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IN

DEGREE PROJECT INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT,

SECOND CYCLE, 30 CREDITS STOCKHOLM SWEDEN 2021,

Technological Innovation System of Distribution System for

Hydrogen applied to Heavy-duty Vehicles

Enabling factors for the development of a distribution system for hydrogen in Sweden LISA ERIKSSON

KTH ROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

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Technological Innovation System of

Distribution System for Hydrogen applied to Heavy-duty Vehicles

Enabling factors for the development of a distribution system for hydrogen in Sweden

by

Lisa Eriksson

Master of Science Thesis TRITA-ITM-EX 2021:320 KTH Industrial Engineering and Management

Industrial Management SE-100 44 STOCKHOLM

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Tekniskt innovationssystem för

distributionssystem för vätgas tillämpad för tung trafik

Möjliggörande faktorer för utvecklingen av ett distributionssystem för vätgas i Sverige

av

Lisa Eriksson

Examensarbete TRITA-ITM-EX 2021:320 KTH Industriell teknik och management

Industriell ekonomi och organisation SE-100 44 STOCKHOLM

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Abstract

Factors that could enable the development of a distribution system for hydrogen applied to heavy-duty vehicles in Sweden are studied in this thesis. Fuel cell and hydrogen technology could be a solution in an electrification mix to reduce the environmental impacts of heavy-duty vehicles (Neef, 2009). However, the distribution system for hydrogen in Sweden is limited, with only five hydrogen refueling stations geographically dispersed (Vätgas Sverige, n.d.). In addition, distribution options at the lowest-cost delivery mode are highly dependent on the hydrogen application, density of demand, quantity to be transported, and distance between the delivery point and the production (Bersani, et al., 2018)

To determine what factors could be decisive to develop a distribution system, the technological innovation system framework has been applied in this study. The analysis is carried out with the framework’s system functions. Further, the analysis is based on literature on hydrogen that considers hindering factors and barriers, policy recommendations, lock-in effects, distribution and transportation, and centralized vs. de-centralized systems. Moreover, data has been collected through 11 semi-structured interviews with actors from different sectors, energy companies, truck manufacturers, and researchers, amongst others. The analysis concludes that cross-sectoral collaboration, pilot testing, and governmental support can be enabling factors for the development of a distribution system in Sweden.

Key words: Technological innovation system, hydrogen, distribution system, HDV, Sweden.

Master of Science Thesis TRITA-ITM-EX 2021:320

Technological Innovation System of Distribution System for Hydrogen

applied to Heavy-duty Vehicles

Enabling factors for the development of a distribution system for hydrogen in Sweden

Lisa Eriksson

Approved

2021-06-07

Examiner

Frauke Urban

Supervisor

Fabian Levihn

Commissioner

The Swedish Transport Administration

Contact person

Björn Hasselgren Elin Näsström

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Examensarbete TRITA-ITM-EX 2021:320

Tekniskt innovationssystem för distributionssystem för vätgas tillämpad

för tung trafik

Möjliggörande faktorer för utvecklingen av ett distributionssystem för vätgas i Sverige

Lisa Eriksson

Godkänt

2021-06-07

Examinator

Frauke Urban

Handledare

Fabian Levihn

Uppdragsgivare

Trafikverket

Kontaktperson

Björn Hasselgren Elin Näsström

Sammanfattning

Faktorer som kan möjliggöra utvecklingen av ett distributionssystem för vätgas applicerat för tunga fordon i Sverige studeras i den här studien. Tekniken för bränsleceller och vätgas kan vara en lösning i en elektrifieringsmix för att minska miljöpåverkan från tunga fordon (Neef, 2009). Distributionssystemet för vätgas i Sverige är dock begränsat, med endast fem vätgastankstationer som är geografiskt spridda (Vätgas Sverige, n.d.). Dessutom är distributionsalternativen till lägst kostnad i hög grad beroende av väteapplikationen, efterfrågan, kvantitet som ska transporteras och avståndet mellan leveranspunkten och produktionen (Bersani, et al., 2018)

För att avgöra vilka faktorer som kan vara avgörande för att utveckla ett distributionssystem har ramverket för teknisk innovation system tillämpats i den här studien. Analysen utförs med ramverkets systemfunktioner. Vidare baseras analysen på litteratur om väte som tar hänsyn till hindrande faktorer och barriärer, policyrekommendationer, lock-in-effekter, distribution och transport och centraliserade kontra decentraliserade system. Dessutom har data samlats in genom 11 halvstrukturerade intervjuer med aktörer från olika sektorer, energibolag, lastbilstillverkare och forskare, bland annat. Utifrån analysen dras slutsatsen att sektorsövergripande samarbete, pilottestning och statligt stöd är faktorer som kan möjliggöra en utveckling av ett distributionssystem för vätgas i Sverige.

Nyckelord: Teknisk innovation system, vätgas, distributionssystem, tunga fordon, Sverige.

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Foreword & Acknowledgements

This thesis is in collaboration with The Swedish Transport Administration’s Program for Electrification of the major stretches of the state road network for heavy transport, which investigates various electrification techniques; battery-equipped vehicles combined with stationary charging, fuel cells/hydrogen, and various solutions for dynamic charging (electric roads) (Trafikverket, 2020).

