0
Studies of energy efficiency and market access of
domestic charcoal stoves in Maputo City
Valdemiro Jamal Sultane
&
Graça do Rosário Massimbe
Master of Science Thesis
KTH School of Industrial Engineering and Management Energy Technology EGI-2018
SE-100 44 STOCKHOLM
1 Master of Science Thesis EGI:TRITA-ITM-EX 2018:484
Studies of energy efficiency and market access of domestic charcoal stoves in Maputo City
Valdemiro Jamal Sultane & Graça do Rosário Massimbe
Approved 2018-09-10
Examiner
Peter Hagström– KTH/ITM/EGI
Supervisor Peter Hagström
Commissioner
University Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo
Contact person at UEM Carlos Lucas,
Geraldo Nhumaio,
2 Abstract
In Mozambique, almost 80% of the population uses firewood for their energy needs, however this use is not exclusive only to rural areas, observing the same in urban areas who not only use the wood and also charcoal stoves.
Because of this situation, there is a huge devastation of the forest, which has caused the depletion of flora, thus missing native species without its due spare.
In Maputo, most households, the use of fire wood was replaced by charcoal because of high energetic intensity and also transportation and storing promptness. In 2011, three millions of sacs of charcoal have been in consumption, managing a market of $70 million in 2010 and 2012, the price rise a lot from 250 to 650 Meticais (200% more).
In this context came the need, to evaluate the energy efficiency of charcoal stoves and their respective access by the population in Maputo in order to contribute to the reduction of excessive consumption of biomass. For it was made evaluation of energetic efficiency in ten stoves most used in the city of Maputo, We tested the quality of charcoal and found to demand access to its coal.
The results showed that the charcoal tested is not the good quality because the values are outside the acceptable levels According to the literature. Energy efficiency evaluation noted that the most efficient stoves have been improved in spite of the water boiling test of the traditional stoves have been boil faster.
There was also, that consumers prefer to buy products from day to day in establishments near to their residence and do not spend more money than 100.00 MTn (2 USD) every time moving to sales points.
Keywords: Energy Efficiency, domestic charcoal stoves, Thermal power, Biomass.
3 Sammanfattning
I Mocambique använder nästan 80% av befolkningen ved för sina energibehov, men denna användning är inte exklusiv bara för landsbygdsområden, där man observerar samma i stadsområden som inte bara använder veden utan även koksugnar.
På grund av den här situationen orsakas en enorm förödelse av skogen, vilket har orsakat utarmning av flora och inhemska arters fortplantning påverkas negativt.
I de flesta hushåll i Maputo ersattes användningen av ved med träkol på grund av hög energiintensitet och snabbare transport och lagring. Under 2011 har tre miljoner säckar träkol konsumerats, vilket motsvarar en marknad på 70 miljoner dollar 2010 och 2012.
Priset steg från 250 till 650 Meticais (mer än 200%) under denna period.
I det här sammanhanget uppstod behovet att utvärdera energieffektiviteten hos ugnar för träkol och tillgången av sådana ugnar i Maputo för att bidra till minskningen av överdriven konsumtion av biomassa. För det gjordes utvärdering av energeffektiviteten i tio ugnar som mest används i staden Maputo. Kvaliteten på träkol testades och tillgången på träkol utvärderades.
Resultaten visade att träkolet inte är av god kvalitet eftersom värdena ligger utanför acceptabla nivåer enligt litteraturen. Energieffektivitetsutvärderingen noterade att de mest effektiva ugnarna har förbättrats. Testen av de traditionella ugnarna visade att kokningstiden för vatten har kortats ner..
Det visade sig också att konsumenter föredrar att köpa produkter från dag till dag i företag nära deras hemvist, och de spenderar inte mer än 100,00 MTn (2 USD) varje gång de flyttar till försäljningsställen.
Nyckelord: Energieffektivitet, hushållskolugnar, Värmekraft, Biomassa.
4
Acknowledgments
Our sincere thanks go to:
The supervisor Dr.Peter Hagström, by the humility, love and dedication for having received our thesis in a professional manner.
To Dr Nhumaio for facilitating the course and to Dr Carlos Lucas and Prof. Andrew Martin for the coordination and organization of the course;
The Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) in Sweden, and all the teachers who participated in our formation;
To our families who tirelessly and in many ways supported us during the formation.
5 Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction ... 12
1.1 Justification ... 13
1.2 Objectives ... 14
1.2.1 General Objective ... 14
1.2.2 Specific Objectives ... 15
2.0 Methods and Materials ... 15
2.1 Fuels tested ... 15
2.1.1 Provenance of the charcoal ... 15
2.1.2 Used Material ... 15
2.1.3 Sample preparation ... 16
2.1.4 Material preparation ... 16
2.1.5 Procedure during the experiments ... 16
2.2 Charcoal Thermal Characteristics ... 17
2.2.1 Proximate Analysis ... 17
2.2.2 Absolute humidity ... 17
2.2.3 Volatile matter ... 17
2.2.4 Ash content ... 18
2.2.5 Fixed carbon ... 19
2.2.6 Ultimate analysis of charcoal ... 19
2.2.7 Determination of biomass higher heating values ... 19
2.3 Performance analysis of domestic charcoal stoves ... 20
2.3.1 Materials ... 20
2.3.2 Stoves testing ... 20
2.3.3 The water boiling tests protocol ... 20
2.4 Tested stove description ... 21
2.4.1 Wroket works ... 21
2.4.2 Envirofit ... 22
2.4.3 Mbaula ... 22
2.4.4 Zavala/Metal ... 23
2.4.5 Zavala/Barro ... 23
2.5.6 Sucata ... 24
6
2.5.7 Chapa de Zinco ... 24
2.5.8 Botija de Gás ... 25
2.5.9 Beira Stove: ... 25
3.0 Geographical situation of Maputo City ... 26
3.1 General characteristics of Maputo City inhabitants ... 26
3.3. Etnographic Contributions ... 30
3.5 Energy Situation in Mozambique ... 31
3.6 Priority planned project in Mozambique ... 33
3.7 Mozambique’s forest Potencial ... 34
3.7.1 Deforestation to attend the energetic need at household local level 35 3.8 Biomass as an alternative source of energy ... 36
3.8.1 Biomass Energy in Mozambique ... 36
3.9 Wood-coal ... 37
3.9.1 Concept on fuel ... 38
3.9.2 Traditional charcoal production ... 38
3.9.3 Wood-coal business ... 39
3.9.4 Demand for charcoal in Maputo City ... 41
3.10 Charcoal stoves well succeeded in Maputo ... 41
3.11 Gas and Ethanol as alternative sources with respect to wood fire and charcoal 42 3.12 Social environment aspects due to the use of traditional stoves ... 42
3.12.1 Inner air pollution ... 42
3.13 Energy effectiveness ... 44
4.0 Results and discussion ... 44
4.1 Households ... 44
4.1.1 Age of the target audience ... 45
4.1.2 Famele leadership households ... 46
4.1.3 Income ... 46
4.1.4 Purchase Period ... 47
