The Green State of Ethiopia

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Department of Political Science

The Green State of Ethiopia

Challenging the Western Perception of African States

Environmental Politics

Mesir Taki

Independent Research Project in Political Science, 30 credits Master’s Programme in Political Science

Year, Term: 2019, autumn Supervisor: Johan Lagerkvist

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Abstract

Environmental sustainability has long been assumed to be a postmaterialist claim solely granted for affluent countries. This Western perception suggests that African and other developing countries are not capable of successfully dealing with environmental issues due to limited institutional and instrumental resources. Through semi-structured interviews with nine Ethiopian environment experts, and the supplementary method of field observations, this paper demonstrate empirical material from the green state of Ethiopia. Albeit being one of the poorest countries in the world, Ethiopia is displaying capacity to overcome environmental challenges and a willingness to undergo an environmentally sustainable transition process. Ultimately, environmental sustainability in Ethiopia is a possibility that contain challenges. The state have established environmental units, produced the comprehensive Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) strategy and is actively transforming the rain-fed agriculture, investing in infrastructure and renewable energies, providing agricultural extension systems, rehabilitating degraded lands and creating environmental awareness. In addition, the national reforestation program, which includes restoration, creation and conservation of forests, boosts the forest industry and develops eco-system services, such as carbon sinks. However, weak implementation capacity disables the state from following through with ambitious environmental policies, and, in addition, the urge for economic development along an absence of strong regulative mechanisms stimulate the continuing conversion of forests and lands to agriculture.

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Acknowledgements

በጣም አመሰግናለሁ

I would like to make explicit my deepest gratitude to the nine helpful Ethiopian experts whose abundance of knowledge and insights made this thesis feasible. Thank you so much for your incredible patience and generosity. I hope to return your kindness one day.

For travelling to Ethiopia and collecting data for my thesis throughout a period of eight weeks, I have gratefully received the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency’s (Sida) Minor Field Studies (MFS) scholarship. I am deeply thankful to have been enrolled in this scholarship program.

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1. Introduction

Environmental sustainability is primarily associated with activities in the developed world. Unfortunately, the deep-rooted neoliberalist perception, cemented by postmaterialism (see Inglehart in Dunlap and York, 2012) impedes Western academics to conduct research on how developing states in general, and African states in particular, are de facto doing in terms of environmentally sustainable development. The general Western view suggests that poor countries lack the educational and economical basis for environmental outputs and outcomes (Dunlap and York, 2012).

In an attempt to alter the Western perception, which not seldom neglects developing countries environmental efforts, the aim of this paper is to demonstrate empirical material that is rather deriving from first-hand knowledge and experience in an non-western case, namely, the African state of Ethiopia; a country which is currently in a sustainable transition process. The intention of this study is to create a more nuanced Western perspective of pro-environment efforts in African and in other non-western countries.

1.1 Why the State of Ethiopia?

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Ethiopia is aiming for a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 64 percent by 2030, a level that would make the country carbon neutral by the same year (Ministry of FA, 2018; 11). The strong Ethiopian commitment to an environmentally resilient growth, emboldened by the new prime minister, Abiy Ahmed, along with an emerging innovation system which can incentivize a sustainable industrialization (Okereke et al, 2018; 279) makes the state of Ethiopia particularly interesting to study in terms of environmental politics.

1.2 A Green State Perspective

The focus on state level politics derives from Duit’s et al. (2016a) demonstrative contribution which suggests that states ought to be the central object of environmental politics (p.2). To make clear, although Duit et al. are referring to the concept as the “environmental state”, there is yet no standard label; other scholars has for instance referred to the concept as the “green state”, the “eco-state”, and the “eco-social state” (ibid; 5). This study intends, however, to adopt the green state label as a result of extensive recognition and usage of “green” in environmental contexts e.g. “green-economy”, “green politics”, “green party” and so forth. Both labels are, nonetheless, synonymous with one another and are not possessing any contrasting attributes.

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related structures, the state has remained a legitimate authority and the juncture for continuance of order and relations, both domestically and internationally (ibid; 3).

What does it mean to be a green state? According to Duit et al. the concept refers to a state, consisting of institutions and practices that are dealing with issues within the environmental realm, including interactions with other realms such as the market and society (ibid; 5). In more concrete terms this typically means that a state has enabled a set of agencies, ministries, laws, taxes, budgets, research, investments, to be environment oriented (ibid; 5-6). A green state is not inevitably a democratic one, neither is it fixed to a certain form of regime, nor is its performance levels a determinant, rather, a green state displays a specialized set of instruments, designed for the management of environmental concerns, thus merely being a theoretical abstraction that is portraying states through a green lens (ibid; 6). Four instruments are evident for the green state apparatus; regulation, administration, redistribution and production of awareness. These are scrutinized in the chapter, Theoretical Framework. Ultimately, the concept of a green state, including its interactions with the social, political and economic spheres, is capable of producing new insights regarding modern statehood (ibid; 4-5).

1.3 Challenging the Postmaterialist Perception

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the realm of environment efforts in developing states less attractive to study. One of few Western scholars who has, however, dedicated his research to African environmental development is Carl Death (2016). Through concrete examples of initiatives and projects taking place on the continent, Death attempts to argue for African states, beyond the negative postmaterialist perception. But, even in his case, significant traces of the “West being better than the rest” is found: Death argues that the ongoing transformations of African states are the results of colonial and apartheid rules which planned, initiated and organized the positive environment structures found today (ibid; 129), meaning that it is not African efforts that brought these outcomes, but rather Western ones. To conclude, the postmaterialist perception is widely and deeply integrated within Western research on environmental politics. It is thus imperative to challenge the postmaterialist perception, not least by shedding light to efforts initiated by African and other developing states. This study will, however, solely focus on the state of Ethiopia.