First of all, I want to thank my supervisors at the Swedish Transport Administration, Björn Hasselgren and Elin Näsström, for providing me with such an exciting topic for my thesis, the guidance, and support. Also, a special thanks to my supervisor Fabian Levihn at the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) for guidance and feedback through this thesis. Moreover, I would like to thank my student peer reviewers at KTH, Mahmoud Samara and Sergey Perelygin, for constructive critique and suggestions of improvements; it has been valuable to get your insights.

This thesis would not have been possible without all the interviewees that have participated and taking their time and discussed this topic with me; it has been educative and interesting - thank you.

Stockholm, May 2021 Lisa Eriksson

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Table of Content

1. INTRODUCTION ... 7

1.1BACKGROUND ... 7

1.2PROBLEM FORMULATION ... 8

1.3PURPOSE ... 8

1.4DELIMITATION AND LIMITATION ... 8

1.5RESEARCH QUESTION ... 9

2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ... 10

2.1TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION SYSTEM ... 10

2.2CRITIQUE ... 13

3. LITERATURE REVIEW ... 14

3.1HINDERING FACTORS AND BARRIERS ... 14

3.2POLICY RECOMMENDATION ... 14

3.3LOCK-IN EFFECTS ... 15

3.4DISTRIBUTION AND TRANSPORT ... 17

3.4.1 Tube trailer ... 17

3.4.2 Pipelines ... 18

3.4.3 Fuel stations ... 18

3.5CENTRALIZED VS. DECENTRALIZED SYSTEM ... 19

4. METHODOLOGY ... 21

4.1RESEARCH DESIGN ... 21

4.2DATA COLLECTION ... 21

4.2.1 Literature Review ... 21

4.2.2 Interviews ... 22

4.3DATA ANALYSIS ... 23

4.3.1 Thematic Analysis ... 23

4.4RESEARCH QUALITY ... 23

4.4.1 Validity ... 23

4.4.2 Reliability ... 24

4.5ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ... 24

5. RESULTS ... 26

5.1JUSTIFICATION &DRIVING FORCES ... 26

5.2OBSTACLES &BARRIERS ... 28

5.3DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM DESIGN ... 30

5.4KEY ACTORS ... 33

5.5GOVERNMENTAL SUPPORT ... 35

5.6KNOWLEDGE NEEDS ... 35

6. DISCUSSION ... 38

6.1FUNCTION ANALYSIS ... 38

7. CONCLUSIONS ... 44

7.1ANSWER TO THE RESEARCH QUESTION ... 44

7.2FUTURE RESEARCH ... 45

REFERENCES ... 46

APPENDIX ... 50

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List of Abbreviations

F1 - Entrepreneurial Activities F2 - Knowledge Development

F3 - Knowledge Diffusion through Networks F4 - Guidance of Search

F5 - Market Formation F6 - Resource Mobilization F7 - Creation of Legitimacy FCV – Fuel Cell Vehicle GH2 – Gaseous Hydrogen

HFCV – Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle HDV – Heavy Duty Vehicles

LH2 – Liquid Hydrogen

TIS – Technological Innovation System

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1. Introduction

This section includes the background and context of the problem, followed by the problem formulation and purpose of this thesis. The thesis’ delimitations later follow this, and at the end, the research question is stated.

1.1 Background

“The green revolution” is a new societal revolution which scale, and significance are comparable with the industrial revolution. However, the resources and capabilities of modern science and technology, globalization, and that large groups are mobilized to act acting to drive sustainability transformations and improvements forward are all indications of a faster proceeding of this revolution than the industrialization (Burns, 2012). As a part of this green revolution, the global automotive industry is experiencing a paradigm shift from the traditional internal combustion engine to next-generation vehicles, which includes electric cars, amongst others (Hong, et al., 2020).

Many countries have established increasingly ambitious and strict targets in support of transport electrification, which is widely considered an attractive solution to reduce the environmental impact and oil dependency (Zhang & Fujimori, 2020). In Sweden, the Swedish Transport Administration's Program for Electrification of the major stretches of the state road network for heavy transport investigates various electrification techniques; battery-equipped vehicles combined with stationary charging, multiple solutions for dynamic charging (electric roads), and fuel cells/hydrogen (Trafikverket, 2020).

Fuel cells and hydrogen technology can be used in many different areas where there is a need for electricity. Stationary fuel cells can be used for the production of electricity for the electricity grid or non-grid facilities (Energiforsk, 2019). A growing market for the application of stationary fuel cells is the use of it as reserve power; this is common for telecom and data centres (ibid.). It can also be used as small, combined heat and power plants for housing, and the largest market for this application in terms of volumes exists in Japan, Korea, and Germany (ibid.). However, fuel cell technology has better potential in transport, which is the fastest- growing application area. Fuel cells with hydrogen have started to be used in larger trucks, such as heavy-duty trucks on a pilot scale (ibid.).

Electrolysis, gas reforming, and gasification are the three main methods for producing hydrogen (Sweco, 2014). Electrolysis is industrially well developed and has been used for over 100 years.

The baseline for this technology is that water is broken down into its constituents, hydrogen and oxygen by electrodes connected to electricity are immersed in a solution (mainly water), and a voltage across the electrodes arises (ibid.). That water vapor and natural gas are mixed and allowed to react under special conditions is the technic behind gas reforming, which leads to the formation of hydrogen gas and carbon dioxide. This is used today on a large scale within the industry. Hydrogen production through gasification of biomass means that biomass is heated to high temperatures and decomposes into synthesis gas, which can then be processed into hydrogen gas (ibid). Of the global hydrogen production, gas reforming constitutes about 75%, gasification about 23% and electrolysis about 0.1% (IEA, 2019).

