of some sort of convention, constitute, make use of, communicate about and accept it.”57_{The agent in this case would be the officer and people}

around him. “Accept it” is rather a key concept here. As the officer perform different actions, we assume that he and his surrounding is also accepting the action being performed in that social context. Although, this might be problematic in other cases where there might be oppression and force, the officer is in a position of power and must be claimed to have an amount of agency.

2.7.2. Corpuses and Verbs Categories

This subsection will touch upon three different types of categories. Firstly, the clusters of documents (corpuses) are in themselves divided into three categories, as mentioned in the subsection about the sources (see Chapter 2.8.) This is because one needs to be open to the fact that different types of documents might paint different pictures of the officer and his undertakings. To take this into consideration, the results from each corpus will partly be looked at separately, and then be weighed against one another. One might call this a comparative analysis level.

Secondly, we have the fifteen categories connected to the verbs performed by the officer. While this may seem like a large number the chosen categories have done a splendid job by showing themselves in the results. Although many, there will follow a short description of every category.

56_{Biddle, B.J. “Recent developments in role theory”, Annual Review Sociology, 12:67–92, 1986.}

57_{Masolo, Claudio & Vieu, Laure & Bottazzi, Emanuele & Catenacci, Carola & Ferrario, Roberta & Gangemi,}

Aldo & Guarino, Nicola, ”Social Roles and their Descriptions”, conference paper at Principles of Knowledge

Representation and Reasoning: Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference (KR2004), Whistler, Canada,

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First, we have the category Acknowledgement and Promotion. This category contains all actions performed by officers where they receive acknowledgement themselves or giver acknowledgement to others. The second category is Administration and Organization, which contain all paperwork that is not primarily communicative (as letters would be) and all initiatives by the officer to organize anything, like meetings or regimental matters. Thirdly, we have Command, which includes aspects of the officer commanding his troops, as a leader and decision-maker. The fourth category is Commissions, which indicates having other assignments or commitments than those related to violence and management of violence and should not be confused with commission as in receiving poundage. Fifth is the category called Communication, which includes all information transfer from and to the officer to or from someone else. Sixth is the Cooperation category, which includes all actions where the officer helps or gets help from others or they work together in any way. The seventh category is Diplomacy, which concerns the officer as a mediator, both intergroup, as well as externally towards actors outside of the Company, like nawabs. Eight, we have the category of Employment, which regards all aspects of the officers’ employment, like being appointed, stationed, payed and retiring etcetera. The ninth category is Independence which shows all actions that indicates officers as having free will and free thinking. Tenth is Merit, which consist of all actions by officers which is indicated as speaking good of his character but not through being acknowledged or promoted. Eleventh, we find Movement, that captures all types of actions connected to the officer moving. Twelfth is Operational, which is a category connected to the officer being out in the field, performing battle related actions. Thirteenth is Subordination, which includes all actions when it is obvious that officers are inferior to somebody else, like being ordered. The fourteenth category is Violation and Punishment, which includes officers in the whole judicial process from committing an offence, to being acquitted or prosecuted. The last category is Other and consists of all actions that do not fit into the other categories. In the graphs looking at ranks (graph Ib to Ig, IIb, and IIIb to IIIg) some of the categories have been divided: Administration and Organisation as well as Acknowledgement and Promotion.

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value, but also as a reality-based concept. It is not untrue that the officer had been a fighting man for a long time, equally as we know about the officer de facto as a professional in the nineteenth century.

2.7.3. Which Officers?

Now to another choice that has been made. The elephant in the room concerns the question of which officers appear in these sources. At times it is very clear that an officer is a Company officer and not an officer of the British army, and in other cases it is impossible to tell. This does not necessarily constitute a problem, since professionalization could be assumed to have happened simultaneously for both of these armies. On the other hand, as successively have been established in the introduction to this thesis, Company officers and officers of the British troops were different when it came to promotion, character and background, which might have meant different degrees of professionalization. The choice has therefore been made to try to isolate the Indian context as much as possible. Officer raised by the Company as well as officers trained in the British army have been treated equally. The determining factor has instead been whether they commanded the Crowns British troops or if they commanded Sepoy or European troops. Since it can be assumed that a British Crown troop travelling to India under the same commander would keep many of their ways from home, these have been excluded as much as possible. The focus has been on officers commanding Sepoy battalions and European ones. Comfortably enough, the primary documents have a tendency to want to acknowledge when troops are the Crown’s troops, which in many cases has made this choice easy. This method would make the results Company officer and India focused if not exclusively so.

