Business Administration D-level Master Thesis 15 credits, Spring 2011 2011-06-03
Socially Desirable Fast Moving Consumer Goods
A L ite r a tu r e R e v ie w o n H o w T o D e c r e a s e th e G a p Between Intention & Purchase Behavior Through Marketing
Authors:
Mikael Forsberg
Sara-Maria Löfvenberg Tutor:
Susanne Åberg
Abstract
Authors: Mikael Forsberg and Sara-Maria Löfvenberg Tutor: Susanne Åberg
Title: Socially Desirable Fast Moving Consumer Goods – A Literature Review on How To Decrease the Gap Between Intention & Purchase Behavior Through Marketing Keywords
Branding, Consumer Behavior, Consumer Value Creation, Decision-making, Differentiation, Eco, Ecological, Environmentally Conscious Behavior, Fast Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG), Green Consumer, Green Marketing, In-store marketing, Marketing, Organic, Purchase decision, Socially Desirable, Value Creation.
Background and Problem
Consumers today are more environmentally conscious than ever. However, it has been found that there is a gap between the consumer’s intention and actual purchase when it comes to products that there is a social pressure to buy for environmental reasons. The potential for the socially desirable segment is estimated to have potential, but growth seems to be slow. It has been stated that until now, there is not enough research done that take a holistic perspective including several fields of marketing. There is a need to review and combine existing literature in various fields of marketing to investigate how the gap can be decreased and sales increased.
Purpose
The purpose of this thesis is to review and combine existing literature in the fields of consumer value creation, decision-making and in-store marketing. By doing so the authors of this thesis aim to present a theoretical model on how producers of socially desirable FMCG can decrease the gap between the consumers’ intention and actual purchase through marketing. Decreasing the gap refers to more fully exploit the potential size of the segment and generate more sales.
Method
A completely theoretical method was chosen for this thesis. To the authors’ knowledge there has not been done enough specific research to match the purpose of this thesis. A literature review has therefore been conducted within three separate fields of marketing to get a broader understanding of how the gap between intention and actual purchase can be decreased. Based on the extensive literature review, the authors developed ten propositions that formed a model that can be used as the backbone for future theoretical and empirical research.
Final Discussion
Some highlights of the theoretical discussions earlier in this thesis are presented in the final discussion. The authors suggest that purchase decisions of socially desirable FMCG initially are high-involvement decisions that often are formed outside the in-store-setting. This suggests that more long-term marketing efforts such as brand building in some cases can be more important than in-store marketing when it comes to FMCG that are socially desirable. Symbolic values should be highlighted in branding of socially desirable FMCG because the instrumental differences between FMCG and socially desirable FMCG is limited. It is therefore likely that it is more efficient to focus on consumers’ self-identity to convince them to purchase socially desirable FMCG. It is also important that producers of socially desirable FMCG provide consumers with clear product information in-store and that the products are easy to find. Based on the extensive literature review, the authors have developed eight propositions that form the model presented in this chapter.
Definitions
To reduce the risk for misunderstanding of what the authors intend to describe, a short list of definitions of important terms may be followed below.
Fast Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG)
In this thesis, the term FMCG refers to retail goods that are consumed relatively quickly, many of them within a short time period of just a few days. Examples include non-durable goods such as soft drinks, toiletries, and grocery items such as meat, fruits or diary products. FMCGs are products that are characterized as being sold quickly and that have a short shelf life, either as a result of high consumer demand or because the product deteriorates rapidly. Generally, the profit per item is relatively small but since they sell in large quantities the cumulative profit can be large. In this thesis it is important to understand the term since the marketing implications might differ from more durable goods.
Socially Desirable FMCGs
Products that are characterized by a social pressure to purchase for environmental reasons are referred to as
“socially desirable FMCG”. The authors do not consider whether the production procedures are favorable for the environment or not. Instead, it is the consumers’ perceptions of which products that are friendly to the environment that counts. The expression “socially desirable” is taken from Öhman (2010). An issue for the reader is that existing literature which deals with the topic are using different expressions. In some literature, terms such as “organic” or environmental” are used. In this literature review, these terms will not be replaced by “socially desirable” when referring to an article that are using other terms. Only when the authors present their view, the term “socially desirable” will be used. However, the authors define the expressions “organic”, “environmental”, or any other similar words, as “socially desirable”.
The “Green” Consumer
The “green” consumer refers to the environmentally conscious consumer who is buying, willing to or says she will be buying socially desirable FMCG. This definition is used to determine what kind of benefits consumers seek when considering buying socially desirable FMCG.
TABLE OF CONTENT
Page1. .INTRODUCTION 05
1.1 Background 05
1.1.1 The Gap between the Intention of Being Environmentally Friendly 05 and Actual Behavior
1.1.2 Socially Desirable Products and the Market for Those – 06 High Potential, Slow Growth
1.1.3 What is the Problem? 07
1.2 Purpose 08
1.3 Delimitations 08
2. .METHOD 09
2.1 Choice of Method 09
2.2 Collection of Relevant Research Articles 10
2.3 Limitations and Criticism of Sources 11
2.4 Outline of the Study 13
3. .LITERATURE REVIEW 14
3.1 Creating Value For the ”Green” Consumer 14 3.1.1 Who is the “Green” consumer and what Benefits is She Seeking? 14 3.1.2 Branding and Differentiation Creates Value for the Consumer 17 3.1.3 Consumer Confusion over New Market Entrants 18 3.1.4 Discussion: Creating Value for the ”Green” Consumer 19
3.1.4.1 Propositions 23
3.2 Decision-making – Behavioral Aspects 23 3.2.1 Different perspectives when Studying Decision-Making 23 3.2.2 The Purchase Decision – Planned or Unplanned 24
3.2.3 High-Low Involvement in Decision-Making 25
3.2.4 Where the Decision-Making Takes Place 25
3.2.5 Discussion: Decision-Making 26
3.2.5.1 Propositions 28
3.3 In-store Marketing 28
3.3.1 Harsh Competition Calls for Improved In-Store Execution 28 3.3.2 Factors that Affect the Consumer’s Choice of Socially 28
Desirable FMCG In-Store
3.3.3 Increased Sales through Aisle Placement 30
3.3.4 Discussion: In-Store Marketing 30
3.3.4.1 Propositions 32
4. .FINAL DISCUSSION 33
4.1 Approaching a Model 33
4.2 Further Research Suggestions 35
.REFERENCES …
.APPENDIX 41
11. INTRODUCTION …………. .m ……
In this section, the reader will be introduced to the topic of this thesis and the gap between the intention of being environmentally friendly and actual behavior, socially desirable acts and the high potential but slow growth on the market of socially desirable products. Furthermore, the problem formulation and the purpose of this thesis will be presented.
