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Light and Paint:

perceptual and emotional effects on space and humans

Author: Sebastian Sundlöf Tutor: Bengt Ahlin Examiner: Isabel Dominguez

Master’s Thesis

Architectural Lighting Design

School of Architecture and the Built Environment

KTH Royal Institute of Technology

May 2019

AF270X

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ABSTRACT

In 21st century Scandinavia, the use of colored paint in the built environment has decreased

considerably. Instead, color changing LEDs can be found in many homes. In this thesis, an experiment was set up to investigate how these two coloring methods differ and coincide with regards to

emotional response and perception of materiality. Four cubicles, two painted and two colored by light, were evaluated by ten participants. The painted cubicles were perceived as more material in their appearance with regards to texture and color than their counterparts. A greater feeling of nervousness, stress, and disorientation was felt in the light-colored cubicles as opposed to a heightened feeling of inspiration, excitement and calmness in the painted cubicles. Though it is important to remember the difference was not significant. In addition, preconceived connotations to the color tone could be an influencing factor and so further studies on additional tones should be conducted. Lastly, benefits and drawbacks with the coloring methods were discussed.

Keywords: Color, Light, Paint, Materiality, Emotional Response.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I would like to thank my tutor Bengt Ahlin, whose support and expertise within the field of color and paint has inspired and helped me throughout the writing om my thesis. I also want to thank Yvonne Karlsson at Alcro and Andreas Lind and Tommy Törnqvist at Philips Lighting for sponsoring me with paint and light sources for my experiment. Thanks also to Ruairidh McKenna and Isabel

Dominguez who have helped me to see alternative ways forward when getting stuck on the way. A special thanks also to my parents for whose continuous support I am forever grateful.

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TABLE OF CONTENT

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 BACKGROUND 1

1.1.1 THE VISUAL SYSTEM AND EMOTIONS 1

1.1.2 THERMAL TEMPERATURE 3

1.1.3 PERCEPTION AND THEORY OF COLOR 3

2. METHODOLOGY 7

2.1 SETTING UP THE EXPERIMENT 8

2.1.1 CHOOSING COLORS 9

2.1.2 PREVENTING GLARE 10

2.1.3 PLACEMENT AND MOVEMENT 10

2.2 METHOD OF EVALUATION 11

2.3 EXECUTION OF EXPERIMENT 13

2.3.1 TEST RUN 13

2.3.2 LIGHT SETTINGS 14

3. RESULTS 15

3.1 QUALITATIVE 15

3.2 QUANTITATIVE 17

4. DISCUSSION 19

5. CONCLUSION 23

REFERENCES 25

APPENDIX 27

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1. INTRODUCTION

When using paint in the built environment certain characteristics are given to that space, and the same goes with light. In the works of James Turell, the source of color is rarely paint but light, and through his abstract and experimental installations the mind is easily tricked and deceived. Though few argue that light and paint does affect our mind, fewer talk about the similarities and differences between them. This thesis will conduct an experiment investigating the visual similarities and differences between colored light and paint. Both possess the ability to change the color and texture of a surface, but the way in which it is done differs.

When looking back through history the trend has long been to paint the rooms in a house to bring color to the spaces. In 21st century Scandinavia, that trend has almost disappeared completely, replaced with white walls. As the walls have become whiter the development and expansion of the domestic color changing LEDs have skyrocketed and can now be found in almost every home. As a line under the kitchen counter or not so seldom in the bedroom or living room. So, color is still a sought-after complement to our homes, but now as light instead of paint.

The question this thesis will investigate is how these two coloring methods differ and coincide with regards to emotional response and perception of materiality. Furthermore, it will look into possible benefits or drawbacks to the transition from paint to the introduction of RGB light that can be seen in Scandinavia today?

The emphasis in the experiment will be on the appearance of the color on both the environment and the user and how that might affect the experience emotionally and physically.

1.1 BACKGROUND

When Goethe published his work on color in the year 1810 (Anter 2006) it was the start of a whole new scientific view on color and its effects on the human and nature. Since then, many have come to both praise and criticize his work, and many have done their own research in the field. It is, however, commonly agreed that color is indeed important and can have emotional effects on the human being.

However, debates regarding the scale of the impact are frequent.

In the report “Color in healthcare environments – a research report” the writers discuss the supposed effects of color and possible implementations. They mention the findings of Kurt Goldstein, Frank H.