The fuel cell/hydrogen technology’s history in Sweden is long, already in the 1960s, there was an interest in hydrogen vehicles, but since then, the level of interest has varied. According to Jönsson (2006), in her study of hydrogen’s history in Sweden, it is stated that most of the

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activities between 1960-2005 have been technology research or studies. However, the few demonstration projects could have been more successful if smaller vehicle fleets were investigated. Besides, it is stated that authorities and companies may have experienced difficulties prioritising and making long-term commitments during this time. This was due to the Swedish Government, at that time, defining hydrogen as a fuel attractive only in a more extended timeframe (Jönsson, 2006).

However, this is not the case today in 2021; the European Commission has invested 430 billion euros (of which 180 billion in pure aid) by 2030 to make hydrogen part of the future energy mix (European Commission, 2020). In Sweden, the government has commissioned the Swedish Energy Agency to develop a national hydrogen strategy in light of the great interest from the industry and the transport industry (Vätgas Sverige, 2021). Other countries, such as Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, and Norway, are ahead and have already developed hydrogen strategies (Fossilfritt Sverige, 2021).

1.2 Problem formulation

The transportation volumes in Sweden are projected to increase, at the same time as the transport sector is responsible for a significant share of greenhouse emissions; the aim is by 2045 to achieve net-zero emissions of these gases. To reach this emission reduction goal, the development and implementation of electrified transports are crucial (Smart City Sweden, n.d.).

The technology of hydrogen and fuel cell has the potential to be a part of the solution (Neef, 2009). However, even if this technology is at an earlier stage of development compared to other electrification alternatives of road-borne transports, such vehicle applications still occur on a small scale (IVL, 2019).

Today, the distribution network for hydrogen in Sweden is more or less non-existent, and the most significant challenge highlighted is the expansion of the entire chain required for the use of hydrogen (production, distribution, and vehicle application). However, the distribution of fuel is also pointed out as the most critical aspect of expansion at a larger scale (IVL, 2019).

Today, only five hydrogen fuel stations exist in five different Swedish cities; Gothenburg, Mariestad, Arlanda, Sandviken, and Umeå; these stations are spread over a large geographic area (Vätgas Sverige, n.d.).

1.3 Purpose

The research purpose is to evaluate the viability of the distribution system for hydrogen as a measure to reduce CO2 emissions from road transport from a socio-technical system perspective. This to create an overall picture of how a hydrogen economy for a distribution system for heavy-duty transports in Sweden can be designed.

1.4 Delimitation and Limitation

This study focuses on the distribution system for hydrogen, how the hydrogen is distributed from production site to refueling point. The other subsystems, ‘production’ and ‘transport infrastructure and market’, are handled as external factors as input in the distribution system.

The studied distribution system is supposed to apply to heavy-duty transport within Sweden.

Storing of hydrogen is not included in the study.

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1.5 Research Question

Based on the findings in the introduction, the main research question is formulated to:

What factors enable the development of a distribution system for hydrogen applied to heavy- duty vehicles in Sweden?

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2. Theoretical Framework

The technological innovation system framework will guide the analysis in this thesis. In this section, background to the framework is provided, followed by describing its seven system functions. This section ends with shortcomings of the framework and how this is addressed in this thesis.

2.1 Technological Innovation System

The technological innovation system (TIS) framework is rooted in the field of innovation studies, and according to van Alphen et al. (2009), it has successfully been applied to various trajectories of energy technologies (van Alphen, et al., 2009). Generally, a system is defined as a group of components that serves the same purpose. In an innovation system, these components are networks, actors and institutions that influence the overall function of developing, diffusing and use of new goods, services and processes. The TIS framework captures the structural characteristics of this system, both the dynamic of it and the key processes (Bergek, et al., 2008). The key processes are synthesized from several systems approaches to innovation (ibid.) and are labelled as ‘functions of innovation systems’ (van Alphen, et al., 2009). Further, these functions, in terms of system dynamics, enable comparison between different innovation systems and provide a basis for performance appraisal (Bergek, et al., 2008).

This thesis will mainly apply the TIS framework presented in the literature by Bergek et al.

(2008) and Hekkert & Negro (2009). The literature conducted by Hekkert & Negro (2009) is based on five different studies that have applied the TIS framework and focus on emerging sustainable technologies; they have found that the specific set of functions is suitable (ibid.).

Further, Bergek et al. (2008) have developed a practical scheme of analysis for policymakers based on their own experience and previously conducted literature. Moreover, Hekkert & Negro (2009) focus more on quantifiable measurements, whereas Bergek, et al. (2008) also include qualitative indicators (Markard & Truffer, 2008). Including both measurements in this thesis is considered suitable when assessing the data that has been collected inductively.

Figure 1: Schematic analysis of the TIS framework, illustrated by Bergek, et al. (2008).

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By the use of the system functions approach, a technological innovation system and its dynamics can be described through seven system functions; (F1) Entrepreneurial Activities, (F2) Knowledge Development, (F3) Knowledge Diffusion through Networks, (F4) Guidance of Search, (F5) Market Formation, (F6) Resource Mobilization, and (F7) Creation of Legitimacy (Hekkert & Negro, 2009).

