INOM EXAMENSARBETE TEKNIK, GRUNDNIVÅ, 15 HP , STOCKHOLM SVERIGE 2020
Water Purification:
Research on the Energy Supply of
Air Gap Membrane Distillation
for Access to Clean Water
LINDA YANG
Authors
Linda Yang <lindaya@kth.se> Robert Liao <rliao@kth.se>
Industrial Engineering and Management KTH Royal Institute of Technology
Place for Project
Stockholm, Sweden
Examiner
Monika Olsson Stockholm
KTH Royal Institute of Technology
Supervisor
Andrew Martin Stockholm
Abstract
Water stress is an ongoing problem in many places in the world, while the demand for clean and safe freshwater is growing due to the increasing population. In many developing countries, water supplies often are contaminated with arsenic, fluoride, etc. Therefore, it is important to realize that water scarcity and contamination issues concern only one sector but many. HVR Water Purification AB is developing a water purification prototype – ELIXIR 500 - using the air gap membrane technology and is implemented in Odisha, India, aiming to supply with 200 litre water daily. This thesis aims to estimate future energy sources to supply this prototype and explore the possibilities of using only renewable energy resources from technical, economic, and environmental perspectives. These are achieved by firstly identifying the energy possibilities in Odisha, India, and then calculating the feasibility of each solution chosen and finally analyzing the results.
Among the energy sources, which are power grid, wind and solar power, diesel generator and solar-diesel hybrid system. It is found that the energy source to the prototype supplied by the power grid is 0.057 USD per litre water, which is the cheapest option. However, it is not feasible due to the lack of electrification from the local network. Meanwhile, the solar-diesel hybridized energy system is the most economical option if renewable energy sources are integrated with 0.11 USD per litre water.
Keywords
Sammanfattning
Vattenstress ett pågående problem på många ställen i världen medan efterfrågan på rent och säkert dricksvatten växer på grund av den ökande befolkningen. I många utvecklingsländer är vattenförsörjningen ofta förorenade med arsenik, fluor osv. Det är därför viktigt att inse att vattenbrist och föroreningar inte bara rör en sektor utan många. HVR Water Purification AB utvecklade en prototyp för vattenrening - ELIXIR 500 - med hjälp av luftspaltmembrantekniken (eng: air gap membrane distillation och implementeras redan i Odisha, Indien, med målet att förse 200 liter rent vatten dagligt. Denna avhandling syftar till att uppskatta de framtida energikällorna för att tillhandahålla denna prototyp och utforska möjligheterna att endast använda förnybara energikällor ur tekniska, ekonomiska och miljömässiga perspektiv. Dessa uppnås genom att först identifiera de olika energimöjligheter i Odisha, Indien, följt av beräkningar om utförbarhet för varje vald lösning och slutligen en analys av resultaten.
Bland energikällorna elnät, vind, sol, diesel generator och sol-diesel hybrid system har visat sig att energikällan till prototypen som levereras av elnätet som kostar 0.057 USD per liter vatten som det billigaste alternativet, men det är inte möjligt på grund av bristen på elektrifiering från det lokala elnätet. Å andra sidan är det hybridiserade energiskombinationen med solkrafts och diesel det billigaste alternativet om förnybara energikällor ska integreras, resultatet visade att vara 0.11 USD per liter vatten.
Nyckelord
Acknowledgements
Contents
1 Introduction 3 1.1 Research Question . . . 5 1.2 Delimitaitons . . . 6 1.3 Outline . . . 6 2 Theoretical background 7 2.1 Background of prototype ELIXIR 500 . . . 72.2 Air gap membrane distillation . . . 8
2.3 AGMD and sustainable water supply . . . 8
2.4 Hybrid system . . . 10
3 Literature review on energy system 11 3.1 Power grid . . . 11
3.2 Wind power . . . 13
3.3 Solar power . . . 16
3.4 Diesel generator . . . 18
3.5 Summary of energy sources . . . 20
4 Methodology on solutions 21 4.1 Power grid solution . . . 21
4.2 Wind power solution . . . 22
4.3 Solar power solution . . . 24
4.4 Diesel generator solution . . . 25
4.5 Hybrid solution . . . 27
5 Result analysis and discussion 31 5.1 Results . . . 31
5.2 Discussion and analysis . . . 31
6 Conclusions and future work 35 6.1 Future Work . . . 35
List of Figures
2.1 Air gap membrane distillation diagram. . . 9
2.2 Air gap membrane distillation diagram with energy source connected. 10 4.1 Power grid to ELIXIR 500 diagram. . . 22
4.2 Wind power to ELIXIR 500 diagram. . . 23
4.3 Solar power to ELIXIR 500 diagram. . . 25
4.4 Diesel generator to ELIXIR 500 diagram. . . 27
4.5 Solar-diesel hybrid system to ELIXIR 500 diagram. . . 30
List of Tables
2.1 ELIXIR 500 technical specifications . . . 73.1 Power grid cost . . . 12
3.2 Wind power cost . . . 15
3.3 Solar power cost . . . 18
3.4 Diesel generator cost . . . 19
3.5 Summary of different energy sources . . . 20
4.1 Odisha weather data . . . 21
4.2 Power grid results. . . 22
4.3 Wind power results. . . 23
4.4 Solar power results. . . 24
4.5 Diesel generator results. . . 26
4.6 Solar-diesel result table compared in cost ($) . . . 29
5.1 Results summary . . . 31
7.1 Details: Wind power. . . 50
7.2 Details: Wind power 2. . . 51
7.3 Details: Solar power. . . 52
7.4 Details: Solar power 2. . . 52
Nomenclature
η Efficiency [%]
ηbattery Battery efficiency [%]
ηctrl Controller efficiency [%]
ηgen Generation efficiency [%]
ηinvert Inverter efficiency [%]
A Area [sqm]
Acell Cell area pf solar panel [sqm]
Aland Land use [sqm]
Atot,cell Total cell area of solar panels
[sqm]
AW /land Land use per W of module
[W/sqm]
E Energy demand [kWh]
Eday Energy demand per day
[kWh/day]
Ehour Energy demand per hour
[kWh/h]
Elitre Energy demand per litre water
[kWh/l]
Gann,day Annual average solar
radia-tion per day [kWh/sqm/day]
Gmen,day Mensual average solar
radia-tion per day [kWh/sqm/day]
mf uel,stand Standard diesel fuel
consumption at 100% load [g/kWh]
mf uel Diesel fuel consumption[g/kWh]
P Optimal specification
Pinverter Optimal power of inverter
[kW]
Psol,power Optimal power of solar
power [kW]
Psol,quan Optimal quantity of Solar
panels [units]
Pwind Optimal power of wind turbine
[kW]
tprod,lif e Product life [year]
twind operation time of wind turbine
[h]
vann,wind Annual average wind
veloc-ity [m/s]
Vf uel,day Diesel fuel consumption per
day [l/day]
Vf uel,stand Standard diesel fuel
con-sumption at 100% load [l/kWh]
Vf uel,year Diesel fuel consumption per
year [l/year]
Vf uel Diesel fuel consumption
[l/kWh]
VH2O,day Water demand per day
[l/day]
VH2O Water demand per day [l]
vmen,wind Mensual average wind
1
Introduction
Freshwater is one of the most important resources for both the natural ecosystem and human beings. As climate changes show continual consequences, water resources are under pressure to meet current and future demands (Döll, 2009). The contamination of drinking water is an urgent issue, except for the water stress that is already occurring in many places in the world.Especially in developing countries, the release of toxic wastes from waste dumps and industrial enterprises is also a major threat and expense to the provision of water safety (Water, 2012).
