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T he B alTic S ea R egion

Cultures, Politics, Societies

Editor Witold Maciejewski

T he B alTic S ea R egion

Cultures, Politics, Societies

Editor Witold Maciejewski

A Baltic University Publication

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The First World War was to a great degree caused by German ambitions to be a global power and master of the European continent. It ended in 1918 with both the German and the Russian empires in shambles and the establishment of the successor states of the so-called Weimar Republic in Germany and the Soviet Union in Russia. For fifteen years, for the first time in half a millennium, there was no strong local imperial power in the Baltic Region. Only in 1933, with Hitler coming to power, did German imperial ambitions start to inform foreign policy again, and at the same time, Stalin had crushed all kinds of imaginable political, social and ideological opposition at home and prepared for Russia’s comeback as an imperial power in the Baltic Region and the world.

In 1916, the invading German armies caused tsarist Russia to break down. In the wake of the devastating military defeats at the front and after huge political anti-tsarist demonstra- tions in the capital Petrograd (which had been renamed at the outbreak of the war in 1914) in March 1917, the tsar was forced to abdicate. A so-called provisional or temporary govern- ment was formed by a coalition of liberal and reformist socialist parties from the State Duma, the parliament which had been established as a new institution in 1906, in the wake of the 1905 Russian revolution. The leaders of the new state identified with the French revolution of 1789 and with the Paris Commune of 1871. The latter was seen as a prototype of socialist society. However, the Bolsheviks soon also identified with Russia, and with pre-Petrine Russia at that. In Muscovy, the doctrine of the Third Rome was part of the general idea that the non- Orthodox world was evil and ultimately had to be liberated and salvaged by Muscovy. The Bolsheviks viewed the two socialist Internationals from 1864 and 1889 as failed attempts of revolution in a similar way as the Russian Orthodox Church once held that both Rome and Constantinople had failed as imperial projects. The Bolsheviks created a new and definite International which they baptised the Third International. Its centre was Moscow. The capital of the Soviet Union thus reclaimed the role and the ambitions of sixteenth century Muscovy.

The Third International became known as the Communist International, Komintern. Its mission to spread the revolution was carried out by branches in the capitalist states, i.e., com- munist parties that were obliged to follow orders from Moscow and work on the overthrow of the regimes and the established state order in their own countries.

5 From the First World War to the end of the Cold War:

the bloody twentieth century

Kristian Gerner

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World War I (1914-1918)

At the Congress of Vienna in 1815 the European leaders adopted a security system based on balance among the great pow- ers. The gradual breakdown of the system began at the end of the 19th century. Russia, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman empire were weakened, which resulted in unrest in the outer fringes of Europe, especially the Balkans. Germany was unified into the Second German Reich in 1871, rapidly industrialised, and began to lead an aggressive foreign policy. A system of alliances, Germany and Austria-Hungary against Britain, France and Russia, made the conflict over Bosnia-Hercegovina between Serbia and Austria escalate into the Great War of 1914. The German plan was to strike effectively against the western powers and avoid war on two fronts. But the plan failed. Russia mobilised quickly, and the German-French war resulted in a deadlock in the trenches along the western front. The US participation in the war (from 1917) was decisive.

Germany and its ally Austria-Hungary surrendered on November 11, 1918.

World War I marks the breakdown of three empires, Tsarist Russia, the Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy and the Second German Reich. Based on nationalist movements, eight independent states were recognised during the Paris conferences in 1919-1920. Five of these are in the Baltic Region: Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland.

In the interwar period and more outspokenly during the post-war era, a specific Nordic identity was built which included the populations of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden. Although the Finnish language belongs to a quite different language group, the long tradition of the Swedish language in Finland and the presence in the country of a large Swedish population, intimate relations between the Nordic peoples have been considered as rather “natural”. It is of some consequence in the present era, that Scandinavians have a tendency to believe that relations among the three “Baltic”

peoples of Estonians, Latvians and Lithuanians are equally intimate, which they certainly are not.

In the interwar period, Lithuania and Poland were enemy states. There was no direct official contact between the two.

Travellers had to move between the two states by way of passing through Latvia. Estonia and Latvia were not accepted as Nordic states by their Scandinavian neighbours, although Estonia in particular developed close cultural and scholarly relations with Sweden and Finland. International events in 1939-1940 proved that the three Baltic states certainly, and to some degree also Poland and Finland, really were not regarded as legitimate states in the eyes of the leaders of Germany and the Soviet Union.

1. Emergence of new states

It is interesting to note that the Bolsheviks encouraged without hesitation and reinvigorated the Orthodox notion of the Poles as the arch-enemy of Russia, i.e. of Soviet Russia. At the time of the German defeat in November 1918, Józef Piłsudski, of Lithuanian szlachta origin and also a former socialist and organiser of Polish troops who fought against Russia on the side of the Central Powers in the war, proclaimed the reborn Polish state. Its new boundaries were not yet delimited when in 1920, during the final stage of the Civil War in Russia, Piłsudski engaged the new Polish state in a struggle for the Kresy.