1.4 Environmental Sustainability

The concept of environmental sustainability is spreading (McMahon, 2019). A prevalent understanding of the concept is the reduction of carbon footprints (ibid) along the securement of ecological processes and natural resources, for them to be preserved indefinitely and capable of producing life support systems to-, and coexist with human civilizations and species (Adams, 2006; 4). This definition of environmental sustainability is applied to this study as well. However, the pillar of environmental sustainability is not seldom mixed up with the broader concept of sustainability. When referring to sustainability, the idea is that the three pillars, economic, social and environmental, are developing synchronically and without severe clashes (ibid; 2). Yet, this paper aims its attention at studying the environmental sustainability; a field which is heavily impacted by the other two pillars, and also, political institutions and climate change.

1.5 Problem Specification

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sustainability is solely accomplished in a postmaterialist context, it is an issue that only rich and developed states ought- and can deal with. African states are considered too weak, too unstable and too incapacitated. This stereotypical perception, cemented by the West, has resulted in little research about environmental politics in Africa and other developing states. Thus, seeing that there is an apparent absence of research, I consider it of high value to investigate whether an extremely poor African state, such as Ethiopia, is capable of dealing successfully with environmental issues. With no sufficient research accessible in Sweden, I eventually decided to search for answers by travelling to Ethiopia, and from there, seek knowledge through the classical ethnographic methods of interviews and field observations.

1.6 Purpose and Research Question

The purpose of this study is to elicit and chart out challenges and possibilities for environmentally sustainable development in Ethiopia; an African state that has severe economic difficulties but also set ambitious environmental sustainability targets. Attempting to answer the research question, influenced by the theoretical framework, will help fulfill the purpose of this study. The research question is:

How are the institutional capacity and the environmental instruments of the green state of Ethiopia affecting the environmentally sustainable development of the country?

With institutional capacity, this study refers to the state’s environmental performance based on the national economic growth and political institutions. The environmental instruments incorporate the state’s environmental capacity of regulating, redistributing, administrating and producing awareness. These theoretical concepts are further delineated in Theoretical

Framework. The material needed to answer the research question is acquired through

semi-structured interviews with Ethiopian experts, and the supplementary method of field observations. A more thorough account of these methods is made in the following chapter of

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2. Method and Material

2.1 Research Design

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(Blaikie, 2009; 95). Lastly, an additional argument to use a qualitative design is that the general methods, practiced by quantitative scholars, are inadequate in producing affluent and extensive knowledge of the empirical world (ibid; 176).

2.2 Data Collection through Interviews and Field

Observations

Why the choice of interviews as a method for this study? Firstly, as the accessible research on environmental politics in Ethiopia is inadequate, the explorative approach granted by interviews is optimal, as it enables an accessible production of content through the social practice of human interactions (Kvale and Brinkmann, 2015; 1). Secondly, the Western perception of developing countries ought to be challenged by allowing people living in developing countries to respond and express their truth-claims, views, opinions and feelings, described in their own words instead of being taken for granted (ibid; 1). The social practice of interviews is thus capable of demonstrating the “others” point of view. It is however worth stressing that informants are not fact producers per se, rather, people are constituted by and subjects to a wide range of interests, ideologies and powers (ibid; 3). This study is thus not intended to strive for one definite truth, rather it seeks to elicit and chart out a perception that is frequently disregarded.

Interviews do not, however, automatically generate fruitful contents; different types of interviewer positions produces different types of contents. In this study, the type of position used is what Kvale and Brinkmann refers to as “the pollster” (ibid; 109). Whilst other types of positions produces content that may be strongly influenced by the interviewer, the aim with the pollster position is to understand the informant’s point of view, by attempting to reduce the influence of the interviewer in the knowledge-making (ibid; 109-110).

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through fieldnotes an art of interpretation, which is not restricted solely to one definite truth-claim, rather, the fieldnotes are added to a larger corpus of interpretations (ibid; 3). Fieldnotes may be written in a day-by-day routine and do not typically consist of any overall structure. As for this study, the fieldnotes are based on observations I have found valuable and capable of enriching the study with fruitful accounts. They are written when there is a minimal risk of obstructing the observed phenomenon, chosen in real time contexts and ultimately serves as a supplement to the conducted interviews.

2.3 Approach and Selection of Data Sources

The selection of data sources is based on a non-random sampling method with no intention to statistically generalize to a population (see Blaikie, 2009; 23). The empirical material is based on the beliefs and values of a small set of informants, selected due to their recognized professional status of being experts on environmental politics in Ethiopia. The sampling is not intended to hand-pick experts from every part of the target group since it would be too time- and resource consuming. Instead, the selection of data follows the method of a snowball sampling. By using this single-stage method it is possible to find relevant informants through the establishment of a contact network (ibid; 179). The snowball sampling is adopted as Ethiopia is a country I previously have never been to, and as a result there have earlier not existed reasons to establish a contact network there. The few contacts initially found was asked to identify other relevant informants, hence, in a metaphorical sense, the approach takes the shape of a snowball which increases in size when rolled (ibid; 179). Random sampling is thus impossible to achieve, but a theoretical saturation is strived for which means that obtaining empirical material from interviews and observations is made until a stage where no new knowledge is being produced (ibid; 179). The risk of restricted knowledge in Ethiopia leads to the conclusion that it is better to have any retrieved data than nothing at all. Lastly, although a non-random sampling method is applied, this paper is attempting to incorporate a wider spectrum of perspectives concerning environmental sustainability in Ethiopia, meaning that a diverse set of state and non-state actors is preferred.