Surface water in rivers and lakes are polluted, and an increasing number of people will have to rely on well-water for drinking. Some of the new wells will contain arsenic, fluoride, uranium, radon, aluminum, copper, cadmium, barium, lead, manganese, and other minerals in excessive concentrations. More than two billion people are drinking this type of water today (WHO, 2017). One of the direct consequences is health effects. The metabolism in the human body cannot discharge the excessive contents of heavy metals. Ingestion of mineral water, which contains heavy metals, will cause harmful impacts, such as cancers or impairs on the brain, lungs, liver, kidneys, and other vital organs. In the long term, the influences can even reach the central nervous function and mental state. The impacts are specifically evident and more harmful to young kids due to their bodies being more sensitive in the developing stage. The impaired nervous system of children will lead to learning difficulties, memory impairment, and aggressive behaviors (Kent, 2017).
our responsibility to identify and solve current and potential issues relating to sustainable development.
As the world’s largest democratic country, India has the second-largest population in the world with a fast-growing developing country and highly relying on agriculture. Thus the use of water is crucial for its increasing population and economy (India country profile, 2020). The availability of water per capita in India was 1545 cubic meters per capita in 2001. It is estimated to decrease to 1486 cubic meters per capita in 2021, less than the international norms, which are 1700 cubic meters per capita (Per Capita Availability of Water, 2019) (Water Resources of India, 2020). Parallel to the rising demand for water, water contamination is a non-neglectable issue when less water is available and an increase in pollution in the surface water. There is already 70 percent of its surface water resources, and a growing percentage of its groundwater reserves are contaminated by organic, biological, toxic, and inorganic pollutants (Surender and M.N., 2011: 285). Water pollution has always been a severe problem in India. In 1995, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) had already identified several fluoride-contaminated stretches on 18 major rivers in India. The main reason for this is the agricultural run-offs that affect both groundwater and surface water sources as these run-offs contain fertilizer and pesticide to a great extent (Surender and M.N., 2011: 288). Damage of water contamination has significant health impacts on humans. In the case of fluoride, it is known for damaging the brain and causing dental health issues (HVR, 2017). In 204, India had 150 districts in 17 states with existing contamination of fluoride and arsenic (Surender and M.N., 2011: 288).
cities and communities (Goal 11, UNDP).
HVR AB is a registered company in Sweden. Its contribution is to develop products that purify dirty water to pure and healthy water for ingestion in sufficient quantities, regardless of the quality of feed water. This project involves research on the application and optimization of a purification device developed by HVR AB, ELIXIR 500, for a village school in Odisha, India. Well, water in the area contains fluorine in poisoned concentrations and dramatically influences the health of local dwellers. By deployment action of the purification device and determining the optimal energy supply which regards the condition in the area, to implement a quantity of 200 litres clean drinking water per day of water to drink, water that will be free from dangerously high levels of fluoride (HVR, 2020). As the water situation is gradually alarming, especially in rural areas of developing countries, appropriate measures are urgently needed to prevent severe negative impacts. Finding optimal energy sources for the MD purification system can help the sites initiate the energy supply scheme to transit towards a more sustainable operation. Moreover, some areas are benefited from abundant renewable energy resources (e.g., solar and wind), which may potentially become employed as the primary source of energy for powering water purification systems. Therefore, developing and implementing off-grid renewable energy-powered contamination removal systems can be considered a valid and potentially sustainable solution for overcoming the drinking water scarcity issue in remote regions of developing countries.
1.1
Research Question
to meet the study’s aims:
1. Devise and evaluate various energy options to supply the unit and future commercial units with required heat sources.
2. Identify alternative electricity and heat source combinations, as well as the total cost of each identified alternative.
3. Identify possible future electricity system that can support a larger scale of water purification.
1.2
Delimitaitons
Boundaries are needed to constraint the span of this report to prevent overwith research. Therefore, this study will focus on AGMD, sustainable energy sources, and energy supplies on a smaller scale rather than a commercial scale.
1.3
Outline
2
Theoretical background
2.1
Background of prototype ELIXIR 500
ELIXIR 500 is a water purification device that was developed for small community use. 500 is the standard daily output measured in litres, but the potential throughputs can range widely due to the modular design. The device can be powered by diverse energy sources of low-grade heat, such as solar, gas, biomass, biofuel, amongst others, preferably in co-generation of hot water. Besides, the main advantage of ELIXIR 500 is the high-degree purification of water, which implements the absolute removal of all contaminants in water for customers. The high purity of drinking water provides a precondition to the health of customers, protect them from virus, bacteria and other pathogens, and also from long term effects of the combination of potential known and unknown contaminants in the water.
See table 2.1 for summary of the technical specifications of the prototype. Table 2.1: ELIXIR 500 technical specifications
ELIXIR 500
Total Input 15 kW Capacity per hour 20 litre Purification Efficiency > 99% Capacity per day 500 litre Feed-water Temperature < 80°C Leaving water temperature > 85°C Leaving water temperature from the air-cooled unit < 32°C Max air ambient temperature 35°C Energy consumption per litre
0.75 kWh Length of unit Max 1.5m
Weight of unit < 75kg Width unit Highest point of unit
2.2
Air gap membrane distillation
The core technology of the ELIXIR 500 device is Air gap membrane distillation (AGMD). The principle of Membrane distillation (MD) is to purify water by heating the dirty water in a liquid phase to vapor for filtrating. A simplified model of membrane distillation device contains the evaporator, membrane, and cooling wall. By connection between energy supply and the device, the evaporator is responsible for transferring dirty water in a liquid phase to the vapor phase under ambient pressure and a temperature below the boiling point (<95 oC) (HVR, 2013). The membrane exists as a barrier to allow vapor to pass through while filtrate contaminants. This filtrating process would generally repeat a few times until satisfying high purity. Then the final purified vapor will further reach a cooling wall and condensate to purified water drops. Finally, the water drops will be led and collected to a container for the usage of drinking and cooking (Warsinger, 2017).
What differs the Air gap membrane distillation (AGMD) from general membrane distillation is the air gap between the membrane and cooling wall as an extra barrier. The advantage of this method is the higher thermal insulation of air, which causes less heat conduction losses and higher energy efficiency. The disadvantage is that the additional barrier becomes a hindrance to both heat loss and mass transport. It produces higher resistance for vapor to pass through and influences the yield (Warsinger, 2018).
2.3
AGMD and sustainable water supply
membrane-Figure 2.1: Air gap membrane distillation diagram.
Figure 2.2: Air gap membrane distillation diagram with energy source connected.
2.4
Hybrid system
3
Literature review on energy system
India is now the world’s third-largest electricity producer and consumer in the world. The country’s electricity generation is about 1160.1 billion units of electricity in the financial year 2017, which is ahead of Russia, Japan, Germany, and Canada, pursuing China (6015 TWh) and the USA(USA 4327 TWh). The total installed power generating capacity reached 334.4 gigawatts in January 2018 and became the world’s fifth-largest. Over the last five years, 99.21 GW additional capacity were intermittently deployed in the country. Until 2020, India has made several significant reforms within the energy sector, including a massive amount of renewable electricity deployment.
Meanwhile, India is reducing oil imports and increasing domestic upstream activities. India is also planning to increase the share of natural gas in the energy mix of the country, which will lead to the improvement of its energy system’s environmental sustainability and flexibility. Although the reforms, some major concerns are still there left to be solved, such as the utilization of coal and natural gas, and how to increase the shares of variable renewable energy sources.
3.1
Power grid
to the global average per capita power consumption of 2340 kWh/yr, the per capita power consumption in India is only 733.54 kWh/yr, which is minimal (Indianpowersector, 2012).
3.1.1 Reliability
Theft and pilferage of electricity are prevalent in most parts of urban India. It causes hugely high electricity losses during transmission and distribution. Between 2008 and 2009, the loss of electricity reached 28.44% of the total production, causing economic damage of over 1.5% of India’s GDP. In Indian, the peak power shortage is about 13% between 5 pm and 11 pm. The lack of electricity causes frequent power cuts throughout India. About 400 million Indians lose electricity access during blackouts (Indianpowersector, 2012).