1.1 Background
1.1.1 The Gap between the Intention of Being Environmentally Friendly and Actual Behavior A Google search for “climate changes” generates 134 million hits, which is somewhat less than a search for “Barack Obama” but much more than “terrorism” and “Madonna”. The concern about the environment has become a fundamental economic and political issue across the world during the last couple of decades (Peattie, 1992). More and more firms are working on different methods on to reduce their environmental impact. Some do it because they truly believe it is the right thing to do or because there are costs to save, while others do it because their customers demand it (Unga Aktiesparare). In the latter group many firms have developed a range of products that are appealing to consumers who think it is important to reduce their own share of negative environmental influence. A very high share, 91%, of the Swedish population is aware of the climate changes, and about half the population feel guilty when they are acting in a way which they believe will have a negative impact on the environment (Naturvårdsverket, 2008). At the same time, the consumption of goods and services that are known to be less environmentally friendly has not declined - it has increased. For example, gas-guzzling cars and airplanes are used like never before and the meat consumption per capita has increased (DN:a, 2010-12-15; SvD, 2010-11-30; DN:b, 2010-06-30).
Why is there a difference between intention and actual behavior? In SvD, (2010-11-30) researchers and psychologists discuss why it is so hard for the human being to change its behavior in relation to the environmental issues. Rees (2002-2003) also discusses whether humans really have the ability to plan long-term. The legend says that the population of Easter Island cut down the very last tree on the island, even though they knew that the trees were necessary for their survival. The trees were fuel for fire and wood for building boats so they could fish. When the last tree had fallen, it was just a matter of time until the whole population was extinct. Rees (2002-
2003) argues that there are limitations for expansion and growth, and that all populations keep expanding until they destroy a critical resource for its own survival. Through evolution, our brains have been developed to react on the most pressing physical threats (SvD, 2010-11-30). However, the climate threat is different. No warning signals will be activated in the brain as long as the threat does not immediately affect our local environment or us directly. The cost for acting in an environmentally friendly way today may be perceived as a sacrifice and a cost, while the yield not only is more diffuse, but also far ahead in the future. The human brain is rewarded when we perceive pleasure – a behavior that often is strongly related to not being environmentally friendly.
In the choice between having a walk to the office or going by car, the latter often seems like a better and more pleasant solution (Ibid; Öhman, 2010).
Öhman (2010) argues that there is a clear difference between intention and actual purchase. He also states that trying to measure intention in consumer surveys often is an unreliable variable.
There are three main reasons for why consumer intentions tend to be misleading regarding environmental consciousness. Firstly, the social pressure is strong; most people would like to see themselves and be seen by others as environmentally conscious. Secondly, no one controls if you actually follow your intentions and perform the action; in this case that you actually purchase environmentally friendly products. Thirdly, the cost of the behavior is often underestimated while the value is overestimated. This often occurs when the purchase takes place in the future, so-called time shift, while the intention is measured before the purchase takes place (Ibid).
1.1.2 Socially Desirable Products and the Market for Those – High Potential, Slow Growth Öhman (2010) also discusses that under normal circumstances it is hard to predict future consumer shopping behavior and purchases. It is even harder when adding other aspects, such as trying to predict socially desirable acts, which as already mentioned is overestimated when looking at the intention. Socially desirable acts in this case refer to purchases of products for which there are a social or external pressure to buy for environmental reasons. In this thesis, the focus will be on Fast Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) which fall under this definition. That is, the products that will be discussed from now on are by the authors considered as products where there is a social or external pressure to buy them. These products are most likely organically labeled in various ways, or they might be labeled in a way that indicates climate or environmentally friendly production procedures. The definition also applies to locally produced goods. The definition above is
important, since the authors of this thesis by no means intend to determine which production procedures are the most favorable for the environment. The consumers’ perception and definition of which products that are friendly to the external environment is what counts.
“It was initially thought that consumers would alter their attitudes in favor of purchases of
‘organic’ instead of ‘conventional’ food products. Nonetheless, consumer response has been very slow resulting in ‘sub-optimal’ market performance” (de Vlieger et al., 1993; Urban et al.'s, 1986 in Chryssochoidis, 2000 p. 707). More recent news suggest that things may have changed since these articles were written; Sweden’s largest grocery chain ICA, holding about 50 percent of the market, increased its sales of organic products by 50 percent during 2008 compared to 2007 and doubled its organic product range Although the total sales have increased, the organic products still only represent 2,2 percent of the total grocery products sold in Sweden in 2004 (Statistics Sweden, 2004). This is in line with ICA’s sales figures, where organic products generated SEK 2 billion in sales (Dagens handel, 2011-02-07) The total sales for ICA represented close to SEK 93 billion, which gives a share for organics of about 2,1 percent of total sales in 2010 (ICA AB Year- end Report, 2010). There is somewhat of a paradox here; the interest and the awareness for the environment is growing and the socially conscious segment is predicted to increase, but growth seems to be slow. It is also concluded that there is a discrepancy between how consumers say that they act and how they actually act when it comes to making environmentally conscious purchase decisions (Öhman, 2010). Hughner et al. (2007) states that organic products are one of the largest growth markets within the food industry.
1.1.3 What is the Problem?
There is potential to develop the socially desirable segment but the gap between intention and actual purchase provides a possible issue for producers of FMCG which are socially desirable purchases. It will therefore not only be hard to predict production volumes, but it also means that they reach a smaller group of consumers than the potential total size of the segment. Therefore, there is a need to study this area more closely and to integrate existing marketing theories with more specific studies on consumer behavior regarding FMCG which are socially desirable purchases. Hughner et al. (2007) state that future research is needed to understand the complex organic customer behavior in order to further improve sales in the segment. Öhman (2010) concludes that the gap between intent and purchase is especially large in a retailing context. It is
questionable if the consumer makes any extensive purchase decisions regarding FMCG before entering the retail outlet (Inman & Winter, 1998; Klabjan & Pei, 2011). Therefore, the producers of FMCG which are socially desirable purchases are most likely to have an opportunity to influence the consumer at the point of purchase to increase its sales. Because of this, the focus in this thesis will be on in-store marketing, although more general marketing and branding theories will be presented together with consumer behavior theories on decision-making. Until now, many researchers and authors have conducted research in for this thesis relevant, although separate, fields of marketing; customer value, decision-making and in-store marketing. Since each area of marketing alone will not help us find an answer of how the gap can be decreased the authors intend to present a literature review of the above-mentioned fields that could be used as the backbone of future empirical research.