A TIS develops under great uncertainty regarding applications, technology, and markets (Bergek, et al., 2008). This uncertainty is not limited only to initial phases and further serves as an essential feature of industrial and technological development (ibid.). Testing technology and application is needed to reduce uncertainty (ibid.), which implies entrepreneurial activities (F1), the first function of the innovation system. Whether a TIS will progress or not can be indicated by entrepreneurial activities (Hekkert & Negro, 2009). According to Hekkert & Negro (2009), entrepreneurial activities are considered a prime indicator of this since technology diffusion develops in line with entrepreneurial action in most cases (ibid.). In line with this, it is stated that, ”[…] a TIS without vibrant experimentation will stagnate” (Bergek, et al., 2008, p. 416). Further, it is suggested to map the activities by the number of new entrants and diversifying established firms, the number of different types of applications, and additionally, the breadth of the techniques used, and the nature of the complementary techniques used (ibid.).

According to Bergek, et al. (2008), knowledge development (F2) is placed at the heart of a TIS.

Further, Hekkert & Negro (2009) assessed this function to be important in all cases. It is emphasized that knowledge development needs a broader definition than knowledge about the performance and function of new technology; creating insights about the adaptation between new technology and existing business methods and new or existing rules is essential (ibid.).

Similarly, Bergek et al. (2008) suggest observing different types of knowledge, e.g., technological, market, scientific, and design knowledge. Further, different sources of knowledge should be observed, e.g., learning from new applications, imitation, and R&D (ibid.). The dynamics of F2 can be measured by, for example, size, number, and orientation of R&D projects, bibliometrics, and assessments by managers and others (ibid.).

The third function, knowledge diffusion through networks (F3), regards how and where knowledge is exchanged (Hekkert & Negro, 2009). It could be within R&D, but also knowledge exchange between R&D and market, government, and competitors (ibid.). It is suggested to align the standards and long-term targets with the latest technological insights, and changing norms and values are likely to affect the R&D focus (ibid.). New actors within a TIS can strengthen the political power to advocate collaboration, which will improve the chances of a successful legitimation process (Bergek, et al., 2008). This function can be challenging to map;

however, it is suggested to interview agents in the innovation system (Hekkert & Negro, 2009).

Guidance of the search (F4) considers activities within a TIS that bring clarity and visibility of specific whishes among technology users (Hekkert & Negro, 2009). An example could be the articulation of policy goals and aims or expectations that can create momentum for change in a particular direction (ibid.). The number of resources allocated to knowledge development has been influenced by strong guidance, and it has also motivated entrepreneurs to enter a new technology field. In line with this, it has been observed that lack of guidance makes entrepreneurs less willing to invest (ibid.). This function can be measured or indicated by qualitative factors such as the extent of regulatory pressures, beliefs in growth potential, furthermore, expressed interest by leading customers (Bergek, et al., 2008).

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The fifth function is market formation (F5). It is crucial to create protected spaces for new technology since incumbent technologies are hard to compete with (Hekkert & Negro, 2009).

The emerging TIS market may not exist, and uncertainties may prevail in several dimensions;

potential customers and their demand, price, and performance of the new technology can be substandard (Bergek, et al., 2008). For markets to evolve formation of standards are usually needed (ibid.). Further, it is proposed to create temporary niche markets, either by actors in the TIS or by governments. Furthermore, for a TIS to evolve, it could be possible to temporarily create a competitive advantage by, for example, favorable tax rules or minimum consumption quotas (Hekkert & Negro, 2009). The market formation is described to have three phases;

nursing (emerging market), bridging (TIS has found a place to form, however, limited size of the market), mature (successful TIS with mass-market) (ibid.).

The function resource mobilization (F6) considers a TIS ability to mobilize and allocate the right resources to evolve (Bergek, et al., 2008). Human and financial resources are needed;

human in terms of education in specific technological and scientific fields, management and economic and entrepreneurship, and financial resources in terms of financial capital and complementary assets (ibid.). The dynamics of F6 are suggested to be measured by increasing volumes of capital, seed, and venture capital or changes in complementary assets and by changing quality and volume of human resources (ibid.).

The last function, creation of legitimacy (F7), is argued to be of utmost importance (Hekkert

& Negro, 2009), and it regards compliance with relevant institutions and social acceptance (Bergek, et al., 2008). The new technology and its proponents need to be found attractive and appropriate among relevant actors to form demand, mobilize resources and actors in a TIS to gain political strength (ibid.). It has been observed that lack of creation of legitimacy indicates a poor adaptation between institutions and the needs of the emerging innovation system or that the TIS is poorly functioning (Hekkert & Negro, 2009). Further, it is stated that ”Mapping the functional dynamics of ‘legitimation’ includes analyzing both the legitimacy of the TIS in the eyes of various relevant actors and stakeholders (not least the ones that could be expected to engage in the development of the new technology, e.g. potential capital goods suppliers and buyers), and the activities within the system that may increase this legitimacy” (Bergek, et al., 2008, p 417).

By studying each function and its dynamic separately, and the interaction between them, a functional pattern can be mapped. Relations in a TIS between components, i.e., actors, networks, etc., are manifold; due to interaction between them, they can either be shared between several systems or be specific to a TIS (Hekkert & Negro, 2009). Further, it is pointed out that the assessment of the functions may distinguish different phases of system development; the importance of each function can differ in a formative phase than in a later phase when a market is growing, and the innovation diffuses (Markard & Truffer, 2008).