3.1.2 Cost
According to the Odisha Electricity Regulatory Commission (OERC), the power tariff is varied for different degrees of consumers. For domestic consumers who consume up to 50 kWh monthly costs, 0.033 USD per kWh. Consumers who consume between 50 to 200 kWh will continue to pay the same rate of 0.057 USD per kWh. For consumption of 200 to 400 kWh costs 0.071 USD per kWh and 0.076 USD per kWh for the use of above 400 kWh (Newindianexpress, 2019). Considering the power demand of ELIXIR 500 is large, the price of 0.076 USD/ kWh will be referenced at the rest of the research.
See table 3.1 for the cost of electricity consumption per kWh. Table 3.1: Power grid cost
Consumption cost Reference
< 50 kWh 0.033 USD/kWh Newindianexpress 50 - 200 kWh 0.57 USD/kWh
3.1.3 Emission
In India, about 55.6% of the total installed capacity is coal-fired power plants, measured to 204.72 GW. The combustion creates enormous amounts of greenhouse gases, and most of them are directly released to the air, including sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, and carbon dioxide. The average CO2 emission in 2019 was 1.08 kg per kWh (Economic Times, 2019). The environmental impact assessment procedures practised by power plants are archaic, and the emission standards in 2013 were at least 5-10 times worse than in other countries, such as the United States, European Union, China, and Australia. According to a journal article in the Atmospheric Environment 2014, 500 million tons of coal were estimated to be used for combustion at a total of 111 coal-fired power plants in Indian between 2010 to 2011. The combustion causes significant emission of particulate matter (Guttikunda and Jawahar, 2014). In the same year, the PM2.5 air pollution in Indian, mean annual exposure had reached 95.8 micrograms per cubic meter (Worldbank, 2017). The modelled PM2.5 concentrations estimated 80000 to 115000 premature deaths due to the emissions from coal-fired power plants (Guttikunda and Jawahar, 2014).
3.2
Wind power
According to the World Wind Energy Report-2017, India shared approximately 6% of the total wind energy installed capacity in the world, which amounts to 32.848 GW, and among 4148 MW were newly installed in 2017. India ranked fourth in the total wind energy installed capacity and fifth in terms of the annual capacity additions in the world (GWEC, 2018). In 2020 January, India’s renewable energy generation grew with 9.46%, and wind power generated the highest amount of power among renewable energy sources, and India is expecting 15 GW more later in 2020. In the target of 175 GW renewable energy capacity in 2022, wind power consists of 60 GW (Evwind, 2020).
installations worldwide, and wind power potential was still far from exhausted. India has a wide inland territory and a long coastline of 7517 km, where the territorial water extends to 12 nautical miles into the sea. Off-shored and on-shored wind power technology has huge potential to exploit the abundant wind resource in India (EAI, 2017). According to a wind energy report in 2012 states that the wind power energy potential in the state Odisha lays around 1700MW as the maximum potential. However, in 2019, the company Gridco’s renewable energy has assessed that there is no location in Odisha that is suitable for installing wind power projects (Evwind, 2012).
3.2.1 Reliability
The generation of solar energy is intermittent. The power production is strongly dependent on radiation intensity, radiation time, and technical efficiency. The efficiency of the solar panel, which is also the conversion rate, refers to how much of the incoming solar energy can be converted into electrical power (Gary and Buckley, 2019). The efficiency significantly affects how well solar panels are performing and also restricts it from expanding commercially. The current efficiency of solar panels varies from 15% to 22%, depending on the materials, placement, weather conditions, etc. (Vourvoulias, 2020). It depends on the type of solar cells, which refers to the N- or P-type. Whereas the N-type cells are higher in efficiency but more expensive due to the higher purity of silicon used (Svarc, 2018). A solar power system also requires a battery pack and an inverter as the intermediate connections between the solar panels and apparatus. Thus the entire solar power system would have an extra 25% loss at the final output.
3.2.2 Cost
depends on the power of the wind turbine, about 1 square meter of land is required for each 330W of the wind turbine (Gaughan, 2018). The cost of maintenance can reference the average operations and maintenance costs in the US, which was estimated at 0.048 USD/W during the first ten years of a wind turbine’s operations. However, the costs may vary widely depending on age, location, and O&M strategy (NewEnergyUpdate, 2017).
See table 3.2 for the cost of wind power generation. Table 3.2: Wind power cost
Consumption cost Reference
Wind turbine 0.60 USD/W Module: EN-1000W-L (ENGEEN-1000W-LEC, 2020) Controller 450 USD/Unit Module: BSM-X50A
(BLUESUN, 2020) Inverter 0.07 USD/W Module:
BSM10-60K-B (BLUESUN, 2020) Battery (12 V, 400 Ah) 900 USD/unit DL-12V100AH-4S4P (Delong, 2020) Land 49 USD/square meter Makaan (2020) O&M 0.048 USD/W NewEnergyUpdate
(2017)
3.2.3 Emission
out strict new wind turbine rules to keep the minimum 500m set back distance near homes (Independent, 2017).
3.3
Solar power
Solar power is a fast-growing industry in India. In February 2020, the total grid-interactive power achieved was 8442.77 MW, and solar power had a 73% share (Mnre, 2020). In 2018, an analysis conducted by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) showed that India is the country with the lowest total installed costs for new utility-scale solar PV projects landing on 793 USD per kilowatt. Most impressively, this price has dropped by nearly 80% since 2010 while achieving the 20-gigawatt cumulative solar capacity (Singh, 2019 and The Times of India, 2018). This increase in solar power installation and generation is mainly due to the social electricity demand and the environmental stress India is facing. The trend of these major investments seems to continue based on the IEA analysis in 2018, stating that India’s investment in solar PV was greater than in all fossil fuel sources of electricity generation together.
3.3.1 Reliability
The power production of solar energy is intermittent. The efficiency of the solar panel, which is also the conversion rate, refers to how much of the incoming solar energy can be converted into electrical power (Gary and Buckley, 2019). This greatly affects how well solar panels are performing and also restricts it from expanding commercially. The current efficiency of solar panels varies from 15% to 22% depending on the materials, placement, weather conditions etc (Vourvoulias, 2020). This in turn, depends on the type of solar cells, which refers to the N- or P-type. Whereas the N-type cells are higher in efficiency but more expensive due to the higher purity of silicon used (Svarc, 2018). A solar power system also requires a battery pack and an inverter as the intermediate connections between the solar panels and apparatus, thus the entire solar power system would have an extra 25% loss at the final output.
3.3.2 Cost
Similar to the wind power system, solar power is also free energy. The cost is majorly concentrated at installations, operation and maintenance (O&M). Solar panels are the main installations in the system. Furthermore, a controller, battery pack and power inverter are also necessary as the wind power system. Massive solar panels occupy large land areas, but the cost of land can be decreased if some of the solar panels are able to be installed on the roofs. The operation and maintenance cost inclusive solar panel cleaning is estimated at 5 USD for every module per year (Powerfromsunlight, 2017).
See table 3.3 for the cost of solar power generation.
3.3.3 Emission
Table 3.3: Solar power cost
Objects cost Reference
Solar panels 0.25 USD/W Module: SD-96-500M (Sunda, 2020)
Controller 450 USD/Unit Module: BSM-X50A (BLUESUN, 2020)
Inverter 0.07 USD/W Module: BSM10-60K-B (BLUESUN, 2020)
Battery pack (12 V, 400 Ah)
900 USD/unit Module: DL-12V100AH-4S4P (Delong, 2020) Land 49 USD/square
meter
Makaan (2020)
O&M 5 USD/unit/year Powerfromsunlight (2017) The difference is that the emission is transferred to the production countries. One example is quartz sand exploitation. Quartz sand is one of the primary raw materials in solar power production. Exploiting quartz sand is one of the occupations with the most significant health hazard since antiquity. Workers with inhalation of crystalline silica dust would contract hazardous lung diseases, such as silicosis (Lian, 2014).