1.2 Purpose
The purpose of this thesis is to review and combine existing literature in the fields of consumer value creation, decision-making and in-store marketing. By doing so the authors of this thesis aim to present a model on how producers of socially desirable FMCG can decrease the gap between the consumers’ intention and actual purchase through marketing. The term “decreasing the gap”
refers to more fully exploit the potential size of the segment and generate more sales.
1.3 Delimitations
It will not be possible within the scope of this thesis to cover all fields of marketing. As mentioned in the introduction and in the purpose, the channel of focus will be on in-store marketing in a retailing context. There are several aspects of marketing which are not covered, i.e. marketing communications and advertising through other channels such as TV, online or magazines. Since the idea of this thesis is to create a model built on existing theories the reader needs to consider that the model can by no means be considered as complete, both for the reason mentioned above and because the model is not based on empirical research carried out by the authors of this thesis.
12. METHOD…dd mmddddddddddddddddddddd…....
In this section, the authors will present how this paper has been compiled. At the outset, the reader will be guided though the choice of method, followed by how the collection of relevant articles were conducted. Thereafter, the design of this study will be described.
2.1 Choice of Method
The authors of this thesis aim to review and combine existing literature in the fields of consumer value creation, decision-making and in-store marketing. This refers to taking a more holistic perspective on how producers of FMCG which are socially desirable can increase sales and exploit more fully the segment through different fields of marketing. To be able to fulfill the purpose of this study, the different sub-fields of marketing presented above need to be reviewed and compiled together as one entity. According to the authors of this thesis, it is vital to review marketing fundamentals, differentiation and how value can be added to a product. Knowledge about the decision-making process from a consumer point-of-view is also important in order to understand how consumers think when they make a purchase decision. Moreover, knowledge based on the retailer side is also important to consider, such as how price decisions, aisle settings or display placements affect in-store sales. Separately, each of these areas can create a piece of a puzzle, but to make the puzzle more complete, that is fulfillment of the purpose of this thesis, there is a need to combine these pieces of the puzzle.
According to Cooper (1998), the literature review as a method can be pursued in various ways. It can be used for different purposes i.e. to criticize previous studies or to connect different theories from different fields of research. The reason for choosing a completely theoretical approach in this thesis is that there is, to the authors’ knowledge, no combined compilation of the different research areas described above. Therefore it is necessary to first put together the existing relevant studies in those fields before it would be possible to execute empirical research to test the propositions of this thesis. This is in accordance with Cooper (1998) who argues that a literature review is a study in itself and that it can be used as a starting point for separate empirical research.
The authors of this thesis aim to present a model in the end of this review that could facilitate empirical research on this topic. This could be a valuable contribution and a way to test if the
thesis, conducting both a literature review, presenting a model and then test it empirically would not be possible. The intention is therefore to present a model that can provide a structure for how the gap between intention and purchase for FMCG goods which are socially desirable purchases can be decreased according to a combination of existing theories.
2.2 Collection of Relevant Research Articles
An extensive literature review took place and the collection of relevant articles was conducted.
The starting point for this literature review was Considering Intentions by Öhman (2010), and from this dissertation the authors have researched relevant references and theories on a step-by- step basis. If a reference in Öhman (2010) was considered interesting, it was reviewed. Then, in turn, if references in that article were proven to be relevant, they were also reviewed. Some articles that were considered to be relevant for this purpose were chosen out of the authors’
previous records obtained through various course work at university.
A third step in the pursuit of finding relevant articles was performed through an electronic search in the reference database Business Source Premier. According to Cooper (1998), a comprehensive literature search should use secondary channels, especially reference and research registers as the backbone. These sources cast a very wide net and are close to keep approximately all research.
Therefore, using Business Source Premier is a legitimate action. However, it is also suggested that only focusing on published articles is not advisable. Also using informal sources is recommended, although it should only be a small share of the total articles reviewed, both because informal sources tend to be more recent and because those can be a complement to the more established sources (Cooper, 1998). Informal sources that were used in this thesis was Öhman (2010) (a doctoral thesis) and Holt (2003) (case material), which both were found through previous knowledge of the authors of this thesis. Keywords that were used, either individually or combined in the article search: Decision-making, Organic, In-store marketing, FMCG, Differentiation, Eco, Ecological, Purchase decision, Green Marketing, Branding and Consumer Behavior. Furthermore, relevant articles were also found through cited references in articles generated through the search on Business Source Premier.
The articles were then scanned through reading the abstract. If they seemed relevant for the purpose, they were stored for later reading. The criteria for being relevant was that the article
related to what the authors of this thesis defined as being socially desirable FMCG in combination with covering either customer value, decision-making or in-store marketing. However, in some instances this search of multiple keywords did not generate enough articles that combined these issues, which made the authors widen the search and allow theories covering only customer value, decision-making or in-store marketing to be reviewed. More refined theories on socially desirable FMCG used in combination with more conventional marketing theories also helped the authors define the possible difference that exist between marketing conventional and socially desirable FMCG. This also strengthened the authors’ hypothesis that this field has not been covered in a holistic perspective to the extent that is necessary to put together a combined model built on existing theories. Cooper (1998) determined that identifying a gap in existing research is an important aspect of doing a literature review because it helps suggest future research. Another relevance criteria for this thesis dealt with finding a mix of theories that both contradict each other and that support each other’s arguments. Since it was not possible to cover every article the authors’ decision to choose or not to choose certain articles added a subjective element to this thesis that cannot be eliminated. All reviewed articles have been compiled in Table 1, which can be found in the Appendix. Here, the authors have described each article reviewed, how it was found, a brief description of the content and the main conclusion. The reader is also provided with information about articles that were read but which were determined to be irrelevant for this thesis. The table was designed to give the reader an overview over articles covered, but also to demonstrate that the review was thoroughly done.