2.4 The Interviews and the Questions

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2015; 171). Affluent knowledge regarding the subject, and asking the right type of questions, ought to be prerequisites for the interviewer in order to earn the respect and legitimacy of the expert. It may also stabilize the power relation and instead produce a more fruitful conversation for both parts (ibid; 171). Considering that experts may have an extensive experience of being interviewed, it might be tricky to get beyond their established answers. Thus, with a semi-structured interview, I am capable of sometimes confront the expert by asking follow-up questions that aims to test the stance of the expert, and ultimately generate new contents. Besides interviewing experts, this study is interviewing subjects across cultures, meaning that factors and norms applicable in Sweden, may not be so favorable in Ethiopia and vice versa. Although the experts, to certain degrees, possesses the skill of communicating in English, there may still exist language barriers, thus making it crucial to keep the questions simple and concise to avoid misunderstandings and dubious answers (ibid; 168). Certain questions that directly concern the state of Ethiopia is treated with a great caution and sensitivity, as it may be more or less inappropriate to converse about the state/government in a too outspoken way. Moreover, the purpose of the study was explained to the informants before the interviews to avoid any risk of discomfort (ibid; 156). Explaining the purpose beforehand ought to have encourage the intended informants to participate in the interviews and talk more freely. The outcome may otherwise have been that potential informants feel there is too much of a risk to participate or, if participating, not wanting to share spontaneous descriptions. Generally, when asking for permission to use a voice recorder, it may lead to the informant wanting to reject, thus a second option was proposed, which was me taking notes during the interview. Lastly, before the start of the interview, the informants had the chance of asking questions.

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produce knowledge without constraint. The questions asked are simple to understand and aims to encourage the informant to share fruitful content and viewpoints (ibid; 160-161). The main part is the section where the research question is in full operation. The key is to transform the research question into simpler and more concise questions, and not to use complex academic terms and formulations which may obstruct the free flow of rich descriptions. On the other hand, it is important to not diverge from the research question as it otherwise may produce answers that are not applicable to the research question. At least two outcomes are generated by the ending: first, the informant is granted the chance to add information and have the possibility to correct past accounts (ibid; 155). Second, the interviewer receives an opportunity to clear the mind and the chance to incorporate additional questions.

2.5 The Interviewer Effect

The interviews may to some extent be influenced by the background of the interviewer and the purpose of the study. Given that the informants, all of whom are from Ethiopia, was interviewed by a Westerner, ought to have caused scenarios that are deviant from interviews involving people from similar backgrounds. Also, taking into consideration the purpose of this study where the intention is to elicit Ethiopia’s environment efforts, there may have been an outcome where informants share and make explicit solely positive answers. This risk is however accounted for and expectantly neutralized by incorporating questions that are focusing on the challenges of Ethiopia, as well as the possibilities.

2.6 Transcribing the Interviews

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grasp, besides making the reading more natural (ibid; 213). In contrast, transcripts that adopts a verbatim approach may be harder to comprehend. They also possess the risk of misunderstandings and may cause damaging stigmatization of the informants and their backgrounds, thus harming people and the research purpose.

2.7 Coding - Data Processing and Analyzing Data

As the transcripts are done, the following step is to code the relevant empirical data by breaking it down to a few simple categories: the categories serve the purpose of concisely capturing the descriptions formulated (Kvale and Brinkmann, 2015; 227). This in turn helps to elicit and classify the data produced by the informants (Blaikie, 2009; 211) In other words, categories and sub-categories are initially harvested by the empirical data, which later on is applied to distinctive descriptions, hence creating classifications (ibid; 211). Thus, by dividing the empirical data into parts and then appointing them with distinct and defined criteria’s or keywords, it is easier to subsequently scrutinize the empirical data for relevant descriptions (ibid; 211).

Noteworthy is that any kind of classification process is based on a non-neutral idea of what ought to be interesting and uplifted in a study. Moreover, the last part of the data process involves the making of connections between the established categories by asking the following question: are there any consistencies and/or alterations found in and between the categories (ibid; 212)? When approaching empirical data by the adaptation of a qualitative analysis, it is possible to find linkages between the codes and eventually make inferences on the density of the categorizations (Kvale and Brinkmann, 2015; 227).

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Brinkmann, 2015; 227). When the categories are established, the instances and non-instances of the phenomenon is counted and subsequently assessed by plus/minus symbols whilst the strength of an argument is estimated by using a 1 to 5 grade (ibid; 229).

2.8 Ethical Considerations

The ethical considerations mainly concerns the well-being of the informants, the confidentiality, the protection of audio recordings and transcripts, and a confirmation that the research is conducted without falsehood. In order to assure the informants well-being, it is imperative to obtain an informed consent only after making explicit to the informant what the research is about, what methodology is adopted and how the empirical data will be used, including possible harms and benefits (Blaikie, 2009; 31). Making the informants know that their involvement is voluntary and that they can withdraw whenever they want is essential to maintain a voluntary participation (ibid; 31). The informants privacy and interest needs to be ensured by protecting their anonymity. Their names are thus excluded from the work, but the type of organization they are representing will be made explicit e.g. ministry, NGO, university. By doing so it is possible for the reader to map out what type of actor who is producing the particular information without revealing identifiable and private data. The informants may not consider anonymity as necessary, but for this study, it is an ethical demand and thus required for participating. The audio recordings will only be used by the undersigned and erased as soon as the transcripts are done. The transcripts will possibly be shared with the seminar group, examiner and advisor. These considerations are also brought forward to the informants beforehand. Lastly, this study is conducted with integrity, meaning that fraud, deception and dishonesty is completely unacceptable (see ibid; 31 for researching with integrity).

2.9 Delimitations

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research, it seems more plausible to strive for production of rich descriptions than any trivial attempts of constructing theories. Moreover, the size of the sample is further constrained by time and resources; the field study was eight weeks long and financed by a tight budget. Other delimitations may arise based on uncertainties considering e.g. finding relevant- and interviewing sufficient number of informants, the English language skill of informants, the adequacy of the interview guide, the performance of the voice recorder and the informants approval of using a voice recorder.