3.4
Diesel generator
Diesel generators are generally a required component in all types of Central Energy Generating Boards (CEBG) power stations aiming to provide back-up electrical supplies during conditions where electricity supply is needed to be maintained in a shutdown (Emergency supply equipment, 1992). However, diesel generators can also be used as a stand-alone electricity generator. Its advantages are obvious with the availability, quick start-up, high reliability, and more (Adefarati et.al, 2017). The average lifetime varies between 15 000 - 30 000 hours, depending on the practice of operation and maintenance. Although there are no environmental hazards to store the fuel, a diesel generator is still not an environmentally friendly choice from a system perspective (Adefarati and Bansal, 2019).
DER technologies, often refers to the electrical generation of different small, grid-connected, or distribution systems. It is different from conventional power stations where they need electric energy to transmit the electricity (Arulampalam et al.). In this case, diesel generators can be an option to supply power in the minor grid approach to meet the demand of rural areas. This can also play a supporting role for other renewable energy plants, which are more dependent on weather conditions.
3.4.1 Reliability
Diesel generators can provide a stable power supply to devices. By setting the load of the generator, the output can be adjustable within the design power. Generally, the operation load between 50 and 85 percent is optimal for speaking, standby-and prime-rated diesel generators, while continuous-rated diesel generator sets are optimized between 70 and 100 percent load. Overload and underload will cause machinery wear that affects engine life (Jabeck, 2013).
3.4.2 Cost
The cost of a diesel power system includes diesel generator, diesel, and O&M. The diesel prices in India vary by time and province with minimal value. The installation of a diesel power system is simple, only a diesel generator is required, and that results in the cost of installation becoming considerably low. Relatively, O&M is much higher than other energy resources.
See table 3.4 for the cost of diesel generator.
Table 3.4: Diesel generator cost
Objects cost Reference
Diesel generator 0.32 USD/W Perkins 404D-22G. Design life: 20 years. (Perkins, 2020))
Diesel fuel 0.87 USD/litre Goodreturns. (Card, 2020)
3.4.3 Emission
Since diesel generators use diesel as fuel, the carbon content of fuel varies, and thus an average carbon content value will be adapted to the calculations of CO2 emissions. The average consumption of CO2 per one litre diesel is approximately 2.7kg. However, this number is different due to the different characteristics of diesel generator models (North, 2006). The emission rate falls in the range of 2.4-2.8 kg/litre (Alsema, 2000).
3.5
Summary of energy sources
Table 3.5 consists of a simple summary of energy sources and their costs mentioned earlies in this chapter.
Table 3.5: Summary of different energy sources
Energy re-sources
Reliability Cost (USD) CO2 emission
Power grid Medium Electricity 0.076/kWh 1.08kg/kWh Wind
power
Relatively low Wind
turbine: 0.6/W Inverter: 0.07/Watt Battery (12V400Ah): 900/unit Land: 49/sq meter O&M: 0.048/Watt
-Solar power
Relatively high Solar panels:0.25/Watt Inverter:1390/unit Bat-tery(12V400Ah):900/unit O&M:5/unit -Diesel generator
High Diesel generator: 0.32/Watt Diesel: 0.87/litre
O&M:0.005/kWh
4
Methodology on solutions
The general approach of methods are concluded in following five steps: 1. Find the total efficiency of the solution
2. Determine the optimal module specification of respective solution 3. Find the investment cost.
4. Calculate the annual cost
5. Calculate the cost per litre water
6. Calculate the CO2 emission, if there are any.
Due to the distinction between the energy sources, the methodology of every solution may vary. For instance, the power grid solution has no investment cost, and the wind power solution has noise pollution instead of CO2emission.
Table 4.1 was used in some of the calculations later in this chapter, such as wind speed and solar insolation.
Table 4.1: Odisha weather data
Variable I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII Insolation, kWh/msqr/day 4.55 5.21 5.90 6.31 6.12 4.43 3.93 3.97 4.20 4.54 4.49 4.39 Clearness, 0-1 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.60 0.56 0.40 0.36 0.38 0.43 0.51 0.59 0.62 Temperature °C 21.66 24.21 27.34 28.34 28.55 28.54 27.86 27.64 27.29 26.21 24.41 22.17 Wind speed, m/s 3.12 3.72 4.84 5.36 4.82 4.95 5.37 4.76 3.95 3.79 4.12 3.54 Precipitation, mm 13 25 29 28 59 185 310 312 251 171 38 5 Wet days, d 0.6 1.6 1.6 1.8 3.5 9.6 14.5 14.6 11.7 6.7 1.6 0.3 Equations and detailed calculations used for the obtained results below are attached in Appendices [A] to [E].
4.1
Power grid solution
Table 4.2: Power grid results. Energy demand per day 150 [kWh/day] Cost per day 11.4 [USD/day] Cost per litre water 0.057 [USD/l] CO2 emission per litre
water
0.81 [kg/l]
Figure 4.1: Power grid to ELIXIR 500 diagram.
4.2
Wind power solution
Table 4.3: Wind power results. Energy demand per day 150 [kWh/day] Investment cost of wind
power
105400 [USD] Cost per litre water 0.18 [USD/l] Land use 300 [sqm]
4.3
Solar power solution
Table 4.4 is similar to table 4.3, changes occurs in the number of panels needed and area occupied for these. Power to electricity conversion is the same to wind power, it can be seen in the Figure 4.3.
Table 4.4: Solar power results. Energy demand per day 150 [kWh/day] Optimal quantity of solar
panel
90 units Investment cost of solar
power
Figure 4.3: Solar power to ELIXIR 500 diagram.
4.4
Diesel generator solution
See Table 4.5. Figure 4.4 shows that power to electricity conversion is no longer needed, it returns to a fairly simple network connection diagram with diesel generator as the power supply source.
Table 4.5: Diesel generator results. Energy demand per day 150 [kWh/day] Fuel cost per year 8390 [USD/year] Cost per litre water 0.12 [USD/l] CO2 emission per litre
water
Figure 4.4: Diesel generator to ELIXIR 500 diagram.
4.5
Hybrid solution
two energy resources to minimize the cost while satisfying the stability. Likewise, in the selection of energy resources for the hybrid energy solution, the energy resources which have the least cost should be primarily considered.
Emission is however, considerable but not the most critical factor. This is a determination with the consideration of the local situation due to the characteristics of rural areas in developing countries, and prioritizing emissions is not realistic. But the emission of a hybrid solution will be calculated and considered.
4.5.1 Solar stand-alone PV and diesel generator
To identify and compare the cost of different shares of solar power and diesel generated power in hybrid systems, four scenarios are presented. These scenarios consist of the following solar-diesel division: 20%-80%; 40%-60%; 50%-50% and 60%-40% respectively. The data used in calculations is the same in previous subchapters.
Table 4.6: Solar-diesel result table compared in cost ($)
Hybrid 1 20-80
Capital cost, $ Cost per litre water, $ Net present cost 20 years, $ CO2emission, kg Solar 10.400 0.0962 28.079 Diesel 13.277 0.1248 145833.00 416275.2 Total 23.677 0.1191 173.912 416275.2 Hybrid 2 40-60
Capital cost, $ Cost per litre water, $ Net present cost 20 years, $ CO2emission, kg Solar 18.050 0.0886 51.765 Diesel 112.300 0.1282 112299.84 312206.4 Total 130.350 0.1124 164.065 312206.4 Hybrid 3 50-50
Capital cost, $ Cost per litre water, $ Net present cost 20 years, $ CO2emission, kg Solar 21.875 0.0870 63.609 Diesel 10.762 0.1309 95533.20 260172 Total 32.637 0.1089 159.142 260172 Hybrid 4 60-40
Capital cost, $ Cost per litre water, $ Net present cost 20 years, $
CO2emission, kg
Solar 26600 0.0674 78.726
Diesel 9.923 0.1349 78766.56 208137.6
5
Result analysis and discussion
5.1
Results
Primary calculations gave a foundation to compare different feasible energy supply options to generate the energy demand for ELIXIR 500. Based on theoretical assumptions, a power grid stand-alone is the cheapest option with 0.057$/litre of water, but the actual power supply to where the prototype is located is much less than what demands.