2.3 Limitations and Criticism of Sources
First of all the term mentioned in the introduction, FMCG that are socially desirable purchases, provided an opportunity for the authors of this thesis to really investigate a behavior that is probably no different if the product is locally produced or labeled organically with labels such as KRAV or the EU-symbol (KRAV; European Commission on Organic Farming). On the other hand, there is confusion about what kind of labeling means what, and in the scientific articles researched for in the purpose of this thesis, different terms occur, such as “green”, “organic” or
“environmentally friendly”. It would be preferable if there were consistent labeling in this area since it constitutes a problem for the consumers as well as it is a limitation for this thesis to some extent. The consumer issue of it will be further discussed in the theoretical part of this thesis.
Finding relevant articles for FMCG goods which are socially desirable purchases specifically has arisen as an issue. In some cases, theories covering other types of products than organic FMCG are reviewed. When the content still has been judged as relevant for the purpose of this thesis, those articles have been included but presented under a critical eye. Some articles that cover organic products and the development of a market for them can be viewed as old in the context of this thesis. The 90’s are considered to be the booming decade for green marketing, but it can still be that attitudes and trends have changed since. Some articles are even older and therefore the authors have been careful not to draw conclusions solely out of those articles which can be viewed as outdated. This reasoning is not valid for articles and studies considering branding and marketing in general, as older articles in those fields in many instances are well established.
Another limitation is that all relevant theories cannot possibly be reviewed or covered within the scope of this thesis. This also concerns the fields of marketing chosen for this thesis. For example, all aspects of marketing communication and media options to advertise such as TV, ads and so on are not covered. This affects the result, and the model cannot be considered as a mirror image of the full picture or reality for that matter. Since no empirical research has been conducted in this thesis, the conclusions are based completely on theoretical approaches. What affected the final results of this thesis were both the time frame (when the articles that have been reviewed in this thesis were written) and the personal touch of the authors’ experiences and beliefs. The field of green marketing is likely to continue to develop as well as the consumer behavior of today.
Therefore a similar review done in a few years from now would probably have a different content and different result than this thesis.
The authors have not chosen a specific geographic region for this literature review, but have tried to show awareness concerning regional differences in those cases where difficulties have occurred.
However, the authors make a calculated assumption that the consumer segment relevant for the studied products has a higher price point in general. Therefore it is likely that the tendencies and patterns that this study is based on are more transferrable within western countries with strong buying power than in poor countries where consumers are likely to be more price conscious. For example, in the introduction statistics about Sweden and the grocery chain ICA is presented. ICA is considered to be representative to draw conclusions from Sweden as sample, as the chain holds over 50 percent of the market and has retail outlets with different price concepts. The authors
consider Sweden as fairly representative for western countries. In this thesis, a basic assumption is that the producing firms of FMCG that are socially desirable are competitive and strive to maximize profit, which mean that they should have an interest in increasing the sales of this segment. We are aware that this may not be valid for all firms.
2.4 Outline of the Study
There are three chapters of theory. The first chapter covers established marketing theories describing how marketing can add value to the consumer by promoting differentiation, branding and segmentation. The second chapter contains theories about intentions and purchase behavior in the retail setting which provide a theoretical introduction to decision-making. To emphasize and question if the type of differentiation that FMCG that are socially desirable purchases offer the consumer really can be classified and treated as a more conventional unique selling point, both more conventional marketing theories and those that specifically concern socially desirable FMCG. The third chapter will cover the field of in-store marketing. This chapter provides necessary knowledge of actual in-store execution. This kind of structure is in line with what Hart (1998) suggests, thus there are several sections dealing with different concerns. This is to demonstrate that the main concepts and theories examined in the literature review are covered in this thesis (ibid). A discussion will follow after each chapter. Important propositions that conclude the discussion will be presented at the end of every chapter. Together, the propositions of the chapters form the framework for how to apply this knowledge in a model. The model is then suggested to be used in future empirical research.
13. LITERATURE REVIEW .
In this section, a literature review based on three different research areas will be presented. Thefirst chapter will focus on how to add value through marketing while the other two will focus on decision-making and in-store marketing. Each chapter will be followed by a discussion and propositions. Based on this, a model will be presented.
3.1 Creating Value for the “Green” Consumer
FMCG which are socially desirable purchases are linked to theories of differentiation and value adding through marketing. What is it with these products that make consumers buy them? What kind of benefits are the consumers seeking? In this part, theories covering marketing fundamentals, differentiation and value added through marketing will be covered.
3.1.1 Who is the “Green” Consumer and what Benefits is She Seeking?
Hartmann and Apaolaza Ibáñez (2006) mean that individuals who are expressing high environmental consciousness or concern in response to direct questions will not necessarily transform this into an environmentally responsible behavior. In a Portuguese study, the sampled consumers were aware of the existence of environmental problems, even though their concerns were not always translated into environmentally friendly behavior (Finisterra do Paço et al., 2009).
In Öhman (2010), the author discusses how intentions to purchase eco-friendly products often differ from regular products. The intention to purchase ecological products could be grouped into the same category as other intentions such as quitting smoking or spending more time at the gym – so called ”good intentions”. Öhman (2010) states that it has a desirable end-state even though the process of getting there could be described as undesirable. The undesirable in this case refers to the trouble, often in the form of a higher price, that consumers have to go through to reach the desired state.
Hartmann and Apaolaza Ibáñez (2006) acknowledge that one of the major issues in green marketing is to find a way to emphasize which individual benefits the consumer can obtain when choosing the green(er) option. Hartmann and Apaolaza Ibáñez (2006) suggest that these benefits can be emphasized by adding more and stronger emotional values to green brands. Belz and Dyllik (1996) say that the consumer in most cases will see the improvement or the result of their
environmentally friendly choices only when a majority of the population is taking the same actions. People often act out of a short-term personal goal. This might harm the collective in a long-term perspective. Sometimes this situation is called “the tragedy of the commons”, and has today become an accepted concept since the ecologist Garrett Hardin (1968) coined the expression. This concept expresses how the motivation for the individual to pay a higher price for green products decreases, as the reward or benefit of paying the higher price will happen in the future or not at all. This has been said to resemble the ”behavioral dilemma faced by prisoner’s, who may behave irresponsibly not as much on account of perceived benefits of good conduct, but because they note that fellow prisoners do not behave properly either” (Hartmann & Apaolaza Ibáñez, 2006, p. 676).