Mahnke and others that show that certain colors seem to affect participants in similar ways. For example, they talk about red as a color that creates stress and anxiety and blue as a color that works calming and protective. Although a lot of research seems to have these tendencies, the general conclusion of the paper is that further and more extensive studies need to be made, were more criteria is considered to be absolutely sure of the effects (Tofle et al. 2004, 69).

1.1.1 THE VISUAL SYSTEM AND EMOTIONS

In the book “Emotional Design, why we love (or hate) everyday things” by Donald A. Norman (2004, 9) it is discussed how color affects our emotional response in everyday tasks even though it might not have any functional purpose. He mentions the change between a black and white computer screen to

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a colored one and how it did not add any value or function to everyday task, and yet he refused to give it up. The logical mind did not need it, but the emotional mind did.

“Human beings have evolved over millions of years to function effectively in the rich and complex environment of the world. Our perceptual systems, our limbs, the motor system—which means the control of all our muscles—everything has evolved to make us function better in the world. Affect, emotion, and cognition have also evolved to interact with and complement one another. (…). Affect, which includes emotion, is a system of judging what's good or bad, safe or dangerous. It makes value judgments, the better to Survive.” (Norman 2004, 20).

Norman explains this behavior with that emotions helps us to protect ourselves from potential danger or to engage when safe. Neurochemicals in the brain, triggered by emotions, have the power to modify things like perception, decision making, behavior and thought (Norman 2004, 10).

Furthermore, research suggests that the peripheral vision has a special connection to the brains prostriata. The prostriata sends multisensory and high-order associations to different parts in the brain.

Through this connection, impressions picked up by the peripheral vision can quickly be interpreted and trigger both motor and cognitive responses in the brain (Yu, Chaplin, Davies, Verma and Rosa 2012).

Anders Liljefors writes in the book “Forskare och praktiker om Färg Ljus Rum”, loosely translated to

“Scientists and practitioners about Color Light Room”, that the common comparison between the eye and a camera is more misguiding than helpful. While the camera and film are only able to portrait flat pictures the eye is able to read and understand three dimensional spaces in scales ranging from microscopic textures to the grand scale of the universe. The eye takes help from light and color to understand its surroundings and the characteristics within it. Through interpretation of small optical pictures on the retina, it is possible to see and understand three dimensions and to see them in a variety of colors and hues (Liljefors 2006, 232). It is common to hear that the eye sight is not to be trusted, something that is taught to kids already in the first years of school. The science state that what cannot be measured is not true and it is often proven through illusions of varying sorts. What is important to remember however is that the visual and the scientific world is not the same and therefore needs to be approach differently. The scientific world is measured with everything from rulers to spectrophotometers and luminance meters. The visual world however, measures contexts in the room scale and lets us understand our surroundings almost instantly (Liljefors 2006, 238). With this in mind it is important to understand what type of experiment or research that is to be made and adapt the approach accordingly.

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1.1.2 THERMAL TEMPERATURE

The hue-heat hypothesis describes a potential correlation between perceived temperature and color temperature CCT in lighting. It states that if the CCT rises it should feel colder and vice versa. Studies have been made on thermal comfort in aircraft cabins, they showed a relation between blue light and a feeling of cooler climate and fresher air whilst yellow light induced a feeling of warmth. They were also able to detect an increase in alertness from the subjects when being in the blue light, which corresponds with previous knowledge on melatonin suppression (Winzen, Albers and Marggraf-Micheel 2014, 465–474). Another study however, failed to find any clear correlation between CCT and thermal comfort other than a slight increase in cold-induced shivers in a 5800 K room compared to 2700 K. The study concludes that potentially a greater difference in color temperature is needed to see a clear difference in thermal sensation and comfort. An observation which goes in

line with the findings from the aircraft study (Kulve, Schlangen and Lichtenbelt 2018, 881–890).

As previously mentioned, Goethe talked about warm and cool colors already in the 19th century. Also, he classified colors as cool and warm. Shades like blue, green and violet were classified as cold whereas red, orange and yellow were classified as warm, ideas that is still used today (Tolsén 2016).

1.1.3 PERCEPTION AND THEORY OF COLOR

Color and light are directly connected. That means colors specified in, for example, systematically color atlases have been determined under carefully controlled conditions in regards of e.g. lighting and background. This gives precise data but, what should not be forgotten is the fact that in other conditions the color will appear different. The source of light, its intensity, direction and spectral distribution are all contributing factors to the appearance of a color. Furthermore, the properties of the surface such as reflectance and absorption, if it is glossy, matte or rough, also plays a role in the appearance. In practice, this means two surfaces might appear the same in certain conditions but different in others, a phenomenon called metamerism (Klarén 2017, 11-12).