4.1.5 Factors that influence the making purchasing decision by Audience ... 48
4.1.6 Propensity to purchase (Behavior) ... 48
4.2 Fuel evaluation quality ... 49
4.2.1 Proximate and Ultimate Analysis of charcoal Stoves ... 49
7
4.2.2 Charcoal Properties ... 50
4.3 Water Boiling Tests Results ... 51
4.3.1 Four techniques to boil water faster: ... 51
4.3.2 Time to boil ... 52
4.3.3 Time to boil ranking ... 52
4.3.4 Thermal Efficiency ... 52
4.3.5 Specific fuel consumption and thermal efficiency ... 54
4.4 Fire Power ... 55
4.5 Firepower and turn-down ratio of Stoves ... 56
5.0-Conclusions ... 59
6. Recommendations ... 60
References ... 61
Annexes ... 64
8 Acronyms
ha - Hectares
MC- Moisture Content VM- Volatile matter FC- Fixed Carbon TJ-Terra joule
PCI – Inferior Calorific Power
% - percentage ºC – Degrees Celsius h - Height
ɸ - Diameter
CO – Carbon monoxide MP – Particulate Matter
9 List of figures
Figure 2. 1: Wroket works Stoves Figure 2. 2: Envirofit Stove
Figure 2. 3: Mbaula Stove Figure 2. 4: Zavala/metal Stove Figure 2. 5: zavala/barro Stove Figure 2. 6: Sucata Stove
Figure 2. 7: Chapa de Zinco Stove Figure 2. 8: Botija de Gás Stove Figure 2. 9: Beira Stove
Figure 2. 10: Barro Stove Figure 3. 1: Maputo City map
Figure 3. 2: Forest cover map of Mozambique Figure 3. 3: Institutional wood stove
Figure 3. 4: Metal wood stove
Figure 3. 5: charcoal bagged point of sale
Figure 3. 6: Form such as charcoal is presented in resale posts Figure 4. 1: Age of the target audience
Figure 4. 2: Percentage graph of female heads of households Figure 4. 3: Monthly income of households
Figure 4. 4: shopping Period
Figure 4. 5: Critical points of purchase decision-making by Audience Figure 4. 6: Main charcoal properties
Figure 4.7: Time to boil for could and hot start Figure 4. 8: Time to boil ranking
Figure 4. 9: Thermal efficiency for could and hot start Figure 4. 10: Thermal efficiency
Figure 4. 11: Specific fuel consumption and thermal efficiency Figure 4. 12: Average burning rates of different stoves type g/min Figure 4. 13: Fire power (Kw)
Figure 4. 14: Firepower and turn-down ratio of stoves Figure 4. 15: Indicator performance
10 List of tables
Table 3.1: Distribution of the Maputo population according to the urban areas, suburban and peri-urban
Table 3.2: Distribution of households by Urban districts
Table 3.3: Mozambique policy ll of gender, class and space in Maputo, Mozambique Table 3.4: Relation of fuel used in the city Maputo
Table 3.5: Household Use for Lighting Table 3.6: Household Use for Cooking Table 3.7: Energy resources
Table 3.8: Planned power projects in Mozambique Table 4.1: Socio-economic indicators of Maputo Districts Table: 4.2 price Stoves
Table 4.3: Proximate and Ultimate Analysis of charcoal Stoves Table 4.4: Characteristic of wood for making good charcoal Table 4.5: Carbon percentage in charcoal
Table 4.6: Chemical composition for a good charcoal Table 4.7: Indicator performance
11 Abbreviations / Nomenclature
ADENE- Energy Agency AF- Family household
AFCH - Household leadership by man AFCM - Household leadership by woman
AFREA - Africa Renewable Energy and Access program AGP- Comprehensive Peace Agreement
ARIs - Acute respiratory infection BOP- Guiding Base of the Pyramid
CMCM- Municipal Council of Maputo City EE- Energy Efficiency
FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FEC’s- Efficient stoves charcoal
FUNAE- National Fund for energy GHG- Green Houses gases
GIZ- German Society for International Cooperation IAP- Indoor air Pollution
ICS- Improved charcoal Stoves INE- Statistics National Institute MINAG - Ministry of Agriculture
NGO-Non Governmental Organization RGPH - Census of Population and Housing SNV- Netherlands Development Organisation UE – Useful Energy
WHO-World Health Organization NTFPs- Non-timber forest products
12 1.0 Introduction
In the world, about two third of the population (approximately three billions of people) from developing countries depend much on the biomass fuel (residue of wood, rattan, poles and fibre of residues) for domestic use [1]. Undertaken studies throughout the world demonstrate that there is a higher level of air pollution as a result of biomass fuel use [2], arising afterward a concern on its effects upon living being, in particular women and children health status.
Among the health problems from inner air pollution is stated to be acute respiratory infection (IRAB). In Mozambique, 8% of the country population benefit from electricity access, this means 80% of the population use fire wood and charcoal for cooking and heating their residential assets. Apart from energetic use of wood, people use the precious and nonprecious wood for their livelihood, for example, construction of houses and crafts end. Every year, 220.000 hectars (ha) of forest disappear, corresponding to 600 ground pitch per day. This problem is much worse in the provinces of Maputo, Zambézia and Nampula, as a consequence of higher population density than in other provinces.
Not long ago, studies indicated that the higher dependence of Mozambican on the forest resources and regarding to the lower growth rate of tropical forests can fall at limier level or disappear at the near future if there are no substantive measures undertaken in order sort the prevailing problem with regard to global environment security. However, the Mozambican government aiming to ensure the mitigation of high pressure upon the forests resources is promoting forestry plantations of rapid growth exotic species since in the middle of 2005 [3].
In Southern Africa Region, more than 90% of households depend on woody material, including fire wood and charcoal for their energy consumption need [4]. The main reason for this, in energy framework, is that the households have no capacity to access to other fuel sources as gas and fossil fuel mostly supplied in the urban areas. However, it is questionable the sustainability of the higher dependence on the resource for the livelihood of the majority, and reasonably the country should follow the procedure of the
13 most African countries engaged in new and other renewable resources of energy, for example, solar and wind energies.
It should be recognised that in urban areas the access for energy sources is compared to a ladder of many steps where the lower side you have fire wood, and on the upper side you have kerosene, charcoal, gas and electricity. Then, the ease stepping on the ladder depends on household’s income [5]. And because of this, the rate of charcoal consumptions is lower in the urban areas than it does in rural and outskirt areas. On the hand, the rural areas are wealth in fresh and dry trees and shrubs useful for fire wood, and because of this, charcoal is much less used in rural areas than urban and suburban do, since the charcoal is light and produces no smoke [6].