2.10 The Informants

Nine informants with Ethiopian background, all of whom are enrolled with different professions which concerns environmental sustainability in Ethiopia, was interviewed for this study. Five of the informants have at least a doctorate degree, whilst all informants are stationed in the capital, Addis Ababa. Eight of these informants were audio recorded during the interviews and one interview was documented through notes. Two of the informants work in a public university, three in separate NGOs, two in separate international organizations, one in a foreign embassy and one in an Ethiopian government commission. Seven of the informants are men and two are women. The ages ranges between 35-60 years.

3. Theoretical Framework

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Since the results will be based on semi-structured interviews with Ethiopian experts along the supplementary method of observations, there is a need to determine what kind of prior knowledge of states’ environmental politics this study should aim its attention at. Two theoretical contributions are adopted which together ought to establish an extensive theoretical framework, qualified to encompass and understand knowledge produced by the empirical material. The first theoretical contribution is retrieved from Daniel J Fiorino’s research; Explaining National Environmental Performance: Approaches, Evidence, and

Implications, in which the author intended to map out the aspects needed for assessing states’

environmental performance (2011; 367). The following aspects are explained in this paper: (1) economic growth and environment; (2) political institutions (ibid; 367). These two aspects have been extracted through a comprehensive scrutinization of the large body of research which contemplates environmental policies and performances. Together, they are able to define a state’s institutional capacity. Noteworthy is that Fiorino’s work is a bit meagre in some parts concerning the above-mentioned aspects. When this is the case, I have chosen to include and refer to others’ research.

The second theoretical contribution is Andreas Duit’s; the Four Faces of the Environmental

State: Environmental Governance Regimes in 28 Countries. According to Duit, a state

possesses the capacity of regulating, redistributing, administrating and producing awareness (2016b; 73). Although overlapping, these four environmental instruments are argued to be states’ equipments for addressing environmental issues and thus determine how well a state is capable of producing responsive actions (ibid; 72). Up next is an account of the parts concerning the institutional capacity followed by a brief explanation of the environmental instruments.

3.1 Economic Growth and the Environment

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taken (Fiorino, 2011; 371 – 372). In its simplest form, the idea demonstrates an inverted U, which indicates how economic development, in the early stages, increase the environmental pressure. But as the economy continues to develop, the environmental pressure will supposedly reach a tipping point and later on start to decrease, thus taking the shape of an inverted U. The Environmental Kuznets Curve is particularly positive towards economic growth as it is suggesting that economic development incorporates a restorative mechanism in which degradation levels eventually stabilizes.

Whilst within the polemic debate of growth and environmental sustainability, Inglehart and others decided to introduce the postmaterialist thesis, which more or less takes side with the pro-growth stance as the theory suggests that societies in general and individuals in particular who passes a certain economic-level, eventually starts seeking meaning in other aspects of life that is beyond fulfilling basic needs (ibid; 372). The theory advocates that economic resources is the variable determining environmental action. On an individual level, when a person is capable of satisfying the basic desires, preferences will develop that are less about materialistic needs and more about quality of life. Environmental sustainability becomes such a preference due to it being an affordable alternative. On a societal level, when e.g. states reaches a higher level of economic development, they will be better equipped to respond to environmental issues. Through investments and a wealthy set of economic resources, it is possible to, for instance, develop advanced infrastructure, public transportation, irrigation systems, drought resistant crops, renewable energies, sanitation systems and circular and bio-based materials. Also, the capacity of the state to govern and administrate its institutions strengthens, which makes it better fit to regulate pollution levels and conserve natural resources (ibid; 372). However, many environmentalists are concerned with the attempt to positively correlate environmental sustainability with economic development (ibid; 374). Dunlap and York finds the postmaterialist claim to be inaccurate since a growing economy rather increase production, consumption and waste which consequently degrades the environment further (2012).

3.2 Political Institutions

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self-administered regions all of which are based on nationalities that together makes up for an ethnic federalism (Aalen, 2006; 243). The self-determination of these regions is argued to be problematic for the enforcement of policies from the state level, due to the regional devolution of political power (ibid; 243).

3.3 The Four Instruments of the Environmental

State

Regulation of the environment involves both domestic and international activities where

states, either single-handedly or collectively with other states, have the regulative power to produce and enact policies targeting environmental issues such as exploitation of resources, deforestation and spread of toxins (Duit, 2016b; 73). Broadly speaking, on an international level, the policy instruments for environmental regulation may be collective legislation and/or internationally binding/non-binding agreements and treaties that aims to govern and regulate matters within the environmental realm. On a national level, a state can use legislation and policy implementation of environmental outputs along softer governance measures such as cooperation and dialogue with domestic actors in order to subsequently establish collective environmental rules. Moreover, similar to the welfare system, the environmental state has the tool of redistributing resources by the use of taxes (ibid; 74). The green state is capable of influencing market and society by subsidizing environment-oriented efforts and penalizing non-compliant actors, which makes redistribution an instrument both for reducing environmental degradation and investing in environmental sustainability.

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update the knowledge concerning the issue, which is why investment on environment research is crucial (ibid; 75).

4. Previous Research

Although rarely recognized, research on environmental politics which focus on African states do exist. These are not seldom written by scholars from the same regions.Unfortunately, even though previous research on environmental politics concerning Ethiopia has doubtlessly been carried out by Ethiopian scholars, publications are many times restricted (EIFL, 2017). In an effort to demonstrate an extensive previous research concerning the topic of this paper, I have included the scarce research I found concerning Ethiopia and supplemented it with some previous research on environmental politics concerning African states, including one paper which regards developing states in general.

4.1 Environment and Economy

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demands of earth friendly nations without putting too much pressure on the economic development. But, if the so-called mid-way is not accepted, Ethiopia should take the role of being a leading state of Africa in order to collectively exit from the Paris Agreement and pave the way for a new solidarity movement, similar to past decolonization unities.