In low light levels, green and blue objects appear brighter than red ones when comparing to their brightness in higher illuminated environments. An effect that was named after its discoverer, the Purkinje shift. When increasing the illumination on the same objects the hue of the objects starts to change instead. The effect called the Bezold-Brücke effect describes the intensity decrease of red and green hues and the increase in blue and yellow (Nassau 2019).

It is all explained through the visual system and how the brain interprets information. Light passes through the pupil of the eye and hits the retina which consists of millions of photoreceptors called cones and rods. The photoreceptors then convert the information into electric signals and sends them to the brain.

Figure 1. Colored light and its effect on the surroundings.

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Figure 2. Cone and rod density in the human eye.

The center of the retina consists of densely placed cones, responsible for foveal vision. This area also called the what system, distinguish color and detail. Surrounding the cones are the rods, they cannot interpret color and detail but stands for the peripheral vision and are therefore referred to as the where system (Livingstone 2014).

Foveal vision Peripheral vision

Photoreceptors Cones Rods

Function Object, face and colour recognition

Motion and depth perception Spatial evaluation Visual characteristics Color selective

Slow High acuity

Colour blind Fast Low acuity Visual object

Perceiving e.g.

Visual tasks in critical details Letters, words, signs edges

Visual surroundings as a whole Atmosphere of a room, size and

proportions Interpretation improved by

Created by e.g.

Sharp border contrast High illuminance levels, uniform lighting distribution

Apparent field contrast Varied light distribution providing shadow and

reflection Interpretation impaired by

Caused by e.g.

Increased border contrast Veiling reflections, disturbing

shadows

Reduced field contrasts Uniform lighting distribution

Table 1. Characteristics of foveal and peripheral vision.

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The trichromatic color theory explains the color vision through three different types of cones, S, M and L. S stands for short and is sensitive to blue wavelengths, M for middle and detects green while the long L cone detects red. However, an overlap in wavelength detection exists between all receptors. When stimulated, the receptors send a signal to the brain who transforms the wave into a perceived color.

When all three receptors are stimulated at a time, the perception of white occurs (Goldstein 2009, 202-208).

Another theory is the opponent process theory. It started with the physiologist Ewald Hering in 1878 who noticed that there was no such thing as reddish-green or bluish-yellow. The theory proposed three mechanisms each consisting of an opposing pair, light-dark, red-green and blue-yellow, which would explain many of the contrast and afterimage effects. For example, why the color red can be seen after been outside in the garden (Nassau 2019).

It has now been recognized that these two theories can coexist and that they operate in different intervals. Cones can function in a trichromatic way in one interval while in another the signals to the cones are combined in neural cells which are then sent to the brain (Nassau 2019).

The visual phenomenon Purkinje and Bezold-Brücke effects are therefore explained through stimulation, or lack thereof, of the retina’s cones and rods.

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2. METHODOLOGY

Based on the findings in the background chapter an experiment was set up with the goal to evaluate how the coloring methods, paint and light, differ and coincide with regards to emotional response and perception of materiality in a physical space. It took place in the lighting laboratory at The Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) campus on Valhallavägen, Stockholm during two weeks in April. Ten participants, with Scandinavian background and no deeper knowledge about light and color, were asked to assess four cubicles in regards of perception of materiality and emotional response. Two cubicles with white walls and colored light and two with painted walls and white light. To stimulate both the foveal and peripheral vision and to maximize the effect of the experiment, the cubicles was designed to enclose the whole field of vision, creating an immersive environment.

Design of Experiment

Choosing color Painting cubicles Tuning light

Experiment

Perception of

materiality Emotional response

Qualitative Quantitative

Luminance Illuminance Color Reflectance CCT

Developing questionnaire

Approach

Why this approach and what is

the aim?

Blue RedA C Blue RedB D

Light vs. Paint Effect on humans

Analysis

Qualitative and quantitative results

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2.1 SETTING UP THE EXPERIMENT

The cubicles were created out of white cardboard, measuring 720x720x2350 mm. One wall was kept open to enable observations, a ceiling and floor were fitted to minimize light pollution between boxes. The measurements of the cubicle were standard measurements from the manufacturer, except from the height which was altered to fit the room.

The setup, testing and experiment took place in a darkroom, minimizing pollution from daylight and thus giving more pronounced colors.