The woody fuel, sawed wood and material for traditional construction, represent the mostly demanded forest products in the country. The source states that in 2007, over 80% of forest products were explored for fire wood and charcoal [7]. The estimated balance between supply and demand of woody fuel and a standard/ scenario of sustainable production of wood-coal and fire wood should contribute to the mitigation of forest clearance in response to fire wood and charcoal natural forest exploration and also supply the essential need of domestic energy of the most vulnerable households in Mozambique urban centres.
1.1 Justification
In Mozambique, biomass is the main energy source used about 80% of the population.
Taking into account energy losses resulting from coal, wood conversion and charcoal contributes about 11% of final consumption, reason why one should take into account the improvement of stoves in order to reduce the level of losses during use [8].
The carried out study by MINAG for the urban and suburban areas of the Maputo city presented in the annual report[7], shows that the consumption of charcoal in the last 20 years has been increasing significantly, reaching about 3 million sacks of charcoal, equivalent to 70 million USD (US Dollars).
14 In Mozambique, the production of charcoal is an important activity for energy and income generating for many households, and the production process is described as there is no forests management techniques. This scenario threatens the sustainability of the forests resources at medium and long run [9].
Environmentally, charcoal fuel is acceptable due to its renewable source. Meanwhile, factors, namely poverty, population growth, demand for energy, market charcoal price, and lack of human resources to carry out civic education on environment problems from unsustainable use of natural resources, stands to be highly contributing to increasingly ungovernable exploration of forests resources [10].
The lower output or efficiency of the applied stoves by the population contributes effectively for excessive use of charcoal and fire wood, in this wise, the study of energetic effectiveness (EE) and energetic effectiveness management are key aspects to be taken account for setting viable strategies in order to minimise the scenario o the ground.
So as the production of charcoal from energetic forest stands of rapid growth species with minimum environment impact and also for protection and conservation of natural forests, the use of improved stoves of energetic effectiveness should be of great concern and viable for facing the worse scenario [11].
Strategies to alleviate the perceived firewood problem generally advocate increases in the supply of firewood and reduction in its demand, because traditional stoves are widely perceived as being inefficient.
The aim of this study is to assess the efficiency of the charcoal stoves improvement and traditional most used in Maputo City for mitigate the environmental impacts.
1.2 Objectives
1.2.1 General Objective
The objective of this study is to evaluate the energy efficiency of charcoal stoves and their respective access by the population in Maputo.
15 1.2.2 Specific Objectives
Assess the calorific properties of charcoal,
To evaluate thermal performance parameter of charcoal stoves through testing and recommending;
To study the behaviour of the population access to the charcoal stoves.
2.0 Methods and Materials
The methodology definition was based on relevant material consultations and manuals on the area, following the steps below:
1. Identify the target audience consumption habits:
• consumed products;
• purchase frequency;
• purchase volume.
2. Identify some charcoal stoves on the market.
3. Identify variables that motivate purchase:
• Products (variety, quality, availability);
• Prices (prices,);
• Location (work or live near the site / property sale);
4. Service (speed, quality, uniformity);
5. Identify the technology of tests and test stoves based on the protocol of testing stoves;
2.1 Fuels tested
2.1.1 Provenance of the charcoal
The used fuel was charcoal. The used coal is from the Magude district Gaza Province, resulting from native species ( Acácia nilotica, Colophorspermum mopane e Combretum imberbe)
2.1.2 Used Material
Material tools applied for conducting the trial:
• Spatulas
• Glassed flask
16
• Large sieve
• Muffle
• Digital analytic scale (correctness: ±0,001g)
• Three (3) plates of Petri
• Pestle
• Exsiccate
• Stove
• crucible (3)
• Plastic bucket
2.1.3 Sample preparation
The quality of a solid fuel and classified on the basis of 3 main parameters: moisture, volatile matter, and ash results.
Introduced into a mortar the pieces of sample, triturated until a particle size of 0.250 mm that recommended for execution of these tests.
2.1.3.1 Samples preparation
The sample of charcoal was grinded till 60 mesh, (aperture of 0,250mm) achieved at a desired granulometry and then kept in labelled glass flask.
2.1.4 Material preparation
Three plates of Petri, and equal number of crucible, following correctly the procedure of material wash, were place on a greenhouse at 105 oC for half an hour in order to get vapour the moisture content. Then, the plates were taken on to exsiccate for cooling effect.
2.1.5 Procedure during the experiments
The trial undertaken in laboratory comprised on the use of samples in different apparatus and the operational conditions as well, in order to get the moisture contents of volatile and ashes matter.
17 2.2 Charcoal Thermal Characteristics
2.2.1 Proximate Analysis
Proximate analysis of charcoal for determination of moisture content (MC), volatile matter (VM), ash content (Ash), calorific value and fixed carbon (FC) was carried out.
Calorific value of the raw material was determined using both the standard procedure proximate analysis and derived formulae [12].
2.2.2 Absolute humidity
Water content or moisture content is the quantity of water contained in a material, such as soil (called soil moisture), rock, ceramics, fruit, or wood.
2.2.2.1 Absolute humidity determination
Weighed and labelled three (3) Petri dishes previously oven dried. Introduced 5g of granulated sample initially for each plate and then kept in a desiccator. After that during 3 hours at a constant temperature (105oC) the plates were placed in the incubator where retired and was cooled to read them, which culminated whit calculation of the moisture content according to the equation below:
(eq. 2.1) Where:
MC (% wt.) = Percentage of moisture in the sample by weight, of the dry sample, W0 = Weight of wet sample before heating (grams), and
W1 = Weight of dry sample after heating (grams).
2.2.3 Volatile matter
Volatile matter is all substance which in established conditions has a tendency to vaporize.
The pressure vapour is the parameter that determines how volatile the substance is.
% 100 )
(%
0 1
0
W W wt W
MC
18 The volatiles are the substances being present in the sample that evaporates at high temperatures, in this case at 600 ° C to 900 ° C.
2.2.3.1 Volatile matter determination
Identified and weighed 3 crucibles previously dried and cooled with a portion of the sample from the oven (approximately 1g). After weighing led to muffle at 600 ° C for 6 minutes, retired from the oven and weighed again after cooling.
Data collected before and after the muffle is made the calculation of volatile material according to the following formula:
% 100 )
(%
0 2
1
W W wt W
VM (eq. 2.2) Where:
W0 -weight of sample before heating (grams);
W1- weight of sample after heating at 105ºC (grams);
W2- weight of sample after heating at 900ºC (grams)
2.2.4 Ash content
The ash content of charcoal is an important parameter that determines the charcoal quality. The ash is defined as the coal inutile part (un burnt).