An advantage of using the TIS approach when studying an emerging innovation system is that the number of components to consider is generally much smaller than in other innovation approaches, reducing the complexity. Thereby, applying the TIS approach enables studying dynamics and enhances to get a better understanding of what is happening within an innovation system (Hekkert & Negro, 2009). The distribution network for hydrogen in Sweden is more or less non-existent, which implies that such a system could be an emerging system; therefore, the given motivation to examine the distribution network with a TIS approach suitable.

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2.2 Critique

The TIS framework has been criticized for its limitations regarding geographical and cross- border dimensions of innovation (Gosens, et al., 2015). Cross-border and international dimensions in a technological innovation system’s institutions and actor-network are heavily influenced by its development in emerging economies (ibid.). A TIS solely analyzed with a national limitation, risk missing crucial factors for its development (ibid.).

Even though the research question and aim of the thesis are set in a Swedish context, this criticism has been taken into account in this thesis; partly by basing the study on international literature and partly by considering international aspects in data collection through interviews.

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3. Literature Review

The following literature review was carried out to better understand the development of fuel cells/hydrogen technology and its application within the transport sector. Therefore, it highlights literature on hindering factors and barriers, policy recommendations, and lock-in effects. Further, the review covers literature on hydrogen distribution and transport alternatives and studies on centralized and decentralized hydrogen systems. This literature was covered to understand further the pros and cons of different designs of hydrogen systems. The review was conducted with an inductive approach, without any predetermined theories or conceptual framework.

3.1 Hindering factors and barriers

In an article from 2009 (Neef, 2009), it has been pointed out that cooperation on fuel cell and hydrogen technology was in the process of being well-ordered in Europe. This was enabled by strong programs established in many Member States and coordination through the European Commission (ibid.). European academia and industry are said to be collaborating intensively and successfully within the Joint Technology Initiative (JTI) and the European Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology Platform (HFP) (ibid.). However, research conducted in the UK in 2015 pointed out that a collaborative approach is still crucial for full commercialization of fuel cells and hydrogen; a collaboration between industry, academia, and government (Stockford, et al., 2015).

More recent research highlights several barriers to developing fuel cell vehicles (FCV) and large commercialization deployment (Bethoux, 2020). Some key aspects are that onboard fuel cell systems require further improvements in durability, environmental footprint, and cost.

Switching to a consumer product used under the different operational conditions from a highly centralized application handled by skilled personnel is challenging (ibid.). This places new demands on the road vehicle sector regarding safety. The hydrogen production route is crucial to ensure a positive impact on greenhouse gas emissions and energy consumption. What constitutes a bottleneck for the development of low-carbon fuel cell vehicles and their commercial maturity is the lack of green hydrogen (ibid.).

3.2 Policy recommendation

A study of the possibilities of decarbonizing the Malaysian transport sector by promoting hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCV) conducted by Quasem Al-Amin & Doberstein (2019), suggests managing the demand and supply-side policies. Factors on the demand-side policies that can significantly impact HFCV adoption are environmental knowledge toward awareness and behavior toward environmental knowledge and awareness. Further, mass production, R&D, safety, subsidy issues, and regulatory frameworks, amongst others, are factors on the supportive supply side (ibid.). The study suggests that policymakers need to counter existing macroeconomic deterrents and motivate consumer demand. Some examples from the conclusions of how this can be done are public investments in R&D, HFCVs registration fee reductions, and low-carbon fuel policy development (ibid.).

In contrast, another study carried out by Leibowicz (2018) has focused on the infrastructure provision and analyzed historical data on the diffusion dynamics of transport systems in the United States. The study problematizes the chicken-and-egg problem that consumers are not likely to adopt new technology without supporting technology infrastructure. At the same time, without a critical mass of adopters, the infrastructure provision is unprofitable (ibid.). One of

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the study's findings is that a transition to sustainable mobility can be more effective if supported by policymakers who can allocate public resources in a manner that reflects sequences of a diffusion process. It was found that the first element of each historical transport system to diffuse was the infrastructure (ibid.). Therefore, the study also suggests that a significant policy consideration early in the technology life cycle should be the infrastructure provision. Further, it is suggested to target niche markets. The subsequent use of low-carbon transport technology is expected to be the strongest and fastest since the diffusion will become sustaining faster, and the benefits of the costs for limited infrastructure are maximized if successfully targeting (ibid.).

Furthermore, bringing fuel supply and demand closer would mean fewer pipelines, trucks, and wires are needed to provide demand sites with fuel. Therefore, it is suggested that governments should support distributed technologies that produce these fuels near or at service stations (ibid.). Authors of another study, Saboohi, et al. (2008), have also emphasized the same chicken-and-egg-problem in achieving a hydrogen economy, and they point at synergies between industries as a solution. They state that the solution may lay in demand within the industries that can lower the hydrogen costs (ibid.).