One Philips Hue E27 White och Color Ambiance light bulbs, connected to a Philips Hue Bridge, were mounted in the middle of each ceiling. This made it possible to create the same light distribution in all cubicles whilst at the same time having the possibility to change the color of the light.

FRONT AND BACK VIEW LEFT AND RIGHT SIDE VIEW

PLAN VIEW

2350

720 720

2350

720

720

FÖRSLAGSHANDLING

SUNDLÖF OCH VESTERGAARD BÄRKINGEPLAN, 163 66 SPÅNGA

FÖRKLARINGAR

FÖRESKRIFTER

HÄNVISNIGAR

SKALA DATUM

NUMMER BET

ANSVARIG RITAD AV UPPDRAG NR

1 : 20 2019-05-16 18:26:23 Unnamed

A101

1 : 20

CUBICLE

1

Figure 4. Dimensions of cubicles.

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2.1.1 CHOOSING COLORS

To take full advantage of the color theories discussed in previous chapters, the goal was to choose one warm and one cool color. Important factors to consider was an even coverage of color and an intense light that gave color throughout the entire cubicle. There were two colors that fulfilled these criteria, blue and red. Other colors were not able to cover the bottom half of the cubicles which would have made it easy to separate the light from the paint (which covers all of the walls).

The Natural Color System NCS was used to determine the hue of the two rooms. Together with an expert on the NCS, the illuminated rooms were compared to a palette of colors under a white light. The NCS code was then registered and used when mixing the paint for the other two cubicles. The matte Alcro Milltex 5 paint was used, as was recommended by the expert.

As a final step, the two cubicles with white light was painted with two layers of red NCS S 1080–Y90R respectively, blue NCS S 2050–R70B before fitting the light bulbs in the ceiling.

When all walls were painted the hue of the colored light was adjusted slightly to increase the match.

An adjustment of the white lights color temperature was also executed.

The final settings listed in chapter 2.4.2. LIGHT SETTINGS.

Figure 5. The NCS was used to find the correct tone of paint.

Figure 7. Cubicle A with the Philips Hue E27 White och Color Ambiance light bulb.

Figure 8. Painting of cubicle C. Figure 6. Cubicle C with the Philips Hue E27 White och Color Ambiance light bulb.

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2.1.2 PREVENTING GLARE

2.1.3 PLACEMENT AND MOVEMENT

Alternative placement of the cubicles was tested to find the optimum arrangement (see appendix B).

It was important only one cubicle could be seen at a time, this ensured that there was no visual influence from the other cubicles. There also had to be a viewing point from which the same colored cubicles could be compared at the same time.

Alternative two was chosen since the cross-formation blocks the view into the other cubicles in comparison to alternative one (see appendix B) where it is possible to see across the room. It also allows for a comparison between boxes (figures 10–12).

Figure 12. Final placement of cubicles. Figure 11. Final placement of cubicles.

When the painting was done and the light bulbs fitted, it became clear that the glare from the bulbs were both distracting and gave away which cubicles that were painted and not. A number of shields were tested to find the optimal shape to block the view whilst having minimal effect on the light distribution (see appendix A).

A square shape measuring 200x300 mm fulfilled the requirements and was fitted in the ceiling in front of each light bulb (figure 9).

To make sure they all appeared the same, due to the different

light and color settings, the shields was kept white in all boxes. Figure 9. A shield was fitted to prevent glare.

Figure 10. Final placement of cubicles.

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2.2 METHOD OF EVALUATION

The perception of each space was evaluated through a sematic differential scale.

For the first question the participant was asked not to put any hands inside the environment to make sure the answer was not affected by the color of the light source.

The preferred choice between color and paint was also investigated.

The emotional response was evaluated through an adapted Positive and Negative Affect Schedule PANAS (Watson, Clark, and Tellegan, 1988).

Figure 13. Semantic scale for the assessment of perception of materiality.

Question 1 2 3 4 5

Answer the following question without reaching inside the cubicle!

How do you experience the color? Immaterial Material

You can now reach inside the cubicle!

How intense is the color? Not intense Very intense

Looking around the cubicle, how even is the color distribution? Varying Uniform

How do you perceive the texture of the walls? Undefined Defined

How do you experience the thermal temperature (C°)? Cold Warm

Could you imagine having this color in your home? Yes No

If yes, in what/which room/rooms?

If no, why?

1 2 3 4 5

Very slightly A little Moderately Quite a bit Extremely or not at all

Inspired Nervous

Excited Tense

Alert Disoriented

Calm Stressed

Question Circle your answer

Which cubicle do you percieve brightessed 1 2 Neither

Do you prefer one cubicle over another? Yes No

If yes, which one? nr 1 nr 2

If yes, why?