For hybridized options, both solar-diesel and solar-power-grid were calculated. The result showed that solar-power-grid has a lower cost in terms of per litre water. This is due to the presence of the high fixed capital investment of diesel generators and fuel consumption. However, emission wise calculated based on the carbon dioxide emission only showed that hybridized systems with diesel generators release almost 50% less than with power grids.
Table 5.1: Results summary
Solution Reliability Installation cost, $
Annual cost, $ Cost per litre water, $
CO2 per litre
water, kg/litre Power grid Medium 0 4160 0.057 0.81
Wind power Low 104900 4800 0.18 0
Solar power Medium 414500 450 0.086 0
Diesel generator High 6300 8660 0.12 0.34
Solar(50%)-diesel(50%) High 32637 7957,1 0.1089 0.1782
5.2
Discussion and analysis
Considering the situation in Odisha, India, the power grid is not sufficient enough to cover every household with a sustainable power supply, and the current power demand in the school is minimal. Therefore, the power grid solution is only feasible on a theoretical level. However, there are still possibilities to increase the power grid supply in the area, for instance, by submitting an inquiry to National Energy Supply Corporation (NESCO) for future improvements.
resulting by the annual average wind speed of 4.4 m/s, which is only slightly over the cut-in speed of the wind turbine. From an economic point of view, building large wind turbines will lead to a high investment cost, but investing in smaller wind turbines does not increase the economic efficiency either. Nonetheless, the noise pollution, land requirement and wildlife-unfriendly issues are also critical factors that makes wind power
Compared to the wind resource, solar resources in Odisha are relatively more abundant and sustainable, especially from March to May. Higher efficiency due to the generous solar resource ensures the solar power solution to become more optimal, feasible and affordable. Solar panels occupy less area than the wind turbine and can install on roofs to reduce land use. Solar power has been proven to be suitable in both economical and emission wise. With no pollution emission during operation periods and the flexibility in transportation and area of installation, solar power is an obvious choice in hybridized energy systems. Diesel generators have the highest efficiency and are great as alternatives for supplying power demand. It is a preferable option not only on its own but also in hybridized energy systems, such as the more accessible fuels, relatively lower price, high reliability and efficiency. However, the emission caused by combustion of fossil fuels makes it less environmentally friendly. By combining diesel generators with one or more renewable energy sources, the disadvantage of high emission can be partially compensated. If both reliability and environmental aspects are considered equally important, then by decreasing the share of diesel generators in hybrid energy solutions, for instance with solar power will be the optimal solution.
energy in hybrid systems increases capital costs. But the net present price mostly depends on the total fuel price. The presence of a battery increases the initial capital cost of a system as well but reduces the operating hours of diesel generators in the system. In comparison, the most economically efficient way of the combination is to share 50% of each other, which levels at 0.1089$ per litre of water. From an environmental perspective, the larger proportion of solar power in the hybrid solution, the less CO2emission and fuel consumption will result from the diesel generator. However, it is noteworthy that both underload and overload of diesel generators will also cause mechanical wear. If considering expanding the proportion of solar power in the future, a diesel generator with smaller power should be replaced.
5.2.1 Result validation
The variation of the price should be considered as an essential factor to increase the margin of error. It is caused by various factors that are not mentioned or calculated in the study. On the one hand, the price of fuel and electricity may fluctuate by time, policy, and international trend. On the other hand, the referred modules in this study are only examples due to the lack of in-depth study and inquiry about the price and technical specifications. Therefore, the costs can consist of both upward waves and downward waves. The upward waves can be caused by such as tariff, transport, and device insurance. The downward waves can be caused by benefiting the rest value of the devices, choosing other modules with lower prices, or choosing the domestic manufacturers or sellers to avoid tariff and international shipping. The expectation is that the upward wave can compensate for downward waves to minimize the error.
6
Conclusions and future work
This thesis aims to analyse the various energy resources that can supply the water distillation device, ELIXIR 500, with a minimum water production of 200 litre per day. The device is located in a rural school in Balasore in Odisha, India. Power grid, wind power, solar power, and diesel generator are examined as the alternative energy resources in this study with respect to technical efficiency, price, reliability, CO2 emission, and the local situation. Furthermore, an analysis has been done for the possibility and feasibility of each energy solution.
The power grid solution has the lowest cost per litre water. However, the solution is not feasible in the current situation due to the low electrification rate in the rural area. Wind power had the lowest technical efficiency, highest cost and also pollution in terms of noise and land requirement. Solar power had more significant advantages, such as the relatively low cost, lower land requirement due to roof installation possibility, and zero-emission during operation. Unlike wind turbines, the deployment of solar panels can occur gradually, depending on the capital. The disadvantage is the uncontrollable power generation, which makes diesel generators a good supporting power generation. The diesel generator solution has a relatively high cost and CO2emission. However, the adjustable and stable power production combined with high access to diesel fuel leads to a high feasibility of the diesel generator solution. Finally, the solar-diesel hybrid solution includes the advantages of both diesel- and solar solutions and compensates for each other. The diesel generator offsets the uncontrollable power production of solar power and implements a stable power supply. Meanwhile, the relatively high emission and cost of the diesel generator solution are partially compensated by solar power, therefore the solar-diesel hybridized system becomes the most optimal choice.
6.1
Future Work
7
References
7.1
Academic references
https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Powered-by-Perkins-diesel- generator-20kw_6074918968.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.0.0.613679bbJxfZBA [Accessed 30 April 2020].A. Arulampalam, N. Mithulananthan, R. C. Bansal, and T. Saha, Micro-grid control of PV-wind-diesel hybrid system with islanded and grid connected operations, IEEE International Conference on Sustainable Energy Technologies (ICSET), pp. 1–5, 2010.
Adefarati, T. and Bansal, R., 2019. hapter 2 - Energizing Renewable Energy Systems and Distribution Generation. In: A. Taşcıkaraoğlu, ed., Pathways to a Smarter Power System. [online] Academic Press, pp.29-65. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780081025925000028 [Accessed 30 April 2020].
Adriindia.org. 2020. Water Resources Of India. [online] Available at: https://www.adriindia.org/adri/india_water_facts [Accessed 31 March 2020].
BBC News. 2020. India Country Profile. [online] Available at:
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12557384 [Accessed 31 March 2020].
Card, P., 2020. Diesel Price In Odisha, Diesel Rate Today (30Th April 2020). [online] Goodreturn. Available at:
https://www.goodreturns.in/diesel-price-in-odisha-s25.html [Accessed 30 April 2020].
DIRECTORATE OF CENSUS OPERATIONS, 2011. DISTRICT CENSUS HANDBOOK. 28th ed. [ebook] Pune: DIRECTORATE OF CENSUS
OPERATIONS. Available at:
http://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/2725_PART_B_DCHB_PUNE.pdf [Accessed 30 April 2020].
Döll, P., 2009. Vulnerability to the impact of climate change on renewable groundwater resources: A global�scale assessment. 4 ed. s.l.: Environ. Res. Lett.. EAI. India Wind Energy. [Online] Available at:
http://www.eai.in/ref/ae/win/win.html [Accessed 14 April 2020]
E. Alsema, ”Environmental life cycle assessment of solar home systems, ” Department of Science Technology and Society, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands, p. 89, 2000.
EAI. Central Government Policies. [Online] Available at:
http://www.eai.in/ref/ae/win/policies.html [Accessed 17 April 2020]
Economictimes, 2019. Efficiency of India’s coal-based power plants way below global standards: Study. [Online] Available at:
https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/energy/power/efficiency-of-
Eltawil, Mohamed & Zhao, Zhengming & Yuan, Liqiang, 2008. Renewable Energy Powered Desalination Systems: Technologies and Economics-State of the Art.