4.2 A Green Industrialization

Studies of green industrialization within developing states are limited. However, when studied, the main issue that arises concern the nexus between the two desires of both wanting to develop economically and environmentally. Is it possible to achieve a green industrialization, or is there no other way to industrialize without increasing the environmental degradation? These questions are addressed by Chukwumerije Okereke; Professor in Environment and Development at University of Reading, along with his associates. In their paper, the purpose is to explore Ethiopia’s attempt to implement a green industrialization (Okereke et al., 2018; 279). This is made by using the theoretical framework of socio-technical transition, which serves the purpose of analyzing sustainability transitions by incorporating factors such as actors, institutions, technologies and networks within a given state or system (ibid; 281).

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industrialization (ibid; 279). Challenges are nonetheless evident as Ethiopia continues to struggle with decline of ecological services, rapid population growth, lack of economic resources, coordination mechanisms, and the seemingly perpetual tension between economy and environmental sustainability. Lastly, whilst the key industries of Ethiopia such as textile, leather and cement are supported by an innovation stimulus, the most prominent challenge remains in institutionalizing a green agenda along with the economic capacity to develop a green economy (ibid; 288).

4.3 Environment, Regime Types and Institutions

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4.4 Effects of Climate Change in Africa

The migration expert Joseph Kofi Teye and the geography specialist Kwadwo Owusu, both scholars from University of Ghana, argues that the biggest impact of climate change is striking the people living in Africa, particularly within its dryer lands (Teye and Owusu, 2015; 223). Farmers who are extremely dependent on the weather face altering temperatures along with unpredicted rainfalls, which endanger their agricultural yields. Agriculture in Africa accounts for up to 60 percent of the continent’s economy, meaning that slight alterations of weather would lead to severe outcomes. Additional issues such as political instability, poverty and droughts cause a vulnerability that is not found in developed countries. Food insecurity, uncertain production rates and scarce water resources endanger the livelihood for many Africans. Moreover, effects of climate change are also found in coastal areas, as the increased sea levels and flooding are threatening cities and communities along the shores. Focusing on Ghana, Teye and Owusu highlight the higher temperatures, where the country is now dealing with an increase of one degree Celsius since the 1960s (ibid; 223). Rainfall has decreased with 20 percent since the same period and forecasts are predicting that levels will decrease further in the coming decades. As an outcome, there will be critical reductions of water and food security, which in turn leads to higher rates of famine, poverty and displacements (ibid; 223).

4.5 Environmental Awareness in sub-Saharan

Africa

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served a crucial part when needed. Furthermore, as elderly residents are considered to be more experienced within the communities, Abegunde found it important to engage with such authorities in order to adapt the questionnaires to the specific setting (ibid; 1497). Information collected from the respondents concerned awareness, beliefs, education levels, climate observations and lastly fear of observed effects (ibid; 1497). Even though most of the residents were explicitly claiming that they did not perceive any concerns with climate change, other answers would reveal that awareness had been raised through residents observations of changes in their rural environment (ibid; 1514). The educational factor was crucial for residents’ awareness, as was the traditional beliefs within the communities. Having a traditional belief that is more compatible with climate change would increase residents’ awareness. Compatibility of traditional beliefs with climate change is influenced by communities’ perception towards science and superstition. The results indicate the need of approaching the issue of level of awareness with sensibility, since traditional beliefs are, in general, hard to come through and are easily provoked. The awareness levels were also dependent on communication channels through radio, weather stations, newspapers and government agencies. Lastly, Abegunde suggests policies which incentivize climate change education to inhabitants in local communities, with particular focus on adult education (ibid; 1489).

4.6 NGOs Participation in Ethiopian Environmental

Policymaking

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include demonstrations of successful local small-scale projects, the display of field evidence followed by recommendations of actions, networking and the forging of relevant contacts with significant actors. Ultimately, attracting the right investors, donors and policymakers may prove fruitful for NGOs in Ethiopia with aim to influence policymakers.

5. Result

In this chapter, the objective is to elicit a broad corpus of descriptions concerning the political issue of environmental sustainability in Ethiopia. This is made by using both the purpose of the study and the theoretical framework as guidelines, when thematizing the produced descriptions. At the end of each theme, a brief field observation is made explicit which regards the specific thematized issue. The following chapter, Analysis and Discussion, intends to answer the research question by applying the theoretical framework onto the produced descriptions.

5.1 Environmental Sustainability Challenges in

Ethiopia

What environmental sustainability challenges are evident in Ethiopia? This question was

asked to all informants with the purpose to better understand the environmental context of Ethiopia. The main challenges concern fluctuation of rain and weather,drought and flooding, expansion of deserts, reduced periods of rainfalls and reduction of rainfall magnitudes, water shortages, absence of efficient irrigation systems and technologies, the expansion of agriculture and business, environmental degradation such as deforestation, loss of biodiversity, pollution and soil erosion. The following descriptions best reflect the informants’ answers:

5.1.1 Answers to the Above Question by the Informants:

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environment is still a challenge in Ethiopia. Ethiopia is growing fast but that growth is consuming the resources that we have in a wrong way. Some problems lie with the pollution; pollution of the rivers we have, pollution of the air, especially the old cars here in Addis are polluting the center, the city. And people have respiratory problems (…) when we look into the rivers, many sewages are directly linked with the rivers and the rivers are polluted. People are growing vegetables around the rivers, so we are again taking back those problems. (…) Many industries are booming and consuming more resources and more water. (…) There are open flooding irrigation systems that we are using, and some supported by modern technologies to use water efficiently. But most of the irrigation facilities are consuming water resources that we have. So, from our strategy point of view, how can we balance economic growth with environmental sustainability? –

Informant from a foreign embassy.