Figure 14. Additional questions to the experiment.

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For the quantitative measurements six points was evaluated in each cubicle. The top point T at 2150 mm above ground was the point parallel to the shield and the highest point visible from the viewers perspective. Points U, Y and Z are the average eye height in Sweden. V is the standard work plane and X floor level.

Measurements regarding illuminance was taken on a horizontal plane in the middle of each cubicle at points T, U, V and X. Reflectance was measured on all the surfaces at all points. Luminance was measured from the viewers perspective at all points in each cubicle.

Figure 16. Points for quantitative measurements.

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Figure 21. Human field of vision.

2.3 EXECUTION OF EXPERIMENT

The participant was first seated in an adjacent semi-darkroom of approximately 50 lux, for five minutes to adapt to the lower light levels inside the experiment room. Here the participant was told that he/she would be exposed to four differently colored cubicles, two with the color blue and two with the color red. The participant was told that he/she would be evaluated through a five-step semantic scale based on perception and emotion. This let the participant understand what was expected of her/him but prevented potential preconceptions regarding light and paint. The interviewer read the questions and filled in the questionnaire while the participant looked into the cubicle, one at a time. Between each cubicle one minute was spent looking in another direction to let the cones reset and prevent potential afterimages to affect the experience in the next. (Schacter, Gilbert and Wegner 2011, 141).

There was no time limit set for the experiment. However, the subject was requested to answer with their first impression. A method encouraged by professor Jan Ejhed in his lecture “Quality of Light V/P Lighting Theory” (Ejhed 2018). The average time spent per cubicle was five minutes plus two minutes comparing the two.

A plan drawing is shown before entering to explain the order in which the experiment will be conducted and where to stand (Figure 18). The placement was market with tape on the floor, the distanced based on the angle of peripheral vision and to make sure the viewer did not see the light source behind the shield.

Figure 17. Human field of vision.

Viewing point Approx. average eye level height (SCB 2011).

Figure 18. Plan view of experiment setup and how to move within.

Figure 19. Plan view of experiment setup and where to stand for the comparison of light and paint.

Figure 20. Foveal and peripheral field of view inside cubicles.

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2.3.1 TEST RUN

Before conducting the experiments, two test runs were made. This made it possible to go through the questions before the main experiment to decrease the risk of confusions and misunderstandings.

Questions regarding perceived brightness and similarity in color were asked, and used, to make some final adjustments to luminous flux levels and hue.

2.3.2 LIGHT SETTINGS

Each cubicle was tuned to look as similar to its corresponding color as possible.

Following light settings were recorded:

A, Blue paint: The hue light was dimmed down to 75%. CCT set to 6500 K.

B, Blue light: The Hue light was dimmed down to 55%. Color in the CIE 1931 XYZ Color Space, with the D65 2° standard illuminant, was x= 0.1903, y= 0.1238, z= 0.686.

C, Red paint: The hue light was dimmed down to 68 %. CCT set to 2700 K.

D, Red light: The hue light was dimmed down to 65%. Color on the CIE 1931 XYZ Color Space, with the D65 2° standard illuminant, was x= 0.6633, y= 0.3215, z= 0.0152.

A spectrophotometer was used to measure the chromaticity of the colored light. The measurements were taken from a distance of fifteen centimeters from the source, pointing directly towards it. The CIE 1931 XYZ color space was used to describe the color of the light source.

Figure 22. From left: cubicles D–A.

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3. RESULTS

3.1 QUALITATIVE

Figure 24. Results preference of color.

Figure 23. Perception of materiality results.

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Figure 25. Emotional response results.

Figure 26. Results preferred cubicle and perception of brightness.

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3.2 QUANTITATIVE

Point Luminance (cd/m2) Illuminance (Lux) Reflectance (Yl)

T 24.0 4210 25.9

U 5.55 174 25.9

V 0.890 40 19.1

X 1.27 16 19.1

Y 4.89 25.9

Z 5.13 25.9

Point Luminance (cd/m2) Illuminance (Lux) Reflectance (Yl)

T 21.7 730 85.9

U 5.44 52 85.9

V 1.44 17 85.9

X 2.07 8 74.3

Y 6.35 85.9

Z 6.23 85.9

Point Luminance (cd/m2) Illuminance (Lux) Reflectance (Yl)

T 28.1 3260 22.2

U 5.87 151 33.9

V 1.27 38 39.0

X 1.98 16 25.9

Y 5.72 33.9

Z 5.82 33.9

Point Luminance (cd/m2) Illuminance (Lux) Reflectance (Yl)

T 29.2 1230 85.9

U 7.96 67 85.9

V 2.00 23 85.9

X 2.91 10 65.2

Y 8.90 85.9

Z 9.15 85.9

A: BLUE PAINT

B: BLUE LIGHT

C: RED PAINT

D: RED LIGHT

Figure 27. Results qualitative measurements Figure 28. Points for qualitative measurements.