Evwind, 2012. Wind power and solar energy in Orissa. [Online] Available at: https://www.evwind.es/2012/04/04/wind-power-and-solar-energy-in-orissa/17577 [Accessed 14 April
2020]
Evwind, 2020. India has set itself a target of 60 GW of wind power capacity. [Online] Available at: https://www.evwind.es/2020/03/02/india-has-set-itself-a-target-of-60-gw-of-wind-power-capacity/73862 [Accessed 14 April
2020]
Facilitiesnet. n.d. Onsite Options. [online] Available at:
https://www.facilitiesnet.com/powercommunication/article/Onsite-Options– 1679 [Accessed 30 April
2020].
Garg, V. and Buckley, T., 2019. Vast Potential Of Rooftop Solar In India. [online] Ieefa.org. Available at:
https://ieefa.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/IEEFA-India_Vast-Potential-of-Rooftop-Solar-In-India.pdf [Accessed 30 April
2020].
Gaughan, Richard. 2018. How Much Land Is Needed for Wind Turbines?. [Online] Available at:
Guttikunda Sarath K.&Jawahar Puja, 2014. Atmospheric emissions and pollution from the coal-fired thermal power plants in India. Atmospheric Environment 92 (2014) 449-460. GWEC, 2018. GLOBAL WIND STATISTICS 2017. [Online] Available at:
https://gwec.net/wp-content/uploads/vip/GWEC_PRstats2017_EN-003_FINAL.pdf [Accessed 26 March 2020]
HVR, 2017. NEW HOPE FOR HUNDRED OF MILLIONS SUFFERING FROM POISONED WELL WATER. P.5 [online] Hvr.se. Available at:
https://www.hvr.se/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/broschyrhv_april2017-1.pdf [Accessed 3 April 2020].
Jabeck, 2013. Market Development and Design Engineer Consultant Electric Power Division. [online] Available at:
http://s7d2.scene7.com/is/content/Caterpillar/CM20151029-39727-00007? ga=2.137969203.2037771624.1590431388-1816340759.1590431388 [Accessed 25 May 2020].
HVR Water Purification AB (publ), 2013. ELIXIR 500: White paper 2013. https://www.hvr.se/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/white-paper-2013.pdf [Accessed 26 March 2020]
HVR Water Purification AB (publ), 2020. How a village school in Odisha, India, gets clean drinking water. [Online] Available at:
https://www.hvr.se/en/how-a-village-school-in-odisha-india-gets-clean-drinking-water/ [Accessed 26 March
2020]
https://ieefa.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/IEEFA-India_Vast-Potential-of-Rooftop-Solar-In-India.pdf [Accessed 11 April 2020].
Independent, 2017. Government rolls out strict new wind turbine rules but keeps minimum 500m set back distance near homes. [Online] Available at: https://www.independent.ie/irish-news/news/government-rolls-out-strict-new-wind-turbine-rules
but-keeps-minimum-500m-set-back-distance-near-homes-35822964.html[Accessed 17 April
2020]
Indianpowersector, 2012. Overview. [Online] Available at:
http://indianpowersector.com/home/about/ [Accessed 26 March 2020]
Jakhrani, A., 2012. KTHB - Proxy Login. [online] Ieeexplore-ieee-org.focus.lib.kth.se. Available at:
https://ieeexplore-ieee-org.focus.lib.kth.se/document/6344193 [Accessed 30 April 2020].
KENT RO SYSTEMS, 2017. Harmful Effects of Heavy Metal Contamination in Drinking. Water. [Online] Available at:
https://www.kent.co.in/blog/harmful-effects-of-heavy-metal-contamination-in-drinking-water/ [Accessed 29 February
2020].
KHAYET, M. 2011. Membranes and theoretical modeling of membrane distillation: a review. Adv Colloid Interface Sci, 164, 56-88.
for Sustainable Development. P.287 Available at:
http://www.idfc.com/pdf/report/2011/Chp-19-Water-Pollution-in-India-An-Economic-Appraisal.pdf [Accessed 8 April
2020].
Lian Yiting, 2014. Is solar photovoltaic really clean? Let’s take a look at ”hidden” pollution. [Online] Available
at:https://www.china5e.com/m/news/news-925521-1.html [Accessed 20 April 2020].
Mnre.gov.in. 2020. MNRE. [online] Available at:
https://mnre.gov.in/the-ministry/physical-progress [Accessed 11 April 2020].
Mohammed Rasool Qtaishat, Fawzi Banat, 2013. Desalination by solar powered membrane distillation systems. Desalination. 308, 186-197
Naturvårdsverket, 2019. Noise from wind turbines. [Online] Available at: http://www.swedishepa.se/Guidance/Guidance/Noise/Noise-from-wind-turbines/ [Accessed 17 April
2020]
NewEnergyUpdate, 2017. US wind O&M costs estimated at $48,000/MW; Falling costs create new industrial uses:IEA. [online] Available at:
https://analysis.newenergyupdate.com/wind-energy-update/us-wind-om-costs-estimated-4800mw-falling-costs-create-new-industrial-uses-iea [Accessed 17 April 2020].
Newindianexpress, Odisha Electricity Regulatory Commission’s power tariff charges remain unchanged from previous year. [Online] Available at:
https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/odisha/2019/jun/12/odisha-electricity-regulatory-co
missions-power-tariff-charges-remain-unchanged-from-previous-year-1988988.html [Accessed 27 March
2020]
Odisha Solar Policy, 2013. Odisha Solar Policy- 2013. [ebook]
GOVERNMENT OF ODISHA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT, p.5. Available at:
https://www.solartiger.in/SolarPolicies/Odisha_SOLAR%20POLICY.pdf [Accessed 11 April 2020].
OREDA, 2016. The Odisha Renewable Energy Development Agency (OREDA) Was Constituted As A State Nodal Agency In The 1984. [online] Oredaodisha.com. Available at: http://oredaodisha.com/achivements.htm [Accessed 11 April 2020].
Organization, W. H., 2011. Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. 4 ed. S.l.:s.n.
PAL, P. 2017. Industrial water treatment process technology, Oxford, United Kingdom, Butterworth-Heinemann, an imprint of Elsevier. p. 173-174
Pib.gov.in. 2019. Per Capita Availability Of Water. [online] Available at:https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.ATM.PM25.MC.M3?end=2017
&locations=IN&start=1990&view=chart [Accessed 30 March 2020].
Powerfromsunlight,2017. What Are The Operational Costs Of A Solar Panel System?. [online] Available at:
https://www.powerfromsunlight.com/operational-costs-solar-panel-system/ [Accessed 20 April 2020].
R. J. North, ”Assessment of real-world pollutant emissions from a light-duty diesel vehicle, ”Doctor of Philosophy Dissertation, Imperial College London, 2006. Science Direct. 1992. Emergency Supply Equipment. [online] Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080405148500173 [Accessed 30 April 2020].
Singh, S., 2019. India Becomes Lowest-Cost Producer Of Solar Power - ET Energyworld. [online] ETEnergyworld.com. Available at:
https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/renewable/india-becomes-lowest-cost-pro ucer-of-solar-power/69565769 [Accessed 11 April
2020].
Surender, K. and M.N., M., 2011. Water Pollution In India: An Economic Appraisal. [online] Idfc.com. Available at:
http://www.idfc.com/pdf/report/2011/Chp-19-Water-Pollution-in-India-An-Economic-Appraisal.pdf [Accessed 31 March
2020].
Sushma, U N, 2018.India is now the world’s third-largest electricity
producer. [Online] Available at: https://qz.com/india/1237203/india-is-now-the-worlds-third-largest-electricity-producer/ [Accessed 25 March
2020].
https://www.cleanenergyreviews.info/blog/solar-pv-cell-construction [Accessed 30 April 2020].
T. Adefarati, R.C. Bansal, J.J. Justo Reliability and economic evaluation of a microgrid power system Energy Procedia, 142 (2017), pp. 43-48
The Times of India. 2018. India Hits 20GW Solar Capacity Milestone -Times Of India. [online] Available at:
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/environment/developmental-issues/india-hits-20gw-solar-capacity-milestone/articleshow/62715512.cms [Accessed 11 April 2020].