60 percent of our land is low-land, and is exposed to shortage of rain and water. (…) 60 percent of our land is dry-land, and some 40 or 30 percent is high-land. That means we are highly exposed to changes in climate and weather. The most serious case of impacts of climate change is drought (…) More than 80 percent of our population is dependent on rain-fed agriculture, so our country is highly affected to even few changes in climate (…) That is why we are formulating policies to respond to climate change on national level. (…) Also, we are found in Sub-Saharan Africa, so we are also exposed to the expansion of desert – Informant from an

Ethiopian government commission.

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Ethiopia is a huge agricultural country and it has this firm association with drought and famine. So, it has always been a very environmental susceptible country and with, of course the incidents with climate change, it has become even more susceptible. So, environmental issues is one of the big policy issues in the country to the extent that Ethiopia's main developed paradigm now is the Climate Resilient Green Economy strategy (CRGE). So, it is that important for the country. – Informant from a NGO.

Deforestation is very high in Ethiopia. (…) biodiversity degradation is very high. Probably this might affect the whole environment. There are some statistics showing that every year we lose about nearly 200 thousand hectares of forests. The agriculture is expanding into the forest (…) these things affect the environment in general. – Informant from a NGO.

In Ethiopia, the dominant environmental degradation is soil degradation, induced by water. (…) This has been caused mainly by overcultivation, overpricing and deforestation. – Informant from

a public university.

5.1.2 Field Observation on Environmental Sustainability Challenges in Ethiopia

When talking to city dwellers, it becomes clear that the temperature is reaching new highs as time pass by. Even in Addis Ababa, where the altitude is around 2300-meter, people are noticing an increased heat and longer periods of drought. Other observed issues concerns polluted streets and rivers.

5.2 Ethiopia’s Response to Environmental

Sustainability Challenges

What kind of actions are taken by the Ethiopian state to address the environmental sustainability challenges? The most common answers incorporates the Climate Resilient

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ministries, the increased capacity of hydroelectric power and other renewable energies, the constructions of a hydroelectric dam and a cross-border hydroelectric railway, the efforts to attract and mobilize financers and investments for environmental projects, plantation and reforestation programs, state engagement in international environment cooperation, investments in- and mobilization of environment active citizens, nature conservation and management, investments in leap-frogging technologies, watershed management and efficient energy and irrigation systems, transforming successful small-scale environmental policies and projects into large-scale implementations, and institutionalization of an environment perspective in all relevant sectors from ministry level to regions, community and grassroot level. The state also provides extension systems, skilled training and knowledge to farmers, which includes 14 thousand training centers for farmers in Ethiopia, and around 16 thousand development agents all over the country. Furthermore, one informant traced the landmark of state action for environmental sustainability in Ethiopia to the 1970s, as it emerged from the periods of famine affecting many parts of the country.

One can take the 1970s as a landmark, we had a very serious famine that ultimately led to the fall of the last emperor of the country. That famine was so severe, and a large number of people were affected, it affected many parts of the country. The ultimate conclusion was that the issue of environment was at the center of that famine, that catastrophe. Even if we had famines throughout our history, this one reached a culminating point and with that, the former Derg government started to take different measures to address environmental problems in Ethiopia. So, with that, the issue of environment was almost coming to the forefront. –

Informant from a NGO.

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Resilient Green Economy strategy was developed. The EPA, the Environmental Protection Authority, grew and became a ministry; the Ministry of Forest, Environment and Climate Change. (…) It is now a commission (…) but its mandate is still the same. So, they have the responsibility of ensuring that the Climate Resilient Green Economy strategy is implemented across all the sectors. So, as a state, there was a recognition that this needed to be addressed by technical teams, and by political appointees to represent Ethiopia with the outside world and also to see what we can do nationally to address these issues. So, one is, Ethiopia's hydroelectric power, in terms of clean energy, not only to access and serve domestically, but to export that as well. There has been a lot of national investments on that. As you can see there is a national electric rail which is using clean energy through hydroelectricity. (…) Another thing the state is doing is to attract financers and investments for environment projects. – Informant from an international

organization.

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the international community towards joint response. So, we are actually acting a lot at national, local and international level. (…) The Climate Resilient Green Economy guides us in all the national and developmental sectors. Our strategy have four pillars, one is agriculture; most of the economy is dependent on the agriculture. The second one is the forestry and the issues around forestry; we have to conserve forest and also plant and develop the forest sector so that we can have a good economic return and also have good eco-system service including carbon sinks. The third one is to expand renewable energy, not only for the national case but also for the regional market. Around 98 percent of Ethiopia is today dependent on hydroelectric power, windfarms and waste-energy. The fourth one is leap-frogging technology in industries and transport and also buildings, we have to focus on energy savings. –

Informant from an Ethiopian government commission.

In every government sector, especially in the CRGE sectors; agriculture, forestry, water, mining, transport, the carbon emissions are considered to be high. These are called the CRGE sectors. In all those sectors, the government have established institutions dealing with climate change and environment, for example when you talk to people at the Commission, there is a unit that deals with adaption, there is a unit that deals with mitigation. - Informant from

a NGO.

The extension service provided to the farmers is very good, compared to Ethiopian standards and similar countries. There is a component within that, regarding soil and water conservation, environmental protection and so on. The government is trying to provide farmers skilled training, knowledge, knowhow, all sorts of things regarding that. (…) In a recent meeting in the Ministry of Agriculture, with the directorate for extension services, they gave us a figure of 14 thousand training centers for farmers in Ethiopia, and 16 thousand development agents all over the country. –

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As a national initiative, every individual is responsible to plant at least 40 plants within the year (…) The current prime minister, Abiy Ahmed announced that the country should plant 4 billion trees per year, and since the Ethiopian population is about 100 million people, every individual is expected to plant 40 trees per year. (…) We have plants and seedlings available for every Ethiopian in order for them to plant trees. The action is simple, you only make a small hole and then plant a seedling in it. – Informant

from an Ethiopian government commission.