Poland managed to occupy Kiev, but the Red Army suc- ceeded in both defeating the white general Wrangel in southern Ukraine and pushing the Poles back to the Vistula at Warsaw.

With some French assistance, Piłsudski managed to turn the tide once again. The Polish-Soviet war ended with a peace treaty in 1921, which gave Poland eastern Galicia with Lwów as well as Grodno and the western part of Belarus. In October 1920, Polish troops occupied the Wilno district, which was subsequently united with Poland. However, the new Lithuanian

Figure 19. Józef Piłsudski (1867-1935) originally a socialist and terrorist, military leader during World War I, conqueror of Bolsheviks in 1920, and finally dictator 1926-1935. In 1934, he suggested to the European super powers a preventive war against Hitlers’ Germany. Photo: Uppsala University Library

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state had its own claims on the city, which they called Vilnius.

The Polish conquest of Vilnius was not recognised by the Soviet side.

The Polish defeat of the Bolshevik Red Army on the Vistula in 1920 was greeted as a miracle by official Poland. In the history books, it was ranked side-by-side with the victory at Grunwald in 1410. For the Russian Bolsheviks, the defeat was a major setback. Their war aims had been to ignite the flame of revolution in Germany by establishing direct contact with the German proletarians, many of whom sympathised with Communism and with Soviet Russia. Now the Poles crushed the dream. They were to pay fatally for this in 1939 when the Soviet Union finally succeeded in establishing direct contact with Germany in the embrace of the two totalitarian regimes in the form of the Molotov- Ribbentrop pact.

As a direct consequence of the defeat of Germany in the

Great War and of the civil war in Russia, Finland became an independent state. After a civil war between whites and reds in 1918, which was also a war of liberation as the victory of the whites secured the new state from immediate Soviet aspirations on it, Finland became a Nordic democratic state similar to the three Scandinavian states (Iceland became a sov- ereign state only in 1944). Poland and Lithuania also became sovereign, but as separate

“national” states. The Lithuanian government considered Vilnius to be the self-evident capital, but as mentioned above, Polish troops occupied the city in 1920. It was incorpo- rated in Poland until 1939 and given to Lithuania by the Soviet Union after its conquest of eastern Poland in the same year. As the results of plebiscites, Silesia was divided between Poland and Germany and Schleswig between Denmark and Germany. After a decision by the League of Nations, the Åland Islands, inhabited by Swedes, became part of the Republic of Finland but with a certain political autonomy.

Map 9. New States. Estonia and Finland are recognized by Soviet Russia as independent states in the Treaty of Tartu (Dorpat), February 2; Lithuania is recognized in the Treaty of Moscow, July 12; Latvia is recognized in the Treaty of Riga, August 11 by Soviet Russia. Ill.: Radosław Przebitkowski

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2. Communism and Nazism

In Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland, which had been wholly or partly parts of the Russian Empire, the ruling circles and a majority of the electorate viewed the local communist parties with suspicion not only for purely ideological reasons but also because the communists were identified with Russia. In addition, communism was viewed as Jewish because, among the first generation of party leaders not only in the Soviet Union but also in Poland and Lithuania, a number of party leaders were Jews. Anti-Semitism reinforced anti- Communism and anti-Russianism. Of course historical memories informed fear in the west- ern successor states of Soviet imperial designs for the territories lost by Russia in 1918-1920.

There was also fear of similar German aspirations, especially as Germany never recognised its eastern boundaries as definite. In 1926, coups resulted in authoritarian regimes in Poland and Lithuania. In 1934, the same thing occurred in Estonia and Latvia. Only Finland remained a democracy. The immediate reasons were internal political conflicts and ambitions on the part of the political leaders from the time of the struggle for independence in 1918 to restrict the influence of both communists and of fascist movements. However, these developments were also a specific reaction against perceived threats from Germany and the Soviet Union. Belief in the strength of democracy, its legitimacy, was rather low.

In a way similar to the one that Soviet Communism was inspired by both ideology and history, so was its twin German Nazism. The main difference was that whereas the ideological basis of the Soviet dictatorship was the Marxist notion of social class, the ideological base for the German dictatorship was “race”. The main enemies of the Soviet regime were classified as capitalists, whereas the Jews were chosen as the main enemies of the German regime. Both regimes promoted belief in conspiracy theories. In the “Jewish capitalist” they had a shared enemy. In spite of the fact that anti-Semitism was not accepted by the early Soviet state, at the very time as the victory of the Soviet Union in the war against Germany looked certain in 1943- 44, the Soviet regime adopted anti-Semitic policies and prepared to complete the Holocaust by extinguishing Jewish culture (and many Jewish people). The process came to a halt with the death of Stalin in 1953. However, Soviet Jews were to be harassed by the state authorities until the end of the Soviet State.

It is important to note that the obsession with “purity” was important in both the Nazi and the Communist case. The respective empires should be truly “Aryan” and “Proletarian”, respectively. Ideologically, both Soviet Marxism and German Nazism were peculiar mixtures of superstition and modernism. Both regimes sought to restrain thinking, encourage irrational beliefs and foster an emotional climate of struggle against enemies and subservience to lead- ers. Because of the encompassing ambitions of both Communists and Nazis to control every aspect of societal life, they have become known in historiography as “totalitarian”.