Similarly, to both Quasem Al-Amin & Doberstein (2019) and Leibowicz (2018), Bento (2010) recommends that governments implement agreements and policies to influence the incentive structure in order to open the market and reduce uncertainties to hydrogen and fuel cells. Three measures are stated; first, to increase the industry's pressure to develop clean technology, stricter regulation on CO2 emissions from cars should be set (Bento, 2010). The diffusion of clean technologies in the transport sector depends heavily on the implementation of regulatory and market measures. To accelerate technological change and pressure vehicle manufacturers to consider more radical innovation regarding electrification, vehicle emission regulation could be in place (ibid.). Secondly, to create a market for fuel cells, deployment incentives are essential; an increase in production can lead to learning and scale gain, which leads to decreased costs (ibid.). Therefore, it is suggested to create incentives to invest in infrastructure, either tax credit or grants, to compensate for actor’s losses due to underutilization at an initial phase (ibid.). Thirdly, to make more resources available to construct the initial infrastructure and possibly reduce investment risks, public-private partnerships could be at hand (ibid.). A transition is enabled if coordinated decisions are made among several actors, decisions regarding market entry, R&D, and infrastructure implementation (Bento, 2010).

In a study exploring a cluster strategy for introducing refueling infrastructure and hydrogen vehicles in Southern California over ten years, conducted by Ogden & Nicholas (2011), the analysis suggests different policy measures. The policy measure suggestions regard the high capital cost of early stations and the long time until payback. It is suggested that early station providers should be rewarded since they could help improve the business case for hydrogen infrastructure development (ibid.). The reward could be in subsidies or government cost-share for early stations, low land costs, or in high demand areas provide stations with feedstock, amongst others (ibid.). Further, the analysis suggests that the entire system, both vehicle and fuel, should be considered in the strategy to enable zero mission transportations. Therefore, it is suggested that a corresponding requirement for fuel production should be established (ibid.).

3.3 Lock-in effects

The extent of lock-in and path dependence varies in different phases of transitions, and the success and effectiveness of adoption and diffusion of innovations can be dependent on them (Safarzyńska, et al., 2012). Lock-in effects can be described as significant obstacles to transitions, and this can occur when old technologies are favored; when a particular technology

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is widely used, it becomes more attractive. Difficulties to transition to sustainable energy systems, transports, and agriculture are closely related to lock-in and unlocking policies (ibid.).

Individuals in evolutionary economics change over time through individual and social learning;

this may lead to lock-in since it occurs in a path-dependent manner (ibid.). In 2000 Unruh (2000) stated that some lock-in effects are grounded in social contexts. One example is that citizens in industrial countries have actively adapted their lifestyle to the automobile transportation system; the lock-in lies in the resistance to rationalize their lifestyle with the social and environmental externalities it can create (ibid.). Further, carbon lock-in, i.e., lock-in of fossil fuel dependence and associated carbon emissions, can occur when making carbon- intensive investments, and in turn, development pathways are chosen (Erickson, et al., 2015).

Carbon lock-in can also be the effect of governments' difficulties to remove counterproductive and sometimes outdated subsidy programs (Unruh, 2000). Carbon lock-in makes it more challenging to transit to lower-carbon pathways and to reduce climate risks (Erickson, et al., 2015). Moreover, the fossil fuel energy regime has been improved and developed over a long period, it presents a mature socio-technical regime that includes a high degree of technological lock-in (Vergragt, et al., 2011). The regime includes drilling, coal mining, financial markets, international treaties, and stock exchanges, amongst others. Further, the mixture of political actors and robust economics have successfully met the challenges with energy savings and renewable energy sources (ibid.).

Systematical forces that make it challenging to redirect the development path of existing techno-institutional systems are considered as techno-institutional lock-ins (Unruh, 2000).

Pervasive policy, market, and organizational failures toward adopting mitigating policies and technologies can be created by these forces, notwithstanding the growth of evidence of considerable environmental risk (ibid.).

Further, while individuals and institutions can create lock-in themselves, formal governmental institutions' involvement could intensify these; this is argued to be essential to consider for two reasons (Unruh, 2000). Firstly, the institutional policy can override market forces, which can set rules for which actors must adapt their strategies and create alternative incentive structures (ibid.). In addition, in the evolution of a technological system, uncertainty regarding the direction of technological development can be reduced or removed by governmental intervention and, in the end, could favor a specific design (ibid.). Secondly, it is emphasized that once institutions are established, they incrementally change over long periods (ibid.). It is stated that informal institutions (norms, culture, and values) change over centuries while formal institutions change over decades. Therefore, it is claimed that the management or development of a technological system can have long-term impacts with the involvement of formal institutions in the form of legal and governmental structures (Unruh, 2000).

Research on lock-in mechanisms in transition processes in road transportation and energy production in the Nordic countries has pointed out both positive and negative effects of different lock-in mechanisms (Klitkou, et al., 2015). The research is based on a comparative analysis of case studies in Nordic countries: Norway and hydrogen and fuel cells electric vehicles (FCEV) as a technology platform. Some adverse effects of a lock-in mechanism for the development of this technology, amongst others, are that investments in hydrogen and FCEVs have been disincentivized. This is due to the economies of scale in oil and gas (ibid.). Due to the internal combustion engines’ strong position, informational increasing returns are not well developed and limited to the capital region. On the other hand, positive effects are, for example, that the hydrogen technology could benefit from interconnection with other types of gas-related

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technologies, in particular natural gas (ibid.). Another example of a positive effect on the lock- in mechanism, due to specialization in vital elements for using hydrogen in road transport, is that the economics of scope are becoming important (Klitkou, et al., 2015).