(…) the state is funding, especially on water shed management, many things are happening. – Informant from a foreign embassy.

The government has a plan with large scale policy implementation and protection management started in different periods of time besides activities happening here and there. – Informant from a

public university.

5.2.2 Field Observation on State of Ethiopia’s Response to Environmental Sustainability Challenges

State responses to environmentally sustainability challenges is noted. For instance, the state has been active in advertising programs which sought to elevate the environmental awareness levels and increase the participation of citizens in environmental actions in order to achieve one of their main targets of the CRGE strategy; to restore degraded lands by the means of reforestation. As an outcome, Ethiopia managed to break the single day world record for plantation with an estimated number of 350 million indigenous trees.

5.3 The Issue of Environmental Policy

Enforcement

What are the challenges with environmental policy enforcement in Ethiopia? The informants

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We may have good policies which states that we want to have a clear environment, we want to have a good country with little impact on the environment if possible. It is quite easy to put all of those issues on a paper. But then comes the challenge, can we really implement these policies? Even if we want, do we have proper institutional arrangements? (…) There are a lot of other issues one needs to address; education, health economic growth; you need foreign currency, you need to provide basic service to the citizens, these are very important matters. And to provide the basic services you need foreign currency, to get foreign currency one option is to attract foreign investors. (…) So, when you will look from the point of environment, there are a lot of things that makes sense, but when you look at the implementation side, it has a lot of challenges. (…) There are shortages of capacities, particularly in skilled capacity, when it comes to implement such policies. Particularly in monitoring impacts of different actors in environmental issues. – Informant from a NGO.

Now, there are some contradictions with our Climate Resilient Green Economy strategy, it is very ambitious but is it really realistic? Is this policy indigenous; that comes from our own problems, or is it something that comes from the outside and try to cover up so that it looks like it being local? – Informant from a

NGO.

In the policy formulations it is a top-down perspective and because of this the policy does not belong to the people, because they do not recognize the policy as their own. And therefore, the implementations have problems. – Informant from a public

university.

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they have not learnt from past activities, the past is very important (…) Because of this, they do not figure out the problems. (…) Now, the new government which is led by Prime Minister Abiy, is trying to build up the policies following each other rather than eliminating the previous one. – Informant from a public university.

The policy implementation stops just around when it reaches the region, from the federal to the region. They do not have the resources to penetrate and reach down to the society. – Informant

from a public university.

(…) the community participation, the people's participation is very minimal. – Informant from a public university.

5.3.2 Field Observation on Policy Enforcement

Doing my pre-research on Ethiopia, I found out that the country is one of the first in the world to ban plastic bags. However, while in Ethiopia, I quickly learnt the difference between creating a policy and indeed enforcing it; plastic bags were available in all the markets I went to and was seen frequently on the streets, with no particular constraints in using them.

5.4 The Issue of Insufficient Resources

Is the state of Ethiopia dealing with insufficient resources? The answers highlight Ethiopia’s

limitation of budget, technology, investments and skills. They also contemplate the underfunded environmental institutions, the inaccessible areas for provision of extension services and the widespread poverty which impedes an environmental allocation.

(…) there is a limitation with budget, skill, techniques in the environmental sector. – Informant from a foreign embassy.

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There is an issue of absence of skills because the best people goes to better payed jobs, so you always get the second best in the public sector. So, the resources and the institutions are not properly funded. – Informant from a NGO.

The government is trying its best in some areas to be honest, but we are not successful mainly because of the nexus between poverty and environment. That is the biggest challenge. Poverty is our biggest enemy, which consumes the environment. A good example I can tell you is from my own personal experience; I was working on a project in a remote area and we were trying to conserve natural forests. We were discussing with farmers, and one guy said, "we know that the forests are our lands and we do not like to cut the trees, but we are forced to do so". – Informant from a NGO.

In some cases, there are capacity issues but there are also resource issues as well. Agricultural extension service providers, do not have the capacity to go out to large geographic areas. They would need vehicles and motorbikes to access remote areas in terms of communities, but they are not able to do that. – Informant from an

international organization.

5.4.2 Field Observation on the Issue of Insufficient Resources

Being a country with insufficient economic resources, Ethiopia is very dependent on foreign aid and investments for environmental development. But when there is no external actor interested in investing nor aiding, the state turns inward to look for domestic actors willing to fund. Such is the case with the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam where many Ethiopians are contributing private funds for the construction of the hydroelectric powerplant.

5.5 The Issue of Economic Growth and

Environmental Sustainability in Ethiopia

Is it possible to achieve both economic growth and environmental sustainability? Although

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requires the expansion of agriculture. Many of the informants highlighted this contradiction and pointed out the interest for economic growth as more prioritized in state policymaking. One informant is nonetheless convinced that the Ethiopian approach for industrialization is suitable for less environmental degradation as state policies for economic growth incorporates the aspect of sustainability, including the social and the environmental parts.

There is a conundrum in Ethiopia; there is a huge growing population, we are now reaching 100-105 million. That is a huge population to feed, so there is a lot of investment that goes into agricultural productivity. Then, at the same time, there is a Climate Resilient Green Economy strategy that is embedded in our Growth and Transformation Plan that also looks at conservation, environmental management and sustainable use of natural resources within the country. Sometimes these clash, as a result of what you prioritize. (…) So, when decisions are made at a high level, the priority of agriculture takes over. – Informant from an

international organization.

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The government is moving towards a mechanization of the agricultural sector so that agricultural intensification will be a priority for the government. Instead of expanding the land, the government is planning to have a mechanized way through an agricultural intensification approach. – Informant from a foreign

embassy.