2.7.4. Staff Officers and Operational Officers

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working with the search word hits; the officer might have a rank that indicates field service, but he might in fact be appointed at a regiment as a staff officer. This has, to my knowledge, not been a problem in the sources. The context of the title usually indicates whether the officer is a staff officer or a commanding officer. Also, an officer could have several commissions, which means that he might have a staff officer title, as well as being a commander on operative duty. This issue is thankfully relieved by the reality that the officers are usually titled according to the commission by which they are addressed.

2.7.5. The Time Period

The chosen time period, approximately 1750–1800, has been formulated with a few different arguments, of which three will be mentioned here. First of all, this has been called the time period when the administration in India was successively elaborated.58_{It was not until 1756 that the}

Company captured geographical territory, and from there all matters administrative grew rapidly. This also meant that matters of the army became more pressing, since they now were needed more than ever to both protect and expand territory. During the 18th_{century, Britain through the}

Company, made a turn from being a prominent actor in the Indian Ocean trading system, to becoming the political authority, governing indirectly.59_{Of course this turn, from trade to}

governing, changed the role (and importance) of the army in India.

The second argument is based on the availability of digital resources. It might have been possible to study an even earlier period, but the scope of materials would not have been large enough to make as clear categories as have been done based on the documents that now are being used. If you go back much earlier, the matters of the officer are not very interesting either, not with these research questions anyhow. To be able to study what the officer was doing, there needs to be a large number of officers in service and they must be doing something else than just guarding factories.

Thirdly, is it possible to have gone later? From 1800 and forward? That would have been an alternative and the availability would have been less of a problem. On the other hand, this period is studied much more, and would not quite capture the early stages of the formulating of the military

58_{Abedin, Najmul, THE IMPACT OF WHIG AND UTLILITARIAN PHILOSOPHIES ON THE FORMATIVE}

PHASE OF LOCAL ADMINISTRATION IN BRITISH INDIA, Journal of Third World Studies; Americus, Vol. 30, Iss. 2, 2013, p. 192.

59_{Datla, Kavita Saraswathi, “The Origins of Indirect Rule in India: Hyderabad and the British Imperial Order”,}

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officer’s role in India. What makes the period 1750–1800 so interesting is the uncertainty about what practice really looked like.

2.8. Sources

A digital method demands digital sources, and a splendid part about using digital sources is that they do not have to be gathered in one place physically. This study contains documents that are physically placed in the British Library, Oxford University, Bavarian State Library, National Library of the Netherlands, New York Public Library, University of Michigan and the National Library of Austria. The common factor of these libraries is that they have or have had partnership with Google Books to digitize their documents. Google Books have digitized the books, and the libraries can publish them on their websites, as well as Google Books can publish them themselves.60_The

study consist of 19 documents, all digitized between 2007 and 2014.

Most of the libraries enables readers to view digitized material online on their own websites, but the arrangement is usually not very flexible, and the digitized documents are not OCR encoded which immediately makes the process very complicated. The perk of having all the sources on Google Books is that all the documents have been OCR encoded. This is a precondition to be able to work with large amounts of texts digitally.

Making choices on sources, special focus has been given to documents that are clear in who they are from, to whom, and why they were created. This has made it much easier to categorize them in an as exact way as possible; and the categorization need to be very exact to keep any hope of them showing any difference in results. Some documents from this era are not very clear on all of these matters. Since that should not be a reason from excluding them altogether – they might still be very valuable documents – the next question in line has been whether they match any of the three themes of the corpuses without knowing this data about them. If they did so, they have been kept.

There is a broad variety of magazines from this era, both British and Indian, that are available and touches topics of the Company army and their undertakings. These have been left out as source material since only few sections from large number of pages would consider the Company army and its officers. For the same reason, other documents that contain only fractions or a few sections about the Company have been left out. For example, there are documents about the whole British empire from Parliament, dealing with many different areas, which could have information about

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the British officer in India. Unfortunately, it would simply be too hard to know whether a mentioned military officer was in service in India or somewhere else completely. Since we now have established that using documents with only sections about the Company, we have demarcated one other criteria for the selection of sources that became that the source needs to be fully about India and/or the Company.

Apart from this, the selection has been made with an aspiration to not use documents on too specific topics. For example, documents from Parliament discussing military officers’ pensions ought to provide uniform sets of verbs like “getting paid” or “receive payment” etc. One alternative approach could have been to use a large number of documents on narrow topics only. Unfortunately, that would demand these large numbers of documents on specific topics regarding the Company in India being available digitized and OCR encoded, which they are not. Technical limitations have also led me to leave out handwritten sources.