2.2.4.1 Ash content determination
Previous experience of retired and made the sample to weigh.
It took the sample muffle at a temperature of 600 ° C for 6 hours.
After this time withdrew from the oven and proceeded to weighing again after a cooling of approximately 45 minutes in the desiccator.
% 100 )
(%
0 3
2
W W wt W
Ash (eq. 2.3)
Where:
W0 - weight of sample before heating,
W2 - weight of sample after heating at 950 ºC, W3 - weight of sample after heating at 600 ºC
19 2.2.5 Fixed carbon
Fixed carbon is a calculated value of the difference between 100 and the sum of the moisture, ash, and volatile matter where all values are on the same moisture reference base.
FC (% wt) = 100 - MC - VM – Ash ………..(eq. 2.4) Where:
MC-moisture Content (%) VM-Volatile matter (%) Ash-ash content (%)
Fixed Carbon = 100% - % (moisture) -% (ash) - % (volatile matter)
2.2.6 Ultimate analysis of charcoal 2.2.6.1 Elemental Composition
According to the form of elemental analysis, the elemental compositions of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are determined with the equations below. [12] .
C = 0.97 FC + 0.7 (VM – 0.1 Ash) – MC (0.6 – 0.01 MC), % ...(eq. 2.5) H = 0.036 FC + 0.086 (VM – 0.1 Ash) – 0.0035MC2 (1 – 0.02 MC), % ... (eq. 2.6) N2 = 2.10 – 0.020 VM, % ...(eq. 2.7) O2 = 100 – (C + H + N + Ash), % ……….………...……….…… (eq. 2.8)
2.2.7 Determination of biomass higher heating values
To determine the higher heating values (HHV) of the sample, the following expression was used:
g p
m HHV TC
……….……….. (eq. 2.9)
Where: ∆T =change in temperature, Cp = heat capacity
mg = mass of sample
20 2.3 Performance analysis of domestic charcoal stoves
The tests performed comprise the determination of local water boiling point, the moisture content evaluation the Water Boiling Tests (WBT)
2.3.1 Materials
• Digital thermometer, with a 51 KJ thermocouples, Accuracy: 0.1o C and the Range: - 20 to 5000C;
• Scale: HF-300G, range: 0 to 310 g, accuracy: 0.01 g (used to weigh the charcoal for moisture content;
• Scale (ADAM), accuracy: 5 g, Range: 0 to 15000 g (used to measure the pots, water and stoves);
• Charcoal stoves;
• Incubator series 2000;
• Timer;
• Water;
• Charcoal;
• Pots;
• Metal tray;
• Heat resistant pads;
• Spatula;
• Photo grey glasses;
• Wood fixture for holding thermocouple probe in water
2.3.2 Stoves testing
2.3.3 The water boiling tests protocol
The water boiling test (WBT) is a laboratory test (controlled environment) that allows evaluating the performance of the stove and its quality. This test allows also repeating the process when it is necessary and creating the criteria to difference between stoves types. According to shell foundation house hold energy project WBT version 3.0, the test was carried out following the three phases below:
• In the first phase, cold-start (high-power): using a stove and pot cold
21
• In the second phase, hot-start (high-power): the test followed immediately after the first test while stove was still hot replace the water with a new pot.
• In the third phase, simmering (low power): follows immediately from the hot start, in this phase the boiled water is maintained at a simmer for 45 min.
The parameters that were analysed describe the behaviour of stoves in different stages thereby translating its power and efficiency to these levels on the basis of the following categories:
• Time to boil–the time that water contained in the container leads to a boil (up to 100)
• Burning rate
• Specific fuel consumption
• Firepower
• Turn down ratio (ratio of the stove’s high power output to its low power)
• Thermal efficiency
2.4 Tested stove description
Ten charcoal stoves were tested where 5 are traditional and other 5 are improved charcoal stoves, namely (Rocket Works, Envirofit, Mbaula, Zavala/Metal, Zavala/Barro, Sucata, chapa de zinco, botija de Gás, Beira, Barro).
2.4.1 Wroket works
Rocket Works is a type of circler stove made of metal, with airing condition in it. This can use fire woody on its lower part and charcoal on its upper part. It has a bigger combustion chamber allowing achievement of full combustion and for security end, it provides an insulator grill which separates the metallic part of the stove that in activity achieves much higher temperature.
Figure 2. 1: Wroket works Stove
h Outer height =24,0 cm ɸ Outer diameter = 24,5 cm h Inner height =17,5 cm ɸ Inner diameter= 12,5 cm
With an average capacity of 821g of fuel
22 2.4.2 Envirofit
Envirofit is a metallic stove made mainly in India, of a circular shape with airing conditions on its lower parte. It provides a metallic grill and metallic handles and wooden plated a small chamber of combustion.
Figure 2. 2: Envirofit Stove
2.4.3 Mbaula
Mbaula is a Mozambican stove made, in Maputo province, of aluminium material at outer part and a plate made of clay at the inner part (argil). The clay plate has got 7 holes of 1,5 cm of diameter.
Figure 2. 3: Mbaula Stove
hOuter height = 14 cm ɸ Outer diameter= 22 cm h Inner height =6,5 cm ɸ Inner diameter= 17cm
A stove of an average capacity of 465 g of fuel.
Thickness of 10 cm h Outer height of 20,5 cm ɸ Outer diameter of 27,5 cm
h Inner height of clay plate is 6,5 cm and a ɸ = 19,5 cm, ɸ The airing holes in alluminium: =11 cm and =4 cm ɸ hole of the clay plate = 1,5 cm
A stove of an average capacity of 477 g of fuel
23 2.4.4 Zavala/Metal
This type of stove is produced in Zavala district, Inhambane province, that is why i tis named. The circular shaped stove is made only of Clay, and being placed a metal plate in it.
Figure 2. 4: Zavala/metal Stove
2.4.5 Zavala/Barro
This type of stove is the source of Inhambane province, specifically in zavala district so took the name of Zavala district. Constituted only by clay, with a circular shape.
Figure 2. 5: zavala/barro Stove Thickness of the stove is 13 cm
H stove = 36,5 cm ɸ outer of the stove = 32,5 cm ɸ Inner of the stove = 21,5 cm h Plate of metal =9,0 cm ɸ Inner of metal plate =20,5 cm ɸ Outer of metal plate =23,5 cm ɸ Hole of the clay plate = 1,5 cm ɸ opening spaces=4,5 cm ɸ iron supporting the port=8 mm
A stove of an average capacity of 535 g of fuel
Thickness of 13 cm H Stove = 36,5 cm ɸ Outer of stove = 32,5 cm ɸ Inner of stove = 21,5 cm H Plate of clay =9,0 cm ɸ Inner of clay plate =20,5 cm ɸ Outer of clay plate =23,5 cm ɸ Hole of clay palte = 1,5 cm ɸ airing holes=4, ɸ=4,5 cm ɸ Iron supporting the pot =8 mm A stove of an average capacity of 565 g of fuel.