Finisterra do Paço et al. (2009), note that different segments of consumers look upon green products in very different ways. They also conclude that there are some consumers who are prepared to base their purchase decisions on the benefit of the product not harming the environment. The result of their study also showed that there is a segment of green consumers that is very different from other segments in some aspects. The consumers in the study which buy green products do so for very specific reasons, are between 25 and 34 years old or 45 and 54 years old and have the highest education level in the sample, work in intellectual, scientific or artistic middle and senior management and are specialists earning higher incomes. The individuals in this segment are positive towards all environmental aspects and have an environmentally friendly buying behavior (Finisterra do Paço et al., 2009). According to their study, this segment consists of 35 percent of the sample. Hughner et al. (2007) concluded that parents of young children are more likely to purchase organic grocery products. In general, young people tend to have a positive attitude to organic food but older people are the most likely purchasers (Hughner et al, 2007).
Other research has found that the probability to purchase organic products is higher among the college educated (Chandon et al., 2009), high income, older families and high-level occupation groups (Jolly, 1991; Ngobo, 2011). Magnusson et al. (2001) found that between 46 percent and 67 percent (depending on food category) of the consumers have positive attitudes towards organic food. Women had a more positive attitude than men. In spite of this, only between four and ten percent had intentions to actually buy organic food. The probability to purchase organic products is lowest among larger families (Ngobo, 2011).
In contrast to the authors above, Straughan and Roberts (1999) suggest that demographic factors are not a good way to solely segment the consumers in respect of green behavior. This is because demographics lack the explanatory power of the psychographic variables. They argue that the typical profile given for green consumers; young, mid- to high-income, educated and urban women is the result of an easy, but not very effective segmentation. The result of their study shows that psychographics need to be included to make an accurate discrimination between varying degrees of ecologically conscious consumers. An important conclusion of their study is that the consumer needs to be convinced that his or her pro-environmental actions will be effective in fighting environmental challenges. Therefore, marketing activities should focus on explaining to the consumer what kind of beneficial environmental outcomes that is linked to making this effort and buying this green product.
What kind of benefits is the consumer seeking when purchasing green products? This is important to understand to be able to market this type of product successfully. According to Hall (2008), consumers are likely to purchase organic food for numerous reasons, among others: the perceived effect of organics on the environment, taste, sustainability, status, lifestyle, animal welfare, worker safety, nutritional content, or reduced exposure to pesticides. The main reason for purchasing organic food is health, but taste and environmental concerns are also important for consumers (Hughner et al, 2007). Hall (2008) argues that this combines the findings of Katz (1960), Grubb and Grathwohl (1967) and Lievens and Highhouse (2003) that are related to the brand image.
Those findings linked instrumental attributes to the need to maximize benefits and minimize cost (Katz, 1960). Instrumental characteristics correspond to product-related attributes which describe the product in terms of objective, physical, and tangible attributes (Hall, 2008). Symbolic characteristics are described as the opposite; non-product related attributes which describe the product in terms of subjective and intangible attributes (Hall, 2008). Symbolic attributes are linked to self-identity, self-image, and self-expression (Grubb & Grathwohl, 1967; Lievens & Highhouse, 2003). Lievens and Highhouse (2003) determine that consumers buy products not only for the instrumental attributes but also for their symbolic meanings. When the instrumental attributes between brands are limited, the importance of the symbolic attributes increases. Similarly, differentiation on symbolic brand personality is often easier and more effective than differentiation on instrumental dimensions (Plummer, 2000).
3.1.2 Branding and Differentiation Creates Value for the Consumer
Branding is a way of creating value for the consumer. Imagining the value of the brand as the difference between what a consumer will pay for a branded product and a physically identical product without the brand culture (Holt, 2002). Measuring perceived value can be difficult.
(Kotler et al., 2005 p. 684-685). In value-based pricing, the firm sets its price according to customer perceptions of the value of the product. It is important that the firm finds out what value a customer assigns to different benefits and offers (ibid). The difference in value between the branded and the generic product is explained by various aspects, two of them being experiential value and symbolic value (Holt, 2002). The former refers to firms seeking to highlight benefits delivered by the product, which then guides the consumer when choosing products. The latter refers to brands acting as symbols that express values.
Holt (2002) argues that marketing strategies begin with the value proposition. That is, the various types and amounts of value that the firm wants consumers to receive from the market offering.
The value proposition can also be referred to as the positioning statement. Sometimes it is assumed that if a firm builds a better product, the consumers will also experience it as an improved product. However, marketing emphasizes that customer value is perceptual and not objective. Branding provides an opportunity for the firm to shape the customer’s perceptions;
thereby it also creates a window to influence the perceived value of the product.
Consumer goods of today are powerful markers to express identity, status, lifestyle and political view (Holt, 2002). Holt (2002) also encourages thinking about the brand as the culture of the product. Thus, a product acquires brand meaning and culture over time, as these meanings will be accepted as truths about the product. Furthermore, this suggests that a newly introduced product is devoid of meaning and therefore lacks a brand culture. This is also what makes branding a powerful tool – the culture, stories and associations that are linked to the brand become conventional, everyday truths that are continuously reinforced. This knowledge also explains why brands are durable.
According to Levitt (1980) there is no such thing as a commodity. Differentiation is most readily apparent in branded packaged consumer goods; in the design, operating character, or composition of industrial goods; or in the features or “service” intensity of intangible products. In short, the
the generic product is undifferentiated, the offered product makes the difference in attracting consumers and the delivered product in keeping them. However, differentiation is not limited to giving consumers what they expect. What the consumers expect can be augmented by things the customer didn’t think about herself before noticing the benefit when using the product.
"Consumers attract value to a product in proportion to its perceived ability to help solve their problems or meet their needs. All else is derivative" (Levitt, 1980 p. 3). “The ‘product’ is what the product does; it is the total package of benefits the customer receives when he buys" (Corey, 1975 p. 122).
However, not all consumers under all circumstances can be attracted by an ever-expanding bundle of differentiating value satisfaction. Some consumers may prefer lower prices to product augmentation. Chryssochoidis (2000) discusses what differentiates organic food from conventional food. The author argues that organic food may be a type of product possessing the characteristics of a high differentiation. Sashi and Stern (1995) mean that organically produced products can be regarded as differentiated products since the production method provides the products with characteristics that are different from conventional counterparts.
Furthermore, Holt (2002) argues that it is a common mistake to consider the brand as the “frosting on the cake”. In other words, the brand delivers value beyond the actual product. It would be more correct to refer to the brand as a frame through which the consumers value and experience the product. This way the brand enhances the consumer’s experience of the product and emphasizes existing value of the product, however this is always subjective. All together, branding can create a competitive advantage. An argument for this is that as consumers we seek to minimize and simplify our thinking that comes with making good choices. If we determine that a brand culture works for us, we are reluctant to seek out new alternatives (ibid).