Before introducing the sources, there is one aspect that considers both method and sources that should be mentioned. All documents are OCR encoded by Google Books. In regard to this, it is important to know that optical character recognition never can be assumed to be perfect. Especially these ones, from Google Books, are not perfect at all which became obvious when extracting text files from the PDFs. Thankfully, the worst OCR is done on the front pages and sections with deviant text. There are flaws in the body text, too, but the sentences are still almost entirely readable. Even though OCR flaws could mean that not all search words are found, which could be a problem in itself, there has never been a need to take out a hit from the results due to OCR flaws. Hence, the assessment has been that potential OCR flaws should not affect the results significantly. Another similar aspect, that up until this point might have unsettled the orthography interested reader, is the old British way of writing the letter “s”, which is OCR encoded into “ſ”. This has not created any problem at all, since AntConc has read this letter exactly as it has been OCR encoded as an “ſ”.

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time frame. For example, the document printed in 1761 regards the conflict between the French and the British on the coast of Coromandel from 1750–1760. The military operations concerned in these documents are the wars with the French and the Dutch, the Tullagaum expedition from Bombay, the mutiny of the officers of the Bengal army, the war with Mysore, and documents containing several military operations. Different regions in the south, west, east and central India are represented. This corpus somewhat has an arrière-pensée. The thought behind this category is that documents that strictly concerns war ought to yield a larger share of strictly battle-related verbs. If these documents were mashed together with others, it would be hard both to see if that assumption was correct, as well as finding out whether there are any patterns deviating from this preconception. This category also exists to create two categories that seemingly take the shape of a dichotomy: this category being strictly about military, and the other one strictly not about that.

The second category and the other part of the hypothetical dichotomy is the corpus named “Company Charters, Acts and Regulations”, consisting of 6 documents. This corpus is 2328 pages long and consist of 900 044 words. These acts relate to the Company’s presence in India in different ways and were sanctioned by the King. There are also two documents that are not acts or charters per se, but they explain either the history or new developments of the acts and were created in the same time period. As mentioned in the end of the last section, this corpus should provide the “not military”-perspective. When officers are mentioned, it will be in another context than when talking about specific military operations. This is a question of what the officer will be doing when he is not the centre of attention of a document. Will there be a difference? These documents range from the year 1759 to 1795 and contain formal acts and statutes for the Company as well as documented discussions about these.

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“ordinary” people (whatever that means), usually in a later setting like the 19th_{century. This view}

of letters often leads to the conclusion that they were a way to speak freely, from the heart, being completely transparent with what one was thinking about a matter. This is mentioned because that would be a faulty preconception in this case. Letters in this setting were all very official, and were continuously presented in official places, for a larger audience. This was a part of the mutual understanding, one might say.

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CHAPTER 3. Empirical Analysis

This chapter starts off by dealing with each of the corpuses separately, in their own subsections. First, Wars, Campaigns and Mutinies, secondly Charters, Statutes and Acts, and thirdly Letters. These will each be divided into two further subsections, one regarding the officer in general, dealing with the corpus as a whole, and one subsection looking at the corpus through ranks. Chapters 3.1.–3.3. will have an introductive and presentational character. In Chapter 3.4., Corpus Comparisons, the results from the three corpuses, by that point presented in their own subsections, will be compared and analysed thematically and in greater depth. If the reader finds themselves missing deep and ambitious analysis in the three first subsections, worry not. There is more to come in the fourth subsection.

3.1. Corpus I. Wars, Campaigns and Mutinies

This corpus consists of seven documents with accounts on wars, mutinies and other battles in India, by different authors. This corpus gained 5545 hits with the wordlist, out of which 1067 returned verbs and actions accurate based on our criteria of being performed by a military officer in service of the company, and not being a doublet (performed by the same person in the same situation). The reflections below are based on graph IA on the next page.

3.1.1. General Patterns

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related to bodily harm and death in the Operational category in this corpus amounts to 47, which is right above 20 percent of that category.

Talking about variants on the same type of actions, many other operational actions can be explained in different ways. For example, to approach the enemy is explained in at least six different ways, like “draw nigher”, “approach” and “advance” etc. This means that the share of actions connected to bodily harm and death might look much larger than it is compared to other verbs. For instance, all occurrences that means moving closer to the enemy, even though explained in several different ways, put together yields 18 hits, almost 9 percent of the Operational category.

To sum up the Operational category in this corpus, it consists of a few stages, together drawing a picture of a battle and the officer in battle. The first stage is about reconnoitring and keeping a close eye on the enemy. Another one is about waiting in general, and about laying wait for the right moment. The third element is about attacking and the battle itself, containing verbs about endeavouring, persevering and making exertions. The fourth element is about the point of time in a battle when it turns either to success or to loss, usually through the verbs “retreat” and “succeed”. The fifth step is the aftermath and evaluation of battle, like taking prisoners and reporting losses. A seventh step is about maintaining the ground that has been won. This is of course a narrative of a successful battle. There is also the other way around, of being attacked or defeated. As this section has shown, these are all verbs that can be strongly connected to the fighting man. One can be radical and say that it is exclusively verbs of the fighting man.