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4. DISCUSSION

The results show a clear connection between the overall visual appearance of colors in each cubicle and the level of materiality. Overall, the participants experienced the painted cubicles as more material in appearance compared to their illuminated counterpart.

In terms of perceived brightness between cubicles in the blue spectrum, no significant difference could be found. In the red spectrum, however, eight out of ten participants experienced cubicle D as brightest.

Noteworthy is that when asked which color that was most intense, seven ranked C as very intense and D as neutral to low. It, therefore, appears that a colors intensity and brightness not necessarily is connected, a result possibly explained through the function of the eye. As was discussed in the background chapter, the cones are responsible for interpreting color. Table 1 shows that through an increase of illuminance levels the color recognition can be improved, something that goes in line with the settings of the cubicles. Illuminance levels in D measured 1230 lux as the highest value whereas C measured 3260 lux at the equivalent point. By increasing the illuminance levels, the cones color recognition is improved and able to detect more distinct color. The luminance levels in D, on the other hand, measured both higher and more even throughout, which goes in line with the results for perceived brightness.

In the blue spectrum of cubicles, A and B, similar tendencies were found, but as mentioned in the previous paragraph, the differences were not as distinct. Remarkable was the difference in lux levels with B at 730 lux and A at 4210 lux, making the difference almost six times greater in A compared to B. Nonetheless, the perceived color intensity between the two is less than half of the reds. This could

Figure 30. From left: Cubicle A–B. Figure 29. From left: cubicle C–D.

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recognition of cones. However, a larger test group would have to be applied to determine whether that could be the cause.

When looking at the reflectance values, it is clear that paint has a great impact on the characteristics of the surface. While the non-painted cubicles showed maximum reflectance on the NCS light meter in almost the entire space, the painted showed half of that, or less.

If more time had been at disposal, additional boxes with glossy paint could have been made. It is possible that paint with higher gloss could have led to a more even luminance distribution and a less intense lumen output, like B and C. Nevertheless, even though the colored light appeared more even, it did not appear glossy, but matte. Using glossy paint could thus increase the difference in appearance between the light and paint rather than making them more alike. Further investigations with glossy paint could answer these questions and might prove more efficient in terms of energy consumption.

Among the material factors assessed in the experiment, one characteristic that distinguished itself from the rest was the ability to perceive texture, and the result seems to connect to previously discussed factors. By using paint, more pronounced details in texture was perceived. Reasonably, a consequence of the paint is the variation in color distribution which exposes the rods and cones to visual change and thereby constantly new stimuli. In the more homogeneous environments of cubicles B and D, the high reflectance lets the light bounce more freely and thus hit the cubicles from more directions, creating fewer shadows and less contrast for the eye to focus on. In an attempt to increase the visual comfort of B and D it would be interesting to test whether adding texture to the walls would make a difference. It is possible painting the space with a matte white or light grey paint would change the features of the surface enough to create a more material feel. The potential drawback with such a solution, however, is that light might not be able to wash the whole space in color due to less reflectance.

When asked about preferred cubicle a recurring motivation for choosing A and C was natural, a word never used for neither B or D. Surprising was that words like calm, comfortable and warm was used for both light and paint. Word choices that might explain the 50-50 split in preferred cubicle between the two reds. Where some might have based their choice on visual comfort, others might have based it on associations to a certain event, time or place. Consequently, the motivation gave an understanding of why, but not from what basis the conclusion was drawn. If a question like “what do you associate the space with?” had been added, it is possible a deeper understanding of the reason behind a specific choice could be found.

However, the words used indicate that both environments are appreciated. Thus, it is likely that qualities such as naturalness and high material recognition might not always be of importance, but rather depending on the situation. In fact, as a potential color for a bedroom, each environment was mentioned at least once. That said, there is a high chance that some pictured a whole room while others pictured a detail or specific area, which might have had an effect on the results. To get more controlled answers, further investigations in larger rooms with furniture or other objects could be investigated. In

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doing so, the lights effect on objects and the subject herself would make the impact of light more obvious and possibly affect the results.