3.1.3 Consumer Confusion over New Market Entrants
For a new product category, where consumers have little product experience, relationship and quality is of high importance (Holt, 2002). Consumers usually reduce their cognitive demands of processing new information by relying on previous learning (Fiske & Taylor, 1984). According to Carpenter and Nakamoto (1989; 1994) consumers are confused about which unique characteristics many late introduced differentiated products possess. This depends largely on human limitations related to how consumers are able to process information regarding products that enter the market
later than their competitors. Chryssochoidis (2000) means that organic food is an example of a late introduction compared to the established conventional food. The result of his study suggests that
”consumers' limited prior knowledge about possible differentiation between conventional and organic food may have made them insensitive to differences and unwilling to learn about these differences altogether” (Chryssochoidis, 2000 p. 707). Carpenter and Nakamoto (1994) mean that organic products possess characteristics different from conventional food and that this makes consumers compare newly introduced products to existing brands. According to Dens and De Pelsmacker (2010) newly introduced brands are less positively evaluated than brand extensions.
Therefore, a viable strategic option when introducing new products to the markets is to do it in the form of a brand extension (Dens & De Pelsmacker, 2010).
Because of the uncertainty and limited prior knowledge that some consumers experience regarding the differentiation between conventional and organic products, consumers become indifferent to these possible differences (Chryssochoidis, 2000). Consumers may in fact use conventional food as the baseline for comparison with organic food (Carpenter & Nakamoto, 1989; 1994). For a new category, where consumers have little product experience, relationship and quality is of high importance (Holt, 2002). The findings of Chryssochoidis (2000) support these arguments. It is likely that the respondents of the latter study were victims of self-invoked confusion regarding organic food. Peattie (1990) states that consumers think of organic food as something desirable, but due to various reasons, such as the products being new to the market and a heterogeneous and indistinct labeling, very few of them truly understand what the term ‘organic’ means.
3.1.4 Discussion: Creating Value for the “Green” Consumer
With the difference between intention and the actual purchasing behavior being the starting point, and with several authors noting that an environmentally conscious behavior (Hartmann &
Apaolaza Ibáñez, 2006; Finisterra do Paço et al., 2009; Öhman, 2010) is not the same as putting this to action, you can question what it is that consumers who actually are buying socially responsible FMCG products are seeking? Hartmann and Apaolaza Ibáñez (2006), Belz and Dyllik (1996) and Hardin (1968) highlight something very important and that is when the individual consumer considers purchasing a green product, the main added value in a product like that is that it doesn’t harm the environment to the same extent as a conventional product. But for the purchase to truly help the environment to any considerable extent, it demands that a majority of consumers
make the same types of decisions. If there are no other benefits attached to the products, benefits that the consumer perceives as superior over the conventional one, it is very likely that the consumer cannot comprehend what value he or she is paying for, as the benefit of being environmentally friendly does not add any value to the individual herself. Compare for example with paying a premium price for a high safety car. Here the buyer will receive higher safety – something that benefits the consumer on an individual level. As Hartmann and Apaolaza Ibáñez (2006) mentioned, it is therefore a major issue in marketing to determine what kind of benefits and values consumers attach to these green products. But there are obviously some consumers who still think that being altrustic give them enough value; “donating” the value they pay for to a greater good, as Finisterra do Paço et al. (2009) discuss. If the consumer is defined as someone who is information and knowledge seeking, consumer education and marketing for a specific product coupled with Corporate Social Responsibility actions could be measures to increase sales of socially desirable FMCG. For example, for every product sold we (the firm) plant a new tree in the rain forest. This would send a clear message to the consumer regarding what kind of environmental improvement the consumer is contributing to.
Obviously, consumers buy socially desirable FMCG today. It is important to determine who these consumers are, especially when the objective is to decrease the gap between intention and purchase, as this is likely to lead to higher sales. Therefore, if we know who the present consumer is, we also can define who the present consumer is not. Is it for example possible to target other segments through emphasizing or adding other benefits that add value to the individual consumer?
Except considering additional segments to target, the management of the existing target segment (that already includes the most environmentally conscious consumers) could also be improved.
The target segment should also be carefully analyzed, using both demographics and psychographics. If the findings of Finisterra do Paço et al. (2009), are transferrable to the rest of the western world’s population, this means that 35 percent of the population are presumptive consumers for organic products. At this moment this presumptive segment is not fully exploited because it has further market potential, also in relation to the numbers presented in the introduction of this thesis. Another important topic for management of firms producing socially desirable FMCG should be to consider which specific reasons there are to purchase socially desirable products – and there are several reasons (i.e. Hall, 2008). That lifestyle, emotional
fulfillment and societal status can be drivers behind intentions to purchase socially desirable FMCG, was explained in the introduction (Öhman, 2010) and later in the theory chapter above (Hall, 2008). Therefore it is very likely that consumers are attracted by the opportunity of confirming to themselves that they are “good” and moral persons that take responsibility. It may be even more likely that purchasing these kinds of products gives the consumer a feeling of improving its image towards other people, as buying these products is considered socially desirable by most people. In that sense, Katz (1960) is correct when referring to maximizing benefits and minimizing costs. For the consumers that primarily purchase for image reasons, this could very well be true. They pay a premium for the benefit of maintaining or building an image.
This is in line with what Grubb and Grathwohl (1967) and Lievens and Highhouse (2003) conclude: Consumers purchase products not only for instrumental reasons but also for symbolic, emotional reasons. Since there are few tangible differences between socially desirable products and conventional products (what truly differs is the production method, not taste or another
“sensory” experience), emphasizing the more symbolic attributes could be a solution in line with Lievens and Highhouse (2003) and Plummer (2000). Considering other aspects which have been presented in the chapter above, such as the consumer’s need to be convinced that buying the products will lead to environmental improvements, or at least not environmental degradation (Straughan & Roberts 1999), this definitely should have marketing implications. Raising awareness within the management of the firms producing socially desirable FMCG for these issues is necessary, and should help the firm in creating a viable marketing strategy.