Bento (2010) has taken another approach towards lock-in effects. More specifically, he has researched carbon lock-in and actors’ strategies. In one article, he states that hydrogen and fuel cells are not evolutionary innovations such as biofuels or hybrid cars, and therefore it is difficult to introduce them in the market. Furthermore, clean technologies are impeded from entering the market and developing due to the dominance of existing technologies affecting the stimulus structure (ibid.). It is further stated that the actors established in the current technological paradigm are most likely involved in a hydrogen economy; however, the incentives to be a part of it differ among them. Automakers can benefit from being the first on the new market, while companies established in the oil industry benefit from paying off existing investments. It is also highlighted that a group of actors, gas companies and suppliers, and utilities will not enter the market alone even if they can have a significant impact in the future (ibid.).

3.4 Distribution and transport

There are several alternatives for distributing and transporting hydrogen. The transport mode choice depends on the amount to distribute, in which form and different trade-offs have to be considered. This section of the literature review covers three different alternatives; by truck, pipelines and on-site production at fueling stations.

3.4.1 Tube trailer

There are several logistic options for distributing and transporting hydrogen ranging from road, rail to pipelines. A standard method of transporting gaseous hydrogen, GH2, is transporting filled pressure-proofed seamless vessels by tube trailers) (Gerboni, 2015). The transport volume of a single tube trailer is over 1100 kilos (corresponding to 13000 cubic meters) of compressed GH2, and that can be filled in less than 60 minutes (Bersani, et al., 2018). According to Yang

& Ogden (2007), which has developed cost models for three different delivery modes for hydrogen, tube trailers are preferred for short distances and smaller amounts. Their study shows that fuel cost, capital costs for trailers and trucks, operation and maintenance costs (including labor costs) are the main cost factors for tube trailer delivery. The costs scale linearly with delivery distance. Besides, they remark that these trucks have low investment costs for small quantities; however, they do not benefit from economies of scale when hydrogen flow increases (Yang & Ogden, 2007).

Bersani et al. (2018) note that compressed GH2 is usually not transported by ships, barges, or rail cars since it is only economical if in liquid form. This is also supported by both Yang &

Ogden (2007) and Gerboni (2015), who found that liquid hydrogen, LH2, is the leading solution for transporting merchant hydrogen over medium and long distances. This is further supported by Wulf et al. (2018), that has carried out a study on the life cycle assessment, LCA, of hydrogen transportation options based on economic optimization. Their study indicates that liquid organic carriers, i.e. produced by electrolyzer, are more suitable from an economic perspective with rising distances than pressurized truck transports. This due to LH2 has a much higher energy density than GH2 (Agnolucci, et al., 2016).

However, on the one hand, costs regarding transporting of LH2, such as truck capital cost and operating costs such as labor and fuel, are relatively small and constitute costs that do not increase much for long-distance transmission (Yang & Ogden, 2007). On the other, costs such

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as electricity for liquefication and capital needed for liquefaction equipment are high (ibid.).

Since fuel cell vehicles need to be refueled with GH2, refueling stations that accept LH2

deliveries have additional capital and operational expenses for converting the hydrogen from liquid to gas to enable the sale to customers (Agnolucci, et al., 2016).

3.4.2 Pipelines

Another option is to distribute hydrogen via pipelines which is preferred for large amounts, and for this mode, it is the pipeline capital cost that is the most significant cost factor (Yang &

Ogden, 2007). It is discussed constructing dedicated pipelines between a production site and the end-user becomes less expensive at some level of demand volume (ibid.). The costs scale strongly with both flow rate and distance. A more precise level of demand, 80 tons per day, has been pointed out by Wulf et al. (2018) to be more favorable from an economic and environmental perspective (Yang & Ogden, 2007). Moreover, it has been remarked that pipeline deployment costs are not dependent on the pipe composition itself and are instead of a function of the complexity of securing land access rights and of the installation (Mintz et al., 2002; Parker, 2004 as cited in Agnolucci, et al., 2016). Additionally, it has been assessed that pipelines, which are investment-driven with strong scaling effects, offer environmental compatibility due to less energy demand than ‘linear’ pathways (Wulf, et al., 2018).

Gondal (2016) has emphasized the need to develop inexpensive materials for the construction of hydrogen pipelines for an extensive network to realize a hydrogen economy. Further, he highlights that different technologies and devices need to be developed to address embrittlement, leakage and to enable high-pressure delivery. Furthermore, Gondal (2016) notes that today’s natural gas network has been developed over decades to operate smoothly and that technology needed for a hydrogen network will evolve naturally when governments feel the pressure to plan for such a system and as fossil fuel prices increases (Gondal, 2016).

3.4.3 Fuel stations

Fuel stations that can offer hydrogen to fuel cell vehicles are well-suited along highways or at strategic crossroads where it is easy for tube trucks to stop and supply the hydrogen quickly (Gerboni, 2015). In some cases, where hydrogen infrastructure or local production facilities are available, tube trucks can be used as stationary storage. Another alternative is accessible locations near natural gas pipeline networks to access supply from a steam reforming unit. A third alternative to supply zero-emission hydrogen can be to have production on-site with electrolysers that uses electricity from a renewable source (ibid). According to Gerboni (2015), the trade-off is usually solved by the quantity to be delivered and the distance to be covered.

According to Ogden & Nicholas (2011), an efficient way to design an early network for hydrogen refuelling is by a cluster strategy which is considered to reduce infrastructure costs by providing reliability and convenience with a small number of stations placed strategically.