24 2.5.6 Sucata
This name is due to the stove factorying material from recycled scrap-iron. General, these stoves are quandragular shaped and four footed support. And two handles at the outer superior, and the stove as a whole is divided into two parts, upper for charcoal fuel, and at the lower part is for ashes and airing purposes.
Figure 2. 6: Sucata Stove
2.5.7 Chapa de Zinco
This type of stoves are named “Chapa zinco” because of its strutural shape is naturally of zinc matter. The circular stove has got four feet which also supports the pot, with two division one for charcoal fuel and other for ashes.
Figure 2. 7: Chapa de Zinco Stove
H Stove = 48 cm h chamber of fuel = 5 cm
A Upper part of stove = 400 cm2 h Part of the tin =25 cm
A hole for airing = 260 cm2 ɸ support =8 mm
A stove of an average capacity of 700 g of fuel
Hstove = 32,0 cm hfuel =6,0cm hash =11,0cm ɸInner =25,5cm
ɸ Hole of metal plate = 12,0 cm A stove of an average capacity of 900 g of fuel
25 Thickness of the stove is 13 cm
H stove = 36,5 cm
h combustion chamber =9,0 cm ɸ supports =8mm
A stove of an average capacity of 568 g of fuel 2.5.8 Botija de Gás
This type of stoves are named "gas cylinder" due to the main chamber of the stove, which is made from a cross section of the gas bottle. The circular stove has got four feet which also supports the pot, with two division one for charcoal fuel and other for ashes.
Figure 2. 8: Botija de Gás Stove
2.5.9 Beira Stove:
Due to its provenance the stove is named “Fogão Beira”, i tis manufactured in Beira in central zone of Mozambique. The stove differs from the stoves described previously.
It is divided into two parts, one for charcoal fuel and other for ashes, and no feets but supported by a base. Moreover, the fuel area is struturely divide in two parts (major and minor). The minor part is the grill separating the two main division of stove.
Figure 2. 9: Fogão Beira
H Stove = 37 cm ɸ Inner of stove = 23,5cm H chamber fuel =10,0cm H fuel =4,0 cm H main section =15 cm
A stove of an average capacity of 800 g of fuel
26 2.5.10 Barro
With regard to the manufacturing material (clay – barro), the stove is named “barro”
stove. It is cylindrically shaped with different diameters from upper and lower sides, the plate for fuel and base supports ashes. The separating grill is clay with 17 holes of 1 cm of diameter which all together cover an empty area of 13.35 cm2.
Figure 2. 10: Barro stove
3.0 Geographical situation of Maputo City
Maputo City is the capital of Mozambique which is located in south part of the country, and it is limited by Marracuene district at north; and Matola and Boane districts at northwest and Matuitine district at south. And it is also located on the sea level, providing its natural and scenic beauty of beaches and island, and strong hostelry infrastructures along the coastal zone. Maputo City is a strategical place playing a crucial role at national and internationally level, since among many aspects, the city holds the mostly best infrastructures and provides many different products and services than the other parts through the country.
3.1 General characteristics of Maputo City inhabitants
In accordance with population and habitation general census of 1997 [13], the city is accommodating 1300.000 inhabitants distributed over five municipality districts and two administrative posts, and gathering all villages are 53 altogether. Looking into the districts, localities and villages, at organization and urbanization point of view, either in
H stove = 22 cm ɸ thickness= 2,5cm ɸ Inne of stove = 21,5cm ɸ Inner of clay plate =20 cm ɸ Outer of clay plate =23,5cm ɸ hole of clay plate = 1,5cm
It has got 17 airing holes ɸ=4cm ɸ Iron which supports the pot =8mm
Stove of an average capacity of 426g of fuel.
27 demographic characteristics or social status of citizens, you might find out substantial differences
And under demographic and social point of view, the city is divided into three diversified areas, namely urban area (the perimeter of Neighborhood with cement houses), suburban (Neighborhood with grass houses) and outskirt area (new constructed villages far away the main city).
.
Figure 3. 1 Maputo City map
With respect to the three areas in reference above, the population from Maputo is distributed as follows: the suburban area comprises 36 villages and accommodates 77,5% of population; urban area with 13,8% of population and finally the outskirt, dispite of its extension, accommodates 8,7% of population.
Table 3. 1 Distribution of the Maputo population according to the urban areas, suburban and peri-urban
Area Population
No %
Urban 133.759 13,8
Sub-urban 748.513 77,55
Peri-urban 84.565 8,7
Total 966.837 100
Source [14].
In general, at Maputo City level, the avergage number of households is high which may comprise 5 or 4 persons for household. If you look into the distribution of population over the districts und comparison, you can see that the KaMfumo district is mostly
28 inhabited by households with less than five members, whilst the districts of suburban (polana caniço A e B) and outskirt areas there are many more households with eight (8) member, and so as these districts are naturally the most populated ones.
Table 3.2: Distribution of households by Urban districts
Urban Districts
Average Dimension by AF
No of people by AF
AF < 5 (%) AF de 5 a 8 (%) AF > 8 (%)
kaMfumo 4,6 54,1 38,4 7,5
KaLhamanculo 5,5 42,1 41,9 16,0
Kamaxaquene 5,8 37,8 44,8 17,4
Kamavota 5,3 42,9 43,9 13,2
Kamubukwane 5,6 40,4 43,1 16,5
Total da Cidade 5,4 43,3 42,6 14,1
Source [14].
Despite of relevant transformations carried out over the economic rehabilitation in 1986 and 1992 time upon which the signature of peace agreement took place, the substantial differences between “Cement zone” and outskirt area are still remaining unchangeable so far. But, of course, there is some relatively social-economic growth in the suburban and outskirt areas over the last five years. However, it is important to note that since 1992, there is a considerable economic growth which is targeted through energies access, improvement of habitation infrastructures, improvement of environment sanitation systems, and construction of new dwellings, contributing for households per capita income any way.
In table 3.3 is represented the distribution of social-economic indicators through the Maputo districts and is also setting apart the women because in Mozambique, with high incidence in Maputo City, there are many households under women leadership, and also they are on the rise in issues related to economy and decision making as well.