Tomaszewska, Maria. Drioli, Enrico. ed., 2016. Air Gap Membrane Distillation (AGMD). Encyclopedia of Membranes. Berlin: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. 33-34
UNDP. 2020. Goal 11: Clean Water And Sanitation | UNDP In India. [online] Available at:
https://www.in.undp.org/content/india/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-11-sustainable-cities-and-communities.html [Accessed 25 May 2020].
UNDP. 2020. Goal 3: Clean Water And Sanitation | UNDP In India. [online] Available at: https://www.in.undp.org/content/india/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-3-good-health-and-well-being.html [Accessed 25 May 2020].
2020].
Veera Gnaneswar Gude. 2015. Energy storage for desalination processes powered by renewable energy and waste heat sources. Applied Energy. 137, 877-898,
Vourvoulias, A., 2020. How Efficient Are Solar Panels? (2020) | Greenmatch. [online] Greenmatch.co.uk. Available at:
https://www.greenmatch.co.uk/blog/2014/11/how-efficient-are-solar-panels [Accessed 30 April 2020].
Warsinger, David M.; Servi, Amelia; Connors, Grace B.; Lienhard V, John H. (2017). ”Reversing membrane wetting in membrane distillation: comparing dry out to backwashing with pressurized air”. Environmental Science: Water
Research & Technology. 3 (5): 930–939.
Warsinger, David M.; Swaminathan, Jaichander; Morales, Lucien L.; Lienhard V, John H. (2018). ”Comprehensive condensation flow regimes in air gap membrane distillation: Visualization and energy efficiency”. Journal of Membrane Science. 555: 517–528
Water, U., 2012. Managing Water under Uncertainty and Risk, The
unitehttps://www.overleaf.com/project/5ebc03f3dccd53000196a6a5d nations world water development report 4, Paris: United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation.
WHO, 2017. World health Organization. [Online] Available at:
Worldbank, 2017. PM2.5 air pollution, mean annual exposure (micrograms per cubic meter). [Online] Available at: =IN&start=1990&view=chart [Accessed 30 March 2020].
7.2
Product reference
BSM10-60K-B (Inverter): BLUESUN, 2020. BLUESUN grid tie inverter
10kw 20kw 30kw 40kw 50kw 10kva 20kva 30kva 40kva 50kva solar inverter. [Alibaba]. [Online] Available at:
https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/BLUESUN-grid-tie-inverter-10kw-20kw_60620827475.html?spm=a2700.7724857.normalList.49.7f8d4acb0PubSo [Accessed 30 April 2020]
BSM-X50A(Controller): Sunda, 2020. Shenzhen pwm solar power charge
controllers 50A/200A 96 volts for pv batteries. [Alibaba]. [Online] Available at:
https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Shenzhen-pwm-solar-power-charge-controllers_60650886249.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.0.0.4cd66132WgKf5K&s=p [Accessed 30 April 2020]
DL-12V100AH-4S4P (Battery): Delong, 2020. Lifepo4 battery pack 12V
400Ah with bms and metal case. [Alibaba]. [Online] Available at:
https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Lifepo4-battery-pack-12V-400Ah-with_62031561991.html?spm=a2700.7735675.normalList.163.236c2c69upKns1 [Accessed 30 April 2020]
EN-1000W-L (Wind turbine): ENGELEC, 2020. High Effective Wind
Turbine 96V/120V/240V/380V 100kw wind generator price. [Alibaba]. [Online] Available at:
https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/High-Effective-Wind-Turbine-96V-120V_62141594575.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.0.0.2e56581cpcro1s [Accessed 30 April 2020]
Land: Makaan, 2020. Residential Plot. [Online] Available at:
https://www.makaan.com/balasore/builder-sai-nakhetra-in-remuna-2919217/4356-sqft-plot [Accessed 30 April 2020]
SD-96-500M (Solar panel): Sunda, 2020. Sunda Brand high quality Mono
solar panel 48V 500W for industrial Roof-top project. [Alibaba]. [Online] Available at:
https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Sunda-Brand-high-quality-Mono-solar_62486347403.html?spm=a2700.7724857.normalList.1.50fe10ae4XUtch [Accessed 30 April 2020]
404D-22G(Diesel generator): Powered by Perkins diesel generator 20kw
25kva silent 404D-22G price list with AMF ATS. [Alibaba]. [Online] Available at: https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Powered-by-Perkins-diesel-
Appendices
[A] Power grid solution
1. Energy demand per day: Eday = VH2O,day∗Elitre = 200[l/day]∗0.75[kW h/l] =
150[kW h/day]
2. Cost per day: $day = Eday∗ $Elec,price = 150[kW h/day]∗ 0.076[USD/kW h] =
11.4[U SD/day]
3. Cost per year: $year = $day ∗ 365 = 11.4[USD/day] ∗ 365[days] =
4160[U SD/year]
4. Cost per litre water: $litre = $day/VH2O,day = 11.4[U SD/day]/200[l/day] =
0.057[U SD/l]
5. CO2 emission per litre water: CO2litre = CO2pow,grid ∗ Eday/VH2O,day =
1.08[kg/kW h]∗ 150[kW h/day]/200[l/day] = 0.81[kg/l]
[B] Wind power solution
1. Average wind velocity: νann,wind =
∑12
1 /12 == (3.12 + 3.72 + 4.84 + 5.36 + 4.82 + 4.95 + 5.37 + 4.76 + 3.95 + 3.79 + 4.12 + 3.54)/12 = 4.4[m/s]
2. General efficiency: ηgen ≈ 10%
3. Total efficiency: ηtotal= ηctrl∗ηbattery∗ηinverter∗ηgen = 0.99∗0.85∗0.88∗0.10 =
7.5% Note: each interconnection causes energy loss.
4. Energy demand per day: Eday = VH20,day∗Elitre = 200[l/day]∗0.75[kW h/l] =
150[kW h/day]
5. Assumed operation time of wind turbine per day: t=24[h]. Note: Theoretically, a wind turbine is able to generate power 24 hours in a day if the wind resource is continuous.
6. Required power
Note: The wind turbine must generate 6.25 kWh power every hour to satisfy the minimum energy demand for producing 200 litre of water per day. 7. Optimal power of wind turbine: Pwind = Eday/ηtotal = 6.25[kW h]/7.5[%] =
83[kW ]≈100[kW ] Note: However, the common medium-size modules on the market are 5kW, 10kW, 15kW, 20kW, 30kW, 50kW, and 100KW. Considering the numerous factors which may affect the power generation and the extra cost of land to install plural small wind turbines, the optimal module is identified as one piece of 100kW.
8. Optimal battery quantity:
Pbattery= Eday/Capacity = 150[kW h/day]/(12[V ]∗ 400[Ah]) ≈ 32[units]
9. Optimal power of inverter: P owerInput/ηinverter = 15[kW ]/0.88[%] =
17[kW ]20[kW ]
10. Land use: Aland= Pwind/AW /land = 100000[W ]/330[W /sqm] = 300[sqm]
11. The investment cost of Wind Power solution: $tot.invest = $invest =
105400[U SD]
Table 7.1: Details: Wind power.
1 * Wind turbine (100kW) 100[kW] * 0.6[USD/W] = 60000[USD] 1* Controller 1[unit]*450[USD] = 450[USD]
1 * Inverter (20kW) 20[kW] * 0.7[USD/W] = 1400[USD] 32 * Battery (12V400Ah) 32[units] * 900[USD/unit] = 28800[USD] Land (300 sq meter ) 300[sqm] * 49[USD/sqm] = 14700[USD]
12. Cost per year: $year = $tot.O&M = Pwind ∗ $O&M = 100000[W ] ∗ 0.048[U SD/W /year] = 4800[U SD/year]
13. Cost per litre water: $litre = [
∑
($invest/tprod,lif e) + $tot,O&M/(Vday ∗ 365))] =
Table 7.2: Details: Wind power 2.