When comparing thermal temperature between paint and light no pattern could be found. All participants were asked to move their hands and arms inside each cubicle with the intent to make them aware of the change in the appearance of their skin. Just as the hue-heat hypothesis suggested, cubicle B was perceived coldest when compared to A. However, in the red spectrum it was C that made most participants feel warm, which goes against the hypothesis. On the other hand, when comparing colors with each other, results show a correlation between blue and cold, and red and warm. It is possible that the intensity in color, that was perceived in C, overpowered the effect of red light on the hand and therefore was perceived as the warmer of the two.

As for the emotional evaluation of each space, answers within the same emotion mostly spanned between not at all, to extremely, making it difficult to draw conclusions. However, tendencies towards paint as the more common reason behind positive feelings could be found. The answers between light and paint deviated from each other with just a few percents, yet, when comparing results for multiple emotions, a consistent pattern displaying paint as the one which produced more positive emotions such as happiness and calmness, and less negative emotions such as stress and nervousness could be seen.

Figure 32. From left: Cubicles D–C.

Figure 31. From left: cubicles B–A.

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It should be noted that these tendencies were seen within each color spectrum, meaning that A had greater values than B, and C greater than D. Between the spectrums, however, such patterns rarely occurred which suggests that the color tone itself has an impact on the felt emotion. Thus, it seems that both paint and light have the properties to trigger the same emotional response in humans. However, due to the wide range of responses, further investigations with more test subjects is needed to ensure a good level of accuracy.

Results showed that participants felt most calm in A compared to the other cubicles. Cubicle A was also picked as the least stressful environment among the four, with the most unanimous scores of all categories for both calm and stress. A result in line with Goethe’s theory of blue having calming properties. Noteworthy is that the blue light also is regarded as more calming than both of the red cubicles. However, it was also regarded as the most stressful environment, a contradicting score hard to explain. There are no clear indicators to how these relate, but typical characteristics of B is high level of immateriality and low contrast in texture and color distribution, whereas A is characterized by the opposite. It is possible some factors work calmingly while other triggers stress. The immaterial experience, as an example, might work calmingly by being perceived as dreamy and relaxing, whereas the lack of texture and low variation in color strains the eyes and results in stress.

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5. CONCLUSION

Because all participants started with cubicle A and ended with D, it is likely that the blue cubicles worked as a reference when evaluating the red, which might or might not have affected the answers.

However, considering the number of people participating in the experiment, it was concluded that two groups of five not would provide enough reliable data to enable a credible discussion. That said, with a different time frame, it would have been of interest to arrange two groups of similar size, or larger, as the one used in the experiment to evaluate whether the order in which the cubicles were seen effects the outcome of the results.

The painted cubicles were perceived as more dynamic with more defined textures and overall natural appearance. The light, on the other hand, did not have these qualities which contributed to their less material characteristics. Cubicles A and C elicited more positive feelings such as inspiration and excitement whilst cubicles B and D were more related to stress and nervousness. It is, however, important to state that the difference between paint and light were small and that more importantly seems to be the tone of color rather than the medium through which it is presented. Something that seems to fit the correlation between experienced thermal temperature and color as well, as the cubicles A and B were perceived colder than C and D.

Depending on the function and time, both methods could, therefore, be used as ways of bringing color to a space. Color changing LEDs enables an unlimited variety of colors that can be adjusted based on event or mood. However, textures and details will be less pronounced, which can be an issue depending on the tasks to be performed. On the other hand, painting a wall or a room sets an atmosphere that is more time consuming to change when compared to light. However, the color stays on the wall and leaves surrounding objects and surfaces in their natural state opposed to colored light.

Furthermore, a paint becomes more pronounced with increased levels of daylight and artificial light while a colored light gets diluted.

If the aim is to create a home with a natural appearance, paint is the way to go. If the goal is to have a changeable system, a colored light might suit better. What should be remembered, however, is that when comparing the same color between the two methods, paint is perceived as more comfortable and puts less strain on the body and mind compared to light.

Figure 33. From left: cubicles D–A. All cubicles with correct light settings.

Figure 34. From left: cubicles D–A. All cubicles with the light setting CCT 6500 K.

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REFERENCES

BOOKS

Anter, Karin F. and Klarén, Ulf (eds.) 2017. Colour and light: spatial experience. Abingdon: Routledge and New York: Routledge.