Table; 3. 3 Policy of gender, class and space in Maputo, Mozambique
29 Socio-economic indicators of Maputo Districts
Urban District Proportion of AFCM Poverty rate of AFCH Poverty rate of AFCM
kaMfumo 28,0 2,0 2,4
Kamaxaquene 33,6 39,0 35,1
KaLhamanculo 28,6 26,1 23,7
Kamavota 28,3 29,2 26,6
Kamubukwane 29,0 36,3 34,0
Source [14].
Table 3. 4: Relationship of fuel used in the city of Maputo
Source [14].
Table: 3. 5: Household Use for Lighting
%
Firewood Kerosene Other
1997 2003 1997 2003 1997 2003
Maputo Province 14.8 4.1 49.6 69.3 34.3 26.6
Maputo City. 0.2 0.1 53.7 38.8 45.9 61.0
Total 46.2 31.6 42.0 53.8 9.2 14.4
Source [14].
Table 3. 6: Household Use for Cooking
Source [14].
Production Tera Joule (TJ) 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Fuelwood 268,001 270,895 273,821 276,778 279,767 282,827
Charcoal 11,187 11,484 11,715 11,946 12,185 12,429
Other 744 1,817 4,434 6,799 9,481 12,206
Total 279,932 284,196 289,970 295,523 301,433 307,462
Household Use for Cooking
% 1997 2003 1997 2003 1997 2003
Firewood Charcoal Other
Maputo 72.6 61.1 19.9 26.1 7.1 12.7
Maputo C. 17.4 9.9 53.6 63.4 29.1 26.3
Total 89.8 85.1 7.1 12.4 3.0 2.3
30 3.3. Etnographic Contributions
For better understanding the dynamic of lower rate of poverty among the households under the women leadership in Maputo, it was established an atypical structure focusing on structural specific containments and the interaction of women and men. And simultaneous, there was recognition that activities being carried out by people are an aged through the particular position with regard to unfair social relations and also by common cultural discourses, including the gender group.
Most often men and women in good economic conditions hold higher academic levels and are capable to get better employments and run succeeded formal business. On the other hand, women and men Unemployed, with no employment in the public or private sector, run informal and few run formal business which is their main source for income.
The diversified economical activities should of course require the establishment of confident contacts. Which are mostly set with neighbouring households member.
3.4 Energy
According to Vasconcelos, energy is the capacity of performing work, be that a man, machine or be a natural phenomenon operating. And regarding to the history, the available energy for undertaking work was the physical force of men and animals.
However, over the time the technology evolution, there were created conditions for use of available energy in nature under the need capabilities. The result from the inventions and innovations led to men not only using man and animal power, but also other power source [14].
Later on the petroleum and natural gas were being used in the machines and become great sources of energy. In that same time started de development of exploitation of petroleum and come out the fossil energy economy (charcoal, petroleum and natural gas). The increase in the power of electric energy in the 20th century makes it possible to see a great increase in human development.
31 Meanwhile it is crucial to refer to that it is always truth that energetic crises arises vulnerability of generating system focused on few fuels, becoming in this wise the alternative sources of energy the solutions can respond with satisfaction the communities need [16].
From the petroleum world crises of 1973, there was more attention on biomass as an alternative source, and then, in the world came out many national programs aimed at getting major effectiveness in biomass combustion and gasification systems as cited on [17].
Policies, legislation and financings are indispensable in order to make viable the use of alternative sources, which are still now out expensive and little efficient. As far the decrease of gases causing greenhouse effect as the diminishing of fossil fuels stocks, contributing that the alternatives sources, mainly the renewable and not polluting ones, should be set apart.
According to Kazay e Legey [16], in Mozambique, among diversified alternative sources, the most important estimated potential is: wind energy (4.5 GW); solar photovoltaic (14,3Twp); got from biomass (2 GW); and the hydroelectric centrals (18 GW).
3.5 Energy Situation in Mozambique
Mozambique provides a substantial potential in energetic resources, viable conditions for the country not only to supply the domestic market, but also to export either to the southern African region or to other international markets [18]. The biomass will further be a crucial and keystone at supplying the energy requirement for rural and suburban population if there is no vigorous program for change of current situation.
For the current situation, gas in way of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and the illumination petroleum has little contribution on national energetic balance, so being reliable on use of LPG supplied much a lot in some provinces capital cities as Maputo, Matola, Beira and Nampula. Most often the consumption of this energy oscillate due to supply chocking, and annual supply may not be greater than 14.000 tonnes [18].
32 In the country, the solar radiation is 5.7 kWh/m2 /day in average, and with 5,2 kWh/m2 /day minimum recorded in Lichinga – Niassa province and 6,0 kWh/m2 /day maximum recorded in Pemba and Maniquenique. So far, there was installed over 135.000 Wp, and it is hope that once the project in implementation on the ground the available solar power will go up to 1 million of Wp demonstrating an evident growth.
The current knowledge for Aeolian issues is so far incipient, although preliminary assessments undertaken mostly along the coastal zone indicate that it is promising.
Identified geothermal sources have a potential which is considerably appraised at range of 25 MW, in the seismic flaw of the east of Africa region [18].
Table 3. 7: Energy resources
Resouces Estimated potencial
Small Hydro
18 GW potential 3 competetive projects 5.6 Gw priority projects
Solar
23 Twp- Potencial
Global horizontal Radiation-betwen 1.785 to 2.206 KWh/m2 /year 600 MW - Potencial for grid connections
Wind
4.5 GW - Potencial
1.1 GW - Potencial Grid Connection 230 GW - Priority Projects
Biomass
2 GW – Potential
128 Mw – Priority projects 1.006 MW – Residual Forest 831 Mw – sugar companies 280 MW – pulp
68 MW – Municipal Solid Waste Geothermal 200 MW – Potencial
20 t MW – Prioroty Projects waves ~2 TW; 10KW/m on south coast
Source: [46].
Mozambique in terms of per capita income is low levels and financial resources shortage in the public sector, represent strong fence constraint against the acceleration
33 of improvement access to new energies by the population. The annual consumed energy among households is nearly 30.6 millions of forest hectares its represents about 80% of total production.
3.5.1 Production and potential of renewable energy in the country.
The energy constitutes one of the main factors of economic development and the availability of energetic resources (hydrologic, natural gas and mineral coal) gives to the country better conditions to satisfy national demand but also the energy needs to all austral regions.
Mozambique is poor country, but has enormous energy resources that have not hardly been tapped in the same time.
It is one of smallest consumers of energy in southern Africa, with about 80% of the country’s energy consumption being based on biomass, and less than 3% of the population using electric energy.
3.6 Priority planned project in Mozambique
Mozambique’s current planned power projects include a number of ‘traditional’ large- scale hydro, coal and gas power generation projects, which are summarized in Table 3.8.