And... you know, it is not to repeat what has happened in the developed countries. For instance, if you look at the 1950s there was a great problem with the environment, their focus was to only grow the economy, and only economy… Pan-Asia for example, they later found out that their environment is highly deteriorating, effecting the water, the air. So, when they started to recognize this problem, they did things differently, for instance forestations and banning different things but still the problem is going on there. And in order to not repeat what they have done, it is good for us to be aware of the problems and to take measures ahead rather than involving the problems and then finding the solutions. And, you know, for the time being, we have adopted policies and we are trying to implement them, and I hope that this will be a good solution for our economic development, for the social benefits and as well as the environmental protection. – Informant from a public

university.

5.5.2 Field Observation on the Issue of Economic Growth and Environmental Sustainability in Ethiopia

Many Ethiopians I talked to are positive about the construction of an international hydroelectric railway from Ethiopia to Djibouti and the development of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam. The common argument is that these two cases demonstrates the state’s willingness to incorporate environmental sustainability into the industrialization process.

5.6 Issues of Political Institutions

Are there any issues in regard to the political institutions in Ethiopia? The answers produced

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dismiss state’s environmental policies and implement their own. Other issues brought up are; the weaker political institutions from regional level and down due to insufficient skilled capacity and funding, and the loose communication structures between state and regions. However, the regions are generally interested in implementing state policies when there is a sufficient gain involved.

Let us categorize at the federal level, regional level and the wider community level. At the federal level, yes, we do not have any problem, policy strategies are in place, awareness is okay, professionals have good information. But when it comes to the regional level, since it requires a lot of enforcements and funds, the awareness level at the regional level is a little bit lower. At the wider community level, I can say, very little awareness. –

Informant from a foreign embassy.

The problem is the institutional set up that we have. Federal level set policies and strategies, and implementing is for the regional governments. Unless otherwise regions are willing to do so, you cannot enforce them to do so accordingly. Regions are almost autonomous organs, so you cannot enforce them. And they have their own policies in place. So, the institutional set up that we have, horizontal and vertical is sometimes complicated and complex. (…) budget is limited at the grassroot level. – Informant from a

foreign embassy.

Due to regions being autonomous, the government needs to find ways to convince regions to promote sustainability. But unfortunately, the communication between state and the regions are loose. – Informant from an international organization.

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This was carried out across the country, but of course, as always there are exceptions. But in majority they planted. This shows that there is a linkage and that the decentralization is not such a big problem. – Informant from a public university.

5.6.2 Field Observation on Issues of Political Institutions

As noted above, one of the reasons for weaker political institutions from regional level and down is the issue of insufficient skilled capacity. In my stay in Addis Ababa, I noticed an increased migration flow into the capital. Incentivized by better life opportunities, the rural to urban migrants I met included skilled workers who are appealed by work opportunities in the capital rather than lower paid jobs in the regions.

5.7 State Dialogue and Cooperation with

Non-State Actors

How are the state dialogue and cooperation with non-state actors on environmental sustainability? Most informants described that the dialogue and cooperation are stimulated by

civil society groups presenting evidence and research on environmental issues and projects to the state. Such non-state actors are often funded by external donors, which enables them to obtain sufficient platforms for dialogue with the state. Non-state actors in Ethiopia are however fragmented and tends to work separately instead of joint and collective action, which leads to a weaker influence on policymakers. However, and rather on the contrary, one informant is convinced that there is an absence of participation of non-state actors in state policymaking.

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"okay, this civil society group have done this through the local community, here is how they participated, they made this difference, if we take this and scale out, it could work". Then of course there is a lot of push by individual donors who invests in civil society, invests in the World Bank, invests bilaterally with the Ethiopian government (…) so we are able to come to forums, to actually have a voice and say, "these are the issues that you need to listen to and be aware of". – Informant from an international

organization.

Locally, we have a number of NGOs (…) they also take part in implementing some of the policies. There are also some programs and projects, some of them even taking some closure areas, so they try to contribute. So non-state actors have their roles to play in other words. In terms of financing, in terms of advocacy, in terms of research and in terms of conservation, they have a part to play. There are initiatives, although they are not so strong. As a platform, in terms of coming together and creating impact, we need to move a long way to achieve that. So, there are fragmented approaches, there are some funds coming from different organizations. But instead of going piece by piece, it is better that they bring it together and then create some kind of impact. –

Informant from a public university.

(…) non-state actors are not able to participate in policymaking. This have been pointed out by different actors in different parts of the country. – Informant from a public university.

5.7.2 Field Observation on State Dialogue and Cooperation with Non-State Actors

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demonstrate an example, the NGOs I visited are all funded and supported by external donors and all of them enjoys a higher degree of dialogue with the Ethiopian state.

5.8 Issues Concerning State Subsidizing and

Penalizing Actors

Is the state capacitated to subsidize pro-environmental efforts and penalize non-compliant actors and behaviors? Most informants emphasize the state’s interest of attracting foreign

investors into the country as impediment on posing environmental regulations and penalizing non-compliant actors. Although policies are available and measures has been taken against some non-compliant industries, the state is generally weak in terms of these issues, not least in the forestry and agricultural sectors where illegal logging is an immense concern. Recent political reforms may, however, generate stronger mechanisms for enforcement of regulations and environmental subsidies.

I do not come across with specific incentives given to environment friendly initiatives. But we have very lucrative and interesting incentives for foreign investors coming into Ethiopia, probably that may have an adverse impact on the environment, which causes restricted capacity to impose limitations on investors and limited capacity to monitor. – Informant from a NGO.

The state is very weak in punishing non-compliant actors… in that context the government has got different strategies and policies in place, but the punishment level is very weak. – Informant from a

foreign embassy.

The Green State of Ethiopia

Department of Political Science