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Graph Ia. CORPUS I. The Ratio of Occurrence between Categories of Verbs Performed by

Company Officer in Documents about Wars, Mutinies and Campaigns.

Graph showing the proportions between the occurrence of different categories of verbs performed by the company officer.

There are also occasions when the Operational and Command categories merge in some actions, like “lead attack”. The Command category also consist of the officer making decisions in the operational context. For example, “determine” to remain in a certain geographical area with his unit of men. Verbs stating that the officer is giving orders amount to eighteen and make up eleven percent of this category. The word “command” for example could be used as “he commanded his men to do this and that” but is usually not, and rather used as a way to describe the officer or the unit of men he is commanding. For example, “Captain Smith, commanding a Sepoy battalion”.

If we would assume that all actions of the fighting man would be captured in the categories of Operational and Command, this would mean that these actions take up 35 percent altogether in this corpus of documents about war, mutinies and campaigns. What about the other 65 percent?

Of course, there are other categories that could definitely be compatible with the fighting man. For example, the fighting man must also travel and transfer to the places he is supposed to fight. The Movement category is also large, making up thirteen percent of Corpus I, carrying 144 actions. Since India is a large country with large distances on the other side of the world, and especially in warlike circumstances like there are in these documents, officers travelling would not come as a surprise. But how did they move? Out of all hits, 27 are about marching. The officers would march with their units of men to destinations closer to the heart of the action in current conflicts. These would be long distances, but relative to other hits in the category it would be distances in the middle. Other travels are for example returning to Europe or arriving from Europe. There are also

I. 2% _{II. 4%} III. 15% IV. 1% V. 9% VI. 5% VII. 2% VIII. 4% IX. 7% X. 4% XI. 14% XII. 20% XIII. 6% XIV. 2%

XV. 6% I. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT AND PROMOTION II. ADMINISTRATION AND ORGANIZATION III. COMMAND IV. COMMISSIONS V. COMMUNICATION VI. COOPERATION VII. DIPLOMACY VIII. EMPLOYMENT IX. INDEPENDENCE X. MERIT XI. MOVEMENT XII. OPERATIONAL XIII. SUBORDINATION

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very short distances like “strolling by the sea” or “running up to” a superior officer to tell them something of importance. Nevertheless, this category might not even be neutral to the fighting man. It might be even more connected to the fighting man than to a professional man dedicating much time to paperwork usually committed to fewer locations.

The employment category is also a grey area, even though it might by its name alone be mostly connected to a bureaucrat than a fighter. This category has 42 verbs in this corpus and make up four percent of the total verbs in it. The category strictly touches matters of employment like entering service, retiring, leaving service, getting paid, be restored in service and being stationed at different places. This category does not tell us very much about the officer that we could not guess beforehand, but yet this category is inevitable and cannot be disposed of. What might be noted on the other hand is that it is not very large in this corpus. This might be due to that matters like those tend to rest during wartime, since one is busy with more hands-on work. Also, one should remember that these documents about war are narratives and not regulations or the like, which means that they are not very likely to discuss employment matters rather than lay out the war narrative.

Let us look at the categories that might provide evidence of evolving professionalism. The categories that match this ideal type is the Communication category and the Administration and Organization category. Together they have 132 hits and make up thirteen percent of all the actions performed by officers in this corpus. This is a little more than one third of the verbs in the categories strictly connected to the fighting man (in the categories of Operational and Command), nevertheless it is very clearly there. It is rather intriguing that commanding officers in the eighteenth century already dealt with paperwork and information handling. We will take a closer look. Almost every tenth verb performed by the officer in these war narratives are of a communicative nature. The word “communicate” itself recurs four times. Amongst these words is also “inform” which occurs five times, and “be informed” occurs equally many. The actions with most hits regard sending and receiving letters, which seem to be a recurring theme regarding officers’ work tasks. There will be more on this matter under Corpus Comparisons. Furthermore, there are other communicative actions that do not state the medium used to communicate it. For example, “be made acquainted with”, “describe” or “tell”. Nevertheless, these are indeed communicative actions. Apart from this, the Communication category seems to show that officers were frequently asked for advice, opinions and general input. Actions like giving advice, being asked and being consulted occurs twelve times and constitutes 13 percent of this category in Corpus I.