(Liljefors, Anders.), Anter, Karin F. (eds.). 2006. Färg, Ljus, Rum. Stockholm: Alfa Print.

Goldstein, E. Bruce. 2010. Sensation and perception (8th ed.) Belmont: Wadsworth.

Livingstone, Margaret S. 2014. Vision and Art: The biology of seeing. (2nd ed.) New York: Abrams.

Norman, Donald A. 2004. Emotional design: why we love (or hate) everyday things. New York:

Basic Books. E-book. Available at: https://motamem.org. (Accessed 2019-05-18).

Schacter, Daniel L., Gilbert, Daniel T. and Wegner, Daniel M. 2011. Psychology. (2nd ed.) New York:

Worth Publishers. E-book. Available at: https://epdf.tips/psychology-second-edition.html. (Accessed 2019-05-18).

LECTURES

Ejhed, Jan. 2018. Quality of Light – V/P – Lighting Theory. School of Architecture and the Built Environment. Royal Institute of Technology.

PAPERS AND ARTICLES

Jordan, G and Mollon G. D. 1997. Electroluminescence in polymer films. Nature. 386: 135–136.

https://www.nature.com/articles/386135b0.pdf. (Accessed 2019-05-19).

Te Kulve, Marije., Schlangen, Luc. and van Marken L, Wouter. 2018. Interaction between the perception of light and temperature. Indoor air. Doi: 10.1111/ina.12500. (Accessed 2019-05-20).

Tofle, Ruth B. et al. 2004. Color in healthcare environments – A research report. USA: Coalition for health environments research.

https://www.healthdesign.org/sites/default/files/color_in_hc_environ.pdf. (Accessed 2019-05- 19).

Watson, David and Clark, Lee A. 1988. Development and Validation of Brief Measures of Positive and Negative Affect: The PANAS Scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 54(6):

1063–1070. http://www.cnbc.pt/jpmatos/28.Watson.pdf. (Accessed 2019-05-19).

Winzen, J., Albers, F. and Marggraf-Micheel C. 2014. The influence of coloured light in the aircraft cabin on passenger thermal comfort. Lighting Research and Technology. 46: 465–474.

https://elib.dlr.de/95022/1/465.full.pdf. (Accessed 2019-05-20).

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Yu, Hsin-Hao. et al. 2012. A specialized area in limbic cortex for fast analysis of peripheral vision.

Current Biology. 22(14): 1351–1356. Doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2012.05.029. (Accessed 2019-05- 19).

WEBSITES

Nassau, Kurt. 2019. The perception of colour. Encyclopedia Britannica.

https://www.britannica.com/science/color/The-perception-of-colour. (Accessed 2019-05-20).

Nix Color Sensor. Color converter. https://www.nixsensor.com/free-color-converter/. (Accessed 2019-05-20).

Statistiska Centralbyrån. Medelvärden av längd, vikt och BMI.

https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=2ahUKEwi7s- Om9priAhXQdJoKHY7yA2EQFjAAegQIAhAC&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scb.se%2FStatistik%2FLE

%2FLE0101%2F1980I11%2FMedelvarden-av-langd%2C-vikt-och-

BMI.xls&usg=AOvVaw1QpFEPc8ODhhFMebra3aM3 (Accessed 2019-05-16).

LIST OF FIGURES

(Figure 2). Cone and rod density in the human eye.

https://www.kth.se/social/files/560055e2f276541199737d6d/DT2350_Lecture6_Color_Perc eption_CP.pdf

(Table 2.) Characteristics of foveal and peripheral vision. A modified version of Liljefors diagram from 1999.

(Figure 20). Human field of vision. https://www.brainrecoveryproject.org/parents/brain-surgeries- to-stop-seizures/hemispherectomy/vision-hemispherectomy-occipital-lobectomy-tpo-

disconnection/fields-of-vision/

(Figure 22). Photo by Ceen Wahren.

(Figure 29). Photo by Ceen Wahren.

(Figure 30). Photo by Ceen Wahren.

(Figure 31). Photo by Ceen Wahren.

(Figure 32). Photo by Ceen Wahren.

(Figure 33). Photo by Ceen Wahren.

(Figure 34). Photo by Ceen Wahren.

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APPENDIX

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APPENDIX A: SHIELDS

Alternative 1. Alternative 2.

Alternative 3.

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APPENDIX B: PLACEMENT OF CUBICLES

Alternative 1.

The red cubicles were placed in one corner and the blue in the other.

Alternative 2.

The cubicles were placed back to back in a cross-like formation

References

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