When discussing how the producing firm can create value and thereby attract consumers, it is unavoidable to get into the subject of brands and differentiation. As Holt (2002) states, the brand’s value is defined as the difference in price between what the consumer would pay for an unbranded product and the branded version. In this case, finding out what the consumers are willing to pay for an intangible benefit such as perceiving oneself as being moral is important. It is likely that it is difficult for a firm producing socially desirable FMCG to determine how much the consumers are willing to pay since consumers tend to underestimate what they need to pay for a product like this and overestimating the value they assign to the product. Therefore, it is likely that those consumers would say that they are willing to pay a higher price than what they actually are. To circumvent this problem, again adding value through marketing could make the consumer more
increase the amount the consumer is willing to pay, without a tangible benefit being added to the product. Branding is also a way of answering to the symbolic sought benefits such as lifestyle and status markers. In a successful brand culture, these types of benefits are naturally developed; it might even be that a “fan club” among consumers is created for the brand. Incorporating the benefits that the consumers are seeking into this marketing strategy should be a successful recipe.
This should also be included in the value proposition. As mentioned by Holt (2002) it is the consumers’ subjective taste that determines whether a product is improved or not. Actual adding more nutritional content or better flavor does not necessarily mean that the consumers will think about the product as improved. Therefore strongly communicating the improvement after careful research of demanded benefits is recommended.
What truly separates conventional products from their organic counterparts is the production method (Chryssochoidis, 2000). This should be considered the most basic p-o-d (point of differentiation) of socially desirable purchases. It could also be more to it as the production method can bring more emotional values. Augmenting the product above the expectation of the consumer through branding and emphasizing other benefits could attract more consumers. The extra value that the consumer seeks; beyond contributing to the “the common good” can in some instances be a wish to augment one’s personal brand image, consciously or unconsciously.
Solving this problem for the consumer who feels guilty, will be like delivering a psychological
“guilt-free” service, buy me and you are a good person. If a firm producing FMCG that are socially desirable can manage to create and deliver benefits through marketing that are beyond what the consumer expects and through this create a differentiated brand, it is also likely that the firm will have sustainable success as brands are durable, and socially desirable brands are likely to be even more sustainable.
Some of the theories researched (Fiske & Taylor, 1984; Carpenter & Nakamoto, 1989;1994;
Chryssochidis, 2000) discuss if socially desirable FMCG can be considered new to the market. If they can, this is likely to have an influence on why there is an ambiguity and confusion regarding different labeling practices. Are socially desirable products really new to the markets? Considering that they still represent a very small share of all products sold and that conventional products have been on the market for longer, yes, they could be treated as a late entrant. According to the previously mentioned authors, consumers might find these organic products hard to define and
have a limited capacity and willingness to compare these products with conventional ones. This is definitely an issue that needs to be dealt with, from the producing firm’s perspective. A suggestion would be to focus on consumer education and to work with industry organizations to create a more clear-cut labeling system. Another solution would be to look into what Dens and De Pelsmacker (2010) discuss, and that is to use existing conventional brands and make socially desirable brand or product extensions, that can deliver the values of the conventional brand which will easier be for the consumer to process. For a firm producing socially desirable FMCG, this could be done through liaising with more established firms. Nonetheless, this should be done with care so that the authenticity of the values delivered of the socially desirable differentiation is not threatened.
3.1.4.1 Propositions
P1: Increased use of psychographics when defining target segments of socially desirable FMCG will lead to increased sales.
P2: Emphasizing symbolic values in branding of FMCG which are socially desirable will increase sales.
P3: Firms producing socially desirable FMCG that stress individual consumer benefits through marketing will increase sales.
3.2 Decision-Making – Behavioral Aspects
To be able to increase sales of socially desirable fast moving consumer goods, it is crucial to understand how consumers think. In this part, theories about consumers’ decision-making process from a behavioral perspective will be examined
.
3.2.1 Different Perspectives when Studying Decision-Making
Extensive research has been conducted within the field of decision-making in order to better understand consumer choice processing (e.g., Kollat & Willett, 1967; Olshavsky & Granbois, 1979; Hoyer, 1984; d'Astous et al, 1989; Ji & Wood, 2007; Shao et al, 2008; Irwin & Naylor, 2009; Nordfelt, 2009). Decision-making can be studied from two perspectives; either by studying inner motivational factors or by studying outer/environmental motivational factors. An example of the first mentioned perspective could be to observe how customer characteristics or other underlying drivers are affecting decision-making (Essoussi & Zahaf, 2008; Inman et al, 2009).
consumer spent considering buying each brand in the choice process, number of packages picked up (Hoyer, 1984; d'Astous et al, 1989) or in-store displays (Inman et al, 2009). In order to understand decision-making it is important to consider a range of various aspects, such as attention, memory, cognitive representation, conflict, learning and feedback (Einhorn & Hogart, 1981). A potential problem when studying decision-making is that underlying assumptions may affect the outcome of the research (Einhorn & Hogart, 1981). There is an individual cost-benefit analysis inherent in human decision-making. The consumer will behave in an environmentally friendly way if that behavior generates a sufficient benefit with regards to the higher price point that green products is likely to have (Hartmann & Apaolaza Ibáñez, 2006).
3.2.2 The Purchase Decision – Planned or Unplanned
A purchase decision can be either planned or have more of an impulse character. According to Stern (1962), in particular nine factors are influencing impulse buying: marginal need of product, mass distribution, mass advertising, self-service, short product life, low price, a good store display, small size or light weight. However, the author concludes that impulse buying in essence is irrational. Therefore, impulse buying is impossible to influence (ibid). Research conducted later points in the opposite direction (Olshavsky & Granbois, 1979; Inman et al, 2009; Nordfelt, 2009).
Inman et al (2009) found that in-store displays can have a high impact on unplanned purchases, especially for products that are purchased relatively often. Also, the likelihood of unplanned purchases increase with time spent in store, when stores accept check and credit cards but also when the consumers are familiar with the store (Inman et al, 2009). Heilman et al (2002) found that shoppers who received “surprise-coupons” (for example peel-off coupons) increased their level of unplanned purchasing. Consumers who planned to buy a product often purchased an increased quantity if it was a couponed item (Heilman et al, 2002).
According to the Stilley et al (2010), every customer has an in-store slack in their mental budget for making unplanned purchases. Stilley et al (2010) found that savings on planned items created a windfall effect that resulted in purchases of unplanned products increasing to a greater effect than the savings of the planned products. In general, the effect of in-store savings depends on if they appear before or after the customer's slack is depleted. If savings appear before the slack is depleted, it results in stockpiling shopping by high-income consumers. If savings occur after the slack is depleted, it will result in increased purchase of unplanned products (Stilley et al, 2010).