1 * Wind turbine (100kW) 60000[USD] / 20 [years] = 3000[USD] 1* Controller 450[USD] / 25 [years] = 20 [USD] 1 * Inverter (20kW) 1400[USD] / 25 [years] = 60[USD]
32 * Battery (12V400Ah) 28800[USD] / (2000 [times]≈5.5[years]) = 5200[USD]
Land (300 sq meter ) 0[USD] / Permanent = 0[USD] O&M 4800 [USD]
[C] Solar power solution
1. Average insolation: Gann,day =
∑12
1 Gmen,day/12 = (4.55 + 5.21 + 5.90 + 6.31 +
6.12 + 4.43 + 3.93 + 3.97 + 4.20 + 4.54 + 4.49 + 4.39)/12 = 4.84[kW h/sqm/day]
2. Generation efficiency: ηgen ≈ 20% The generation efficiency of the solar
panel is referred to the product detail of Sunda SD-96-500M.
3. ηtotal = ηctrl∗ ηbattery∗ ηinverter∗ ηgen = 0.99∗ 0.85 ∗ 0.88 ∗ 0.20 = 14.6[%]
4. Energy demand per day: Eday = VH20,day∗Elitre = 200[l/day]∗0.75[kW h/l] =
150[kW h/day]
5. Cell area per panel: Acell = length ∗ width ∗ quantity = 0.15675[m] ∗
0.15675[m] ∗ 96[units] = 2.36[sqm] Not the entire surface of a solar panel is able to collect solar radiation, but only the cell area on a solar panel is functional. According to the product detail of Sunda SD-96-500M, the module solar cell is mono-crystalline 0.15675m*0.15675m and a total of 96 cells on each panel.
6. Power generation per panel in day: Egen,day = Gann,day ∗ Acell ∗ ηtotal =
4.84[kW h/sqm/day]∗ 2.36[sqm] ∗ 14.6[%] = 1.67[kW h/day]
7. Optimal quantity of solar panel:
Psol,quan = Eday/Egen,day = 150[kW h/day]/1.67[kW h/day] = 90[units]
8. Optimal power of solar panel: Psol,pow = Psol,quan∗power = 0[units]∗500[W ] =
45kW
17[kW ]20[kW ]
10. Land use: Aland = length∗ width ∗ Psol,quan = 1.956[m]∗ 1.31[m] ∗ 90[units] =
230[sqm] Here it is calculated by the length and width for an entire solar panel. According to the product detail of Sunda SD-96-500M, the surface of each solar panel is 1.956m*1.31m.
11. The investment of solar power solution: $tot,invest =
∑
$invest= 11250 + 450 +
1400 + 28800 + 0 = 41900[U SD]
Table 7.3: Details: Solar power.
90 * Solar panel (500W) 45000[W] * 0.25[USD/W] = 11250[USD] 1* Controller 1[unit]*450[USD] = 450[USD]
1 * Inverter (20kW) 20000[W] * 0.07[USD/W] = 1400[USD] 32 * Battery (12V400Ah) 32[units] * 900[USD] = 28800[USD] Land (230 sq meter ) 0[USD]
Assumes that all panels are able to be installed on roofs or private ground areas.
12. Cost per year: $year = $tot,O&M = Psol,quan∗$O&M = 90[units]∗5[USD/unit] = 450[U SD/year]
13. Cost per litre water: $litre = [
∑
($invest/tprod,lif e) + $tot,O&M/(Vday ∗ 365))] =
(5600 + 60 + 5200 + 0 + 450)[U SD]/(200[l/day]∗ 365[days]) = 0.086[USD/l] Table 7.4: Details: Solar power 2.
90 * Solar panel (500W) 11250[USD] / 20[years] = 5600[USD] 1* Controller 450[USD] / 25 [years] = 20 [USD] 1 * Inverter (20kW) 1400[USD] / 25[years] = 60[USD]
32 * Battery (12V400Ah) 28800[USD] /(2000[times]≈5.5[years]) = 5200[USD]
Land (230 sq meter ) 0[USD] / Permanent = 0[USD] O&M 450 [USD]
[D] Diesel generator solution
1. Fuel consumption(gram/kWh): mf uel = load∗ mf uel,stan == 198[g/kW h]∗
75[%] = 149[g/kW h] The fuel consumption of a diesel generator is depending on the load. According to the product detail of Perkins 404D-22G, the fuel consumption is 198g/kWh at 100% load, which corresponds to the power of 20kW. The heat input of ELIXER 500 is 15kw, thus the diesel generator is expected to operate at 75% load.
2. Fuel consumption(litre/kWh) : Vf uel = mf uel/ϱ == 149[g/kW h]/0.8450[kg/l] = 0.176[l/kW h] The avg
density of diesel is 0.845kg/litre.
3. Energy demand per day: Eday = VH20,day∗Elitre = 200[l/day]∗0.75[kW h/l] =
150[kW h/day]
4. Annual fuel consumption : Vf uel,year = Vf uel ∗ Eday = 0.176[l/kW h] ∗
150[kW h/day]∗ 365[days] = 9640[l/year]
5. Fuel cost per year: $f uel,year = $f uel,price ∗ Vf uel,year == 9640[l/year] ∗
0.87[U SD/l] = 8390[U SD/year]
6. Total O&M cost: $tot,O&M = Eday∗ 365 ∗ $O&M == 150[kW h/day]∗ 365[days] ∗ 0.005[U SD/kW h] = 270[U SD/year]
7. Cost per year: $year = $f uel,year+ $tot,O&M == 8390 + 270 = 8660[U SD/year] 8. Cost per litre water: $litre = [
∑
($invest/tprod,lif e) + $tot,O&M/(Vday ∗ 365))] =
(320 + 8390 + 270)[U SD]/(200[l/day]∗ 365[days]) = 0.12[USD/year] Table 7.5: Details: Diesel generator.
Diesel generator 6300[USD] / 20[years] = 320[USD] Fuel cost per year 8390[USD]
O&M cost per year 270[USD]
9. CO2 Emission per litre water: CO2litre = CO2f uel ∗ Eday/Vf uel/VH20,day =
[E] Hybrid solution
Calculation for solar power at 20% supply:
1. 20% of minimum water supply: 20%∗ VH2O = 0.2∗ 200[l/day]litre/day =
40litre/day
2. Power demand per day : Psol∗Elitre = 40[l/day]∗0.75[kW h/l] = 30[kW h/day]
3. Solar panel quantity:
Qsol = Psol/Egen,day = 30[kW h/day]/1.167[kW h/day]≈ 18[units]
4. Total power produced by 18 panels: Psol= 18[units]∗ 500[W ] = 9[kW ]
5. Land use: Aland = length∗ width ∗ Qsol = 1.956[m]∗ 1.31[m] ∗ 18[units] ≈
47[m2]
6. Battery quantity = 7 pieces
7. Inverter=1400[USD/unit]; O&M=450[USD/year]; Battery=900[USD/piece]
8. Capital cost (first year): (18∗ 125) + 1400 + (7 ∗ 900) + 450 = 10400[USD] 9. Net present cost: (18∗125)+1400+(7∗900∗205.5)+(450∗20) = 35559[USD] 10. Cost per litre water: 35559/(20∗ 365 ∗ 40l) = 0.1217[USD/l]
Calculation for diesel generator at 80% supply:
1. 80% of minimum water supply: 0.8∗ 200[l/day] = 160[l/day]
2. Energy demand per day: Eday = VH20,day∗Elitre = 160[l/day]∗0.75[kW h/l] =
120[kW h/day]
3. Fuel consumption: 0.176[l/kW h]∗ 120[kW h/day] ∗ 365 = 7708.8[l/year] 4. Fuel cost per years: 6706.656[U SD/years]
5. Diesel generator: 6300[U SD/unit]; O&M = 270[U SD/years] 6. Capital cost (first year): 6300 + 270 + 6706.656 = 13276[U SD]