Both Communists and Nazis also believed that their task was to build paradise on earth, and they actually tried to modernise their respective states in terms of infrastructure, industries and urbanisation. The Communists talked about the global classless society and the need to extinguish all oppressive classes in the world. In principle, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was open for all proletarians in the world to join. The Nazis spoke about their Lebensraum, i.e., the living space for the Germans in Eastern Europe, and of the need to anni- hilate all Jews and most of the Gypsies, with the exception of those who had remained purely

“Aryan” and were not contaminated with other “blood”. The Slavic populations should be heavily decimated, bereft of all intellectuals, and reduced to slaves (Wehler 1998).

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Stalinism, nazism

Stalinism. Josef Stalin ruled the Soviet Union from 1924 to his death in 1953 with his merciless totalitarian regime. His policy of “Socialism in one country” meant in effect the forced collectivisation of agriculture and forced development of state-owned massive heavy industry with devastating social consequences. To achieve his goals Stalin ruthlessly exerted control using the police. Intellectuals and others considered to be enemies of the system were murdered, imprisoned or deported to the Gulag archipelago, a vast system of labour and concentration camps in remote areas of the Soviet

Union.

The collectivisation of agriculture resulted in mass murder, mass starvation and mass depor- tation of millions of people. In the name of Marxist-Leninist ideology, planned economy contributed to increased central control to make the Soviet Union a totalitarian state. The victory of the Soviet Union in World War II led to the expansion of Stalinism to satellite states in east- ern and central Europe.

Nazism. Nazism was the political ideology of the National Socialist German Workers’ Party, which was taken over by Adolf Hitler in the early 1920s to become the basis of his dictatorship in Germany 1933-1945. Nazism began as a protest against the German surrender in 1918 and the Versailles Treaty in 1919. Economic depression and unemployment caused widespread disap- pointment and the Nazis attracted mass sup- port.

Hitler first gained power through constitutional procedure and then established a totalitarian regime in 1933. Nazism shared many of the features of Fascism in other coun- tries such as the Führer principle. The special characteristics of Nazism were belief in the racial superiority of the “Aryan”

race; vehement anti-Semitism and ambitions to establish German military power and hegemony in Europe.

The practical implementation of Nazi policy started with the establishment of concentration camps, where those consid- ered inferior as well as enemies of the state were interned. Early on in World War II several of these camps were turned into extermination camps in which a total of 9-11 million people were killed.

3. The outcome of the Second World War

It is not necessary to go into the details of the Second World War. Suffice it to mention that according to the agreements in the so-called Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, which was concluded on 23 August 1939 and amended on 28 September, the eastern Baltic region was partitioned between two spheres of interest.

Finland, the three Baltic states and the Belarusian and Ukrainian parts of Poland went to the Soviet Union. Poland was partitioned and the Baltic states were incorpo- rated in the Soviet Union in 1940. Finland managed to defend herself against the Soviet attack and the Soviet Union could only conquer the major part of Karelia and the Petsamo district.

Figure 20. Stalin being pulled down from his monument in Budapest in October 1956.

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The Second World War ended with Germany’s total defeat and the Soviet occupation of the east- ern Baltic region and Central Europe. The Baltic States became Soviet republics. The new politi- cal order was recognised by the Scandinavian neighbours but not by the United States. Poland and the GDR (German Democratic Republic) – the latter was official- ly proclaimed in 1949 – became Soviet satellite states. Finland remained a sovereign, democratic market economy but had to accept restrictions on its foreign and mili- tary policies. A pact of Friendship, Cooperation and Assistance with the Soviet Union was concluded in 1948. In 1949, Norway, Iceland, Denmark, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom became members of NATO. In 1954, West Germany was included. In 1955, the Soviet Union created the Warsaw Pact.

In 1961, East Germany erected the Berlin wall. Sweden remained neutral but cooperated intimately with NATO and the United States. During the Cold War, which ended with the gradual but rather swift breakdown of Soviet power in 1989-91, the Nordic and West European states in the Northern Mediterranean Region all became eco- nomically prosperous welfare states, whereas the Soviet Union and its satellites the GDR and Poland remained backward.

The great empires of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries have all had a large impact on economic, societal and cultural developments in the Baltic Region, i.e., the British, the German, the Soviet and the American. There has also been a profound demographic impact from the latter three. As hinted above, beginning in the nineteenth and continuing into the mid-twentieth century, emigration to the United States served to ease the political pressure from economic hardships, social discontent and religious dissent in Germany, Scandinavia and Russia, and last but not least, as a safe haven for political refugees from the Nazi and Soviet dictatorships. During Soviet and Nazi rule, on the other hand, many millions of people were murdered. The Nazis usually killed very actively by shooting people and gassing them, among others some six million Jews and several million non-Jews in Eastern Europe. The Soviets also killed millions actively by shooting, but they also starved people to death in millions, the best known case being the famine caused by the collectivisation of agriculture in Ukraine and southern Russia in 1932-1933.

Map 10. The states in central Europe after Second World War. Ill.:

Radosław Przebitkowski

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References

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