3.2.3 High-Low Involvement in Decision-Making
According to Mittal (1989), the degree of involvement in the purchase decision depends on the consumer’s interest and concern for the product. Mostly, consumers are interested in what they buy and want to make a good choice. However, the consumers might have either high or low involvement in the purchase, depending on the context (Mittal, 1989). Typically, inexpensive products are characterized by low involvement even though it might differ depending on if the product for example is intended to be a gift (Michaelidou and Dibb, 2008). In that case, it might be a high-involvement product, regardless of the price. In Mittal’s (1989) definition of involvement, four aspects are considered: 1) How much the consumer cares about the brand or type of the product to buy; 2) The perceived difference between the types and brands of the product; 3) How important it is to choose “the right” product and 4) How concerned the consumer is with the outcome of the choice (Mittal, 1989). Generally, FMCG are seen as low involvement products (Knox & Walker, 2001; Ozretic-Dozen, 2007). This is in line with a study by Hoyer (1984) who found that consumers which are purchasing FMCG are making an extremely quick decision.
Approximately 70 percent of the consumers in his observation study did not examine more than one package. The pre-purchasing evaluation was more or less non-existent. Consumers mostly did not compare brands, nor did they examine the shelf-tag (Hoyer, 1984). However, if product performance was important for the consumer, brand-loyalty increased. Normative users tended to pay more attention to packaging information than price.
3.2.4 Where the Decision-Making Takes Place
A study by Hoyer (1984) found that consumers are making many of their decisions outside the in- store situation. d'Astous et al. (1989) performed a follow up-study on Hoyer (1984) but it was conducted on products that were common but less frequently purchased. The authors concluded that in-store decision-making is more difficult when the product is more important and purchased less frequently. Affect, performance and normative reasons were more important and price less important than in Hoyer’s study (d’Astous et al, 1989). There is no consistent decision process across all choice contexts. However, the results from Hoyer’s study (1984) conflicts with other studies. According to Inman et al. (2009), 45 percent of all purchasing decisions are made in-store.
Two other studies found that approximately 60 percent of the purchasing decisions by consumers are made in the grocery store (Inman & Winter, 1998; Klabjan & Pei, 2011). A fourth study found
and Granbois (1979) found that consumers sometimes not make a decision neither in-store nor outside the store. Instead, their conclusion was that a decision process many times never exists, not even on the first purchase, since consumers may rely totally on the recommendation from a sales person. However, they also state that it might be an oversimplification to say that a pre- purchasing evaluation occurs or does not occur. It might also be a “hybrid”-decision; for example a combination of limited amount of research and a recommendation from a sales person.
3.2.5 Discussion: Decision-Making
According to Hartmann and Apaolaza Ibáñez (2006), consumers will behave in an environmentally friendly way if the benefit outperforms the cost. The question is, how is it possible to influence consumers to perceive that this is the case? From the consumer perspective, the benefit is easily measured in money but it is more difficult for the consumer to measure the positive effect on the environment. Most of us have intentions to be environmentally friendly but the process of getting there can be seen as un-desirable. As Öhman (2010) states, social pressure is an important factor for buying socially desirable FMCG. Marketers should use this knowledge in various ways; for example creating online communities or clubs for consumers shopping a certain amount of their socially desirable products. Translating what social pressure means to the consumer; the consumer wants social recognition and attention for shopping in a socially desirable way. That would give the consumer the benefit and the affirmation of doing the “right thing”. One way that the firm can deal with this is to concretize this benefit to the consumer by giving away marketing materials that clearly state that “the owner of this bag is a responsible consumer”. This would function both like a “treat” and an affirmation for the consumers that shop a certain amount of the firm’s socially desirable FMCG. Moreover, the product design of the package should clearly display that this is a socially desirable FMCG. This can also be done through labeling. This would make it easier to show other people that the consumer cares about the environment.
Previous research has found that shoppers which receive in-store coupons are more likely to increase their level of unplanned purchasing. Other research has shown that promotion campaigns do not work well for socially desirable FMCG since consumers expect these types of products to be more expensive. Therefore it is questionable if in-store surprise coupons for socially desirable FMCG would lead to an increased level of sales of these products.
Theories about high and low involvement in purchase situations show that FMCG could be related to the latter type of low involvement (Knox & Walker, 2001; Ozretic-Dozen, 2007). Purchase decisions of FMCG are typically performed quickly and in-store. (Hoyer, 1984). Existing research studies found that between 45 percent and 70 percent of all purchase decision of FMCG are made in-store. However, it is questionable if socially desirable FMCG follow traditional FMCG characteristics as low-involvement products. Is the purchase of a socially desirable item really a low-involvement decision that the consumer makes quickly or is it a decision taken outside the store setting that is based on long-term ideology and beliefs? Maybe the purchase of FMCG that are socially desirable initially could be seen as a high-involvement decision. However, gradually it moves from high-involvement toward becoming a low-involvement decision when it becomes more of a habit for the consumer to purchase socially desirable FMCG. If the purchase of FMCG that are socially desirable initially are more of a high-involvement product, it is likely that the consumer has planned the purchase to a higher extent than for traditional FMCG. Maybe the consumer hasn’t decided exactly which socially desirable FMCG to purchase but there is a higher chance that she has decided that the purchase should be socially desirable. If the decision is made outside the store, then the greatest chance of influencing the consumer is also outside the store. A high involvement consumer might have it in her “culture” to always or to a high extent buy socially desirable purchases, non-depending on price and in-store display. It could be part of this consumer’s beliefs and ideology. This suggests that more long-term marketing efforts such as brand building in some cases can be more important than in-store marketing when it comes to FMCG that are socially desirable.
Olshavsky and Granbois (1979) found that consumers sometimes make a “hybrid”- decision where a part of the purchase decision is based on a recommendation from a sales person.
Therefore, the authors of this paper argue that if the in-store staff is better educated in the production processes of FMCG that are socially desirable, sales of these products will increase.
The reasoning behind this is that if the socially desirable companies come to the stores to arrange educational clinics, the in-store staff will increase their understanding of the production processes.
Through an increased understanding, the staff to a higher extent will work as spokes persons for FMCG that are socially desirable and spread the word to their consumers. In turn, this will drive sales of socially desirable FMCG.