Table 3.8: Planned power projects in Mozambique
Project name Type of project size Comments Cahora Bassa
North Bank
Hydropower expansion
850- 1200 additional MW
Detailed feassibility study under way
Mpanda Nkuwa Hydropower 2,500 MW Developed by Camargo correia, Brasil
Massingir Hydropower 40MW Managed by EDM
Lúrio Hydropower 120 MW
Majawa Hydropower 25 MW
Malema Hydropower 60 MW
Moatize Coal-fired for Plant 1,500 MW Developed by IES Temane Combined-Cycle natural gas-fired
power plant 300-400 MW On the Sasol gas pipeline, 2010
Source: [42]
Renewable energy has been a particular focus of recent energy policy in initiatives, which have been designed to discover why renewable energy options have not
34 achieved a significant market presence. Some of the measures that have been developed to address this problem include:
having mandated renewable energy targets;
the provision of subsidies for renewable energy;
the incorporation of externalities into energy prices and
Government-sponsored research aimed at improving renewable energy technologies [19].
3.7 Mozambique’s forest Potencial
Mozambique is a country relatively rich in natural forests and habitat of wild fauna. So as in Mozambique forests cover nearly a quarter of the country. It has 5 important parks located across the country. These parks are set up with an aim of protecting and conserving the existing diversified ecosystems; rich biodiversity; scenic landscapes;
wildlife threatened with extinction; as well as to maintain ecological processes; and preserve cultural and natural resources. The parks are very important to the rural inhabitants as NTFPs help sustain these communities in many ways and not only for their source of food and livelihood.
And about 70% of the country (65.3 millions of heactars) is covered by forests and outher woody plants. The forest area covers nearly 40.6 millions of hectars (51% of the country), while other types of woody plants (shrubs, thicket and forests with traditional agriculture) cover about 14.7 millions of hectars (19% of the country. Yielding forests (timber yield) cover about 26.9 millions of hectars (67% of total forest area). Thirteen millions of hectars are not for timber explotation in which the large part is located in the national parks, forest reservoirs and other area of conservation [20].
In figure 3.2 is shown the distribuition of types of forests in Mozambique. In general, Mozambique has no problems regarding to Woody fuls availability, but actual there is a shortage in areas of easy access and higher population density (for example, many rural areas), and also good forest resource in area of tough access. And as a result of lack, charcoal and fire wood supplied for poor living in outskirt are explored in increasingly long distances.
35 Figure 3.2: Forest cover map of Mozambique; source [20]
3.7.1 Deforestation to attend the energetic need at household local level Dispite of some developing countries, that Mozambique is a partaker, have still a wide range of native forests are threatened with extinction. The high exploration pressure on wood in domestic market and requirement of supplying woody energy are stated to be some of the main threatening factors [21]. Although the existing legislation does not encourage the cut of specific species for energy end, Afonso et al [9] state people cutting the species for fire wood purpose. The tree falling for energy is characterized by low cutting and without plans for sustainable management, further there is no forest reposition programs.
As Souza (2000) and MEIRA (2002) [43], from government point of view, there is not seen funding for conservation and use technology on sub products from carbonization, unfortunately it might historically be evident that charcoal production is a forest and other natural resources more devastating economic activity. This is due to the poor techniques applied for wood exploration,
36 leading the ecosystem to a critical estate situation. atassanov et al. [5], it is annually devastated about 141 985, 12 045, e 23 360 hectares in supply the energetic need urban centre of Maputo/Matola, Beira e Nampula, respectively in terms of hectares ready meant.
3.8 Biomass as an alternative source of energy
Upon the energy framework, the concept biomass describes all forms of plants and its derived products can be turned into usage energy, as for example, wood, urban wood residues, forests, rattan essential oils, floral, medicinal products, herbs and spices, dyes, raisins. The energy generated from biomass is also known as “green energy” or bioenergy.
According to Vasconcelos et al. [14], an energetic biomass is the outcome got from plants physiological activity transforming solar energy through photosynthetic process in chemical energy. Of course, this process is a cyclical, and then the CO2 is available to produce new biomass [22].
Biomass is set part on world energetic scenario due to the development of more advanced technologies for transformation of matter into energy, regarding to the threatening upon end off of fossil fuels reservoirs and by incorporation of definitive environmental thematic in discussions on sustainable development. Yet, the author refers to the other key factor is the signature taken in Kyoto Protocol, on which was set that all developing countries might reduce significantly emissions of gases with greenhouse effect, and remarking that the use of renewable energies shows a trend of great concern on world energy framework [23].
3.8.1 Biomass Energy in Mozambique
The country has an annual production potential of firewood and charcoal about 22 million tons, where in this moment the consumption is about 14.8 million tons a year whose rate of growth is 2% / year. [24]
In the framework of the introduction clean and efficient technologies in the country for institutional and domestic use, the government sensitizes for use improved cook stoves which the efficiency is around 60 to 70%. This efficiency
37 represents a considerable gain in relation those stoves used in time.
In relation to production of biomass the country has good agro Energetic conditions that favour the production of biofuels (biodiesel and ethanol), without compromising the availability of land for food production or endanger biodiversity conservation.
Figure3.3:Institutional wood stove, source:[author unknown] Figure 3.4: Metal stove [Author unknown]
3.9 Wood-coal
The charcoal is gotten by uncomplete combustion of wood. In the primitive era, man used pieces of wood in blaze to light caves or heat themselves in winter season.
Probably it was not late to realize the use of the burned wood (charcoal) of black color and friable, since this could neither make blaze nor smoke, generating heat in more controlled way than the one produced by direct use of fire wood , then, it was the discovery of the use of charcoal fuel [25].
However, even in some countries where the access to other energy sources is true, the charcoal is of great technological use, as for example on the use of some molten iron in Brazil that need raw material (pi-iron) free of sulfur found in charcoal.
There ng the ecological disasters occurrence like the one took place in Madagascar lived to terrible time of devastation use of forests. In Brazil, the yielding of charcoal supplies on about one third (1/3) of world production, here is used almost full for iron- foundry, should be safeguarded the full need of utilization of the forests by rational way, avoidi but still produced in large, as a age ago, without looking into the major concern for preservation of environment, and with deteriorated labor conditions [15].
38 3.9.1 Concept on fuel
Every matter that flame is known as fuel. This is a burning substance that in an atomic battery can generate chain reaction, a reaction which itself evolves since the required agents for the reaction take place are yielded from it [26]. In accordance with the nature and properties of matter, either Woody or not.
3.9.2 Traditional charcoal production
According to Belward, 2011 [44], Mozambique produces between 1.2 and 2 millions of Mg of charcoal annually. Mozambique faces the comsumption of charcoal basically from hard wood which is produced throuhg a traditional stove. The method is performed by eigth steps as follow:
(i) Identification of viable trees;
(ii) Assessing the correct palce for stove building;
(iii) Falling trees and carrying to the stove place;
(iv) Selection of considered important material for stovebuilding, (grass, sand or clay and stones if available);
(v) Stove building (vi) Stove operational;
(vii) Turning off the stove;
(viii) Loading charcoal in the sac [27].
Figure 3. 5: charcoal bagged point of sale, source [ 6 ]
39 In Maputo, most households, the use of fire wood was replaced by charcoal because of high energetic intensity and also transportation and storing promptness. According to Vilanculos (1998) [45], the charcoal is produced in stoves made from clay and grass, and depending on the species, the yielding can vary between 20 and 50 sacs (hardly 70 sacks) weighing from 25 and 35 kg per sac.
This type of stove reacquires bit tough work and plain tools, so that the construction is carried out by the household members or some relatively known people that receive local beverage in payment - "Wutchema" (20 to 25 liters).
The majority of studies carried out in Mozambique took place in Maputo. This is because the city has the greatest fuel woody consumption rate in the country which is explained by shortage of biomass in it. Thus, the techniques for charcoal production in discussion below are carried out in the south region of the country.
Moreover, the charcoal produced in this region is from private sector naturally. The charcoal producers operate in two main areas of charcoal production (Changalene and Marracuene districts) supplying Maputo city. According to Pereira (1989) [46] and in accordance with researches undertaken by National Directorate of Forestry and Wildlife (DNFFB) in 1985 and 1988 [11], these areas supplied 90% of total charcoal transported to Maputo City, where the major quantities of charcoal transported through Michafutene corridors (National Road, N1) and Matola-Rio (National Road, N2).
3.9.3 Wood-coal business
The charcoal is distributed in different quantities. Usually, sacs of 50kg and water bucket are used as standard on sale course. The common pile is measured by the 500g tin of "milk Nido" and also varying piles from 250g to 20l of oil quantities of charcoal [28].
With regard to the sale of charcoal sale price, particular resealing was $ 2.06 / sac. The retailer could get a profit of $ 0.35 and $ 0.42, or be 67% of buying price. This means that the cost of hiring workers is much lower than the cost of hiring workers.
40 In period 1988 and 1992, the woody fuel price raised considerably, in the same time the charcoal was supplied for different places. Thus, the charcoal profit was 42%, and for fire wood was only 5.8% [28].
According to Van Beukering (2007) [29], cited by the Report of AFREA (2011) [30], the commerce and transport f charcoal from rural areas to urban centers as well as the chain of values from producer to the consumer is similar in all sub-Saharan African countries (Figure 3.5). It comprises an interaction between small and big scaled transporters and sales / business men, in particular of big scaled ones that also commonly transport charcoal.
In Mozambique, charcoal and fire wood are the main fuel for urban areas Mozambique.
While about 70 to 80% of urban households rely on woody fuels, and for rural households depend heavily and only on woody fuels for domestic energy generating [31]. But the use of charcoal in urban households is affected by its availability. Over the rain season, the charcoal scarce in urban markets and, of course, the price rises. It is also seen in other places of southern Africa, the charcoal shortage and its price rise is too high in January, February and March, heavy rain months
In Maputo City, the increased demand for woody fuels was meant to be the main internal force for deforestation and the possible cause for natural forests degradation.
Saket (1994) [32] made estimation that, in 1970 and 1988, the deforestation rate rounded 20% in Maputo.
Despite the forest resources being full ended off in consequence of charcoal production, the woody fuels are still the basic product for the majority households in Maputo. This situation may last for a long time since the alternative sources of electricity are not accessible and trustable for most parts of households, although the modernization of substation of 60 MW at West of Maputo City (BTG, 1990) , as well as the marketing campaign for charcoal stove purchase in such a way that the consuming habits could be changed, so the demand for woody fuels should be mitigated.
41 3.9.4 Demand for charcoal in Maputo City
In 2011, Maputo, three millions of sacs of charcoal have been in consumption, managing a market of $ 70 million, in 2010 and 2012, the price rise a lot from 250 to 650 Meticais (200% more).
The new pattern of prices and expenditure for households of low income builds up an opportunity of really market for the private sector to introduce alternative upon charcoal, among them there is briquettes, efficient charcoal stoves, gas and ethanol.
In 2014, there was carried out a study upon which was identified the consumer profile, as a layer foundation for introduction of new products that can be accessible with great effectiveness, competitive price and provision of good business atmosphere.
Figure 3.6: Form such as charcoal is presented in resale posts, source:[Author unkwown]
3.10 Charcoal stoves well succeeded in Maputo
According to FUNAE, SNV is developing micro-clusters of Charcoal Efficient Stoves (CFS) in Maputo province, strengthening the local capacity to produce and distribute stoves of 40% of effectiveness Mbula modality, as well as other standards for domestic use and commerce. Mbula is a charcoal stove label and well succeeded in Kenya and Tanzania, only through adaptations and marketing strategies towards a base of Pyramid which will be transformed into a viable alternative for cooking in Mozambique. This is a
42 joint venture between GIZ, Livaningo and Kulima partnership. SNV aims to stimulate their activities in the sector, promoting the access of 22 thousand FEC's and benefiting more than 100 thousand people up to the end of 2015.
3.11 Gas and Ethanol as alternative sources with respect to wood fire and charcoal
The follow-up of population growth at Maputo City level is the increase of demand in charcoal, causing the rise in 200% more. Consequently, the 65kg of charcoal sac is sold at more than USD 30, hence the gas and ethanol turned into viable energy for about 28 thousand households in Maputo City. The Clean Star, through the SNV introduced ethanol from Ndzilo label in the local market as a consequence of their experience in economic development to promote alternative cooking solutions in the market.
In Mozambique, the cooking upon ethanol was introduced with "Ndzilo" label (meaning flame in local mother tongue) and the outcome encouraged to be a confident alternative solution for low income households. There is a hope that up to the end of 2015, more than 30 thousand women can use ethanol in their kitchens. This product is being promoted before the sellers in 40 municipal markets in Maputo City Municipality (CMCM), cooperating for charcoal consumption reduction.
For the gas, SNV, Maputo Municipality and GALP share with joy the idea of transforming households in natural gas consumers, and on this conquest, ones to save money and time in cooking. This Project will contribute to support the private sector capacity in good quality gas supply, at good price and through effectiveness distribution network and adapted to the BOP.
3.12 Social environment aspects due to the use of traditional stoves 3.12.1 Inner air pollution
It is roughly stated that cooking and heating with solid biomass, under traditional stoves and fireplaces, is an important source of inner air pollution which causes respiratory diseases as the main cause for mortality in African country. It increases the risk of getting asthma, bronchitis, flu, pneumonia and other diseases. The exposing levels are so high among women and children that stay in the house most of their time [33].