The clustering strategy means that hydrogen refuelling infrastructure and hydrogen vehicles are introduced in a limited number of geographic areas, such as cities (ibid.). The study results also show that if stations were placed according to population density, it would require more stations than with a clustering strategy to achieve the same level of accessibility for early adopters (ibid.).

An overall finding on distribution options is that the lowest-cost delivery mode is highly dependent on the hydrogen application, density of demand, quantity to be transported and distance between the delivery point and the production (Bersani, et al., 2018).

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Figure 2: Distribution modes.

3.5 Centralized vs. decentralized system

This section covers three different articles that discuss centralized and decentralized hydrogen systems from an economic perspective.

Leibowicz (2018) has assessed that a hydrogen transport system following a centralized paradigm, relative electricity, would put hydrogen at a significant infrastructure disadvantage.

It is pointed out that an electric transport system can leverage the existing grid (ibid.). In contrast, a centralized hydrogen transport system requires heavy investments in new production, distribution/transportation, storage and refuelling infrastructure (ibid). Leibowicz emphasizes that distributed generation near or at refuelling stations would be more beneficial for such a system competing for market share. Further, for small-scale applications, production through electrolysis is suitable and is a carbon-free route if powered by renewable electricity.

Although, it is pointed out, in 2018, that green hydrogen was not cost-competitive with, at the time, the current production of fossil-fuel-based hydrogen production methods, which were centralized (ibid.). However, it was argued that a centralized energy supply and decentralized hydrogen production could be a possible solution. An example of this could be to have small- scale units for natural gas steam reforming supplied by existing infrastructure for natural gas;

however, this solution does not offer significant environmental benefits as production through electrolysis (Leibowicz, 2018).

In contrast, a case study of scenario modelling for the transport sector in the UK, conducted by Agnolucci, et al. (2016), has found that deploying a small number of large-scale production sites in central regions or regions with high demand, to be the most cost-effective. The case study was carried out using a model that aims to minimize the total supply chain system cost, called the SHIPmod model. This strategy was the most cost-effective, even if it resulted in large amounts of underutilized supply capacity (ibid.). Moreover, it was found that distributed and

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small productions facilities should be established in peripheral areas in regions where transport costs become too great. The study further remarks that hydrogen production costs, including the capital, fuel costs and operating, at more extensive facilities become lower due to scale economies (ibid.). However, sizeable central production facilities incur higher transport costs which is not the case of smaller facilities, which on the other hand, incur higher production costs. To be noted is that the model did not consider pipelines as a distribution alternative (Agnolucci, et al., 2016).

In an earlier conducted study, (Saboohi, et al., 2008), that did consider pipelines as a distribution alternative showed a different result. The study builds on a hydrogen flow model which assesses the optimal hydrogen supply system and evaluates its environmental impacts. According to the model used, large size hydrogen production was not favorable due to the high cost of a hydrogen pipeline for transporting hydrogen from a production site to the demand regions (ibid.). The results stayed the same even if decreasing the capital cost for the pipeline, this to the long distances needed to be covered (Saboohi, et al., 2008).

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4. Methodology

This section presents the research design and provides a brief discussion of the different methods and approaches used. Further, a description of how the literature review was conducted and how literature was chosen are presented. This is followed by how data were collected through interviews and later how the data were analyzed. This section ends with a discussion of data quality and ethical considerations.

4.1 Research Design

The logic sequence that connects empirical data to the research question, and in best cases, to the conclusion is the research design (Yin, cop. 2003). This study aims to evaluate the viability of for distribution system for hydrogen in Sweden, and an inductive approach is adapted. Such a system is more or less nonexistent today; an inductive approach is considered suitable since it enables a more open approach towards applying theory and frameworks for the analysis of the collected data. Further, an exploratory case study approach is adopted as well. Case studies are frequently used in inductive studies, and it is an appropriate approach to capture the complexity of reality (Blomkvist & Hallin, 2015). The complexity of this studied topic lies within the many stakeholders of the eventual transition toward a hydrogen economy. Some of the gathered data may be based on speculations. The main research question has the character of an exploratory question. This type of research is a valuable means to gain insights and understand what is happening within a topic of interest (Saunders, et al., 2015). Also, exploratory analysis is adaptable to change and flexible and enables a study to start with a broad focus, narrowing the research progress (ibid.). This could be considered advantageous according to Saunders et al. (2015), and in this study, it is beneficial due to its complexity.

The thesis follows a qualitative research design, which often commences with an inductive approach. According to Saunders et al. (2015), qualitative research is often associated with interpretive philosophy since the studied phenomena need to be understood regarding the constructed meanings both subjectively and socially. Further, when qualitative research is combined with an inductive approach, a richer theoretical perspective than existing literature can be achieved (Saunders, et al., 2015). This was considered appropriate for the study since the aim was to fill the gap in the existing literature.

4.2 Data collection

How the literature review was conducted and how literature was chosen are briefly discussed in this section. Further, information on the conducted interviews is also provided, how they were structured and why.

4.2.1 Literature Review

The literature review was primarily conducted to know what earlier research has been conducted on hydrogen and fuel cell technology and its development and gain knowledge about the topic. The literature search started with a broad focus. After the main research question had been formulated, it narrowed down to five subareas: the subsections of the review; hindering factors and barriers, and policy recommendations lock-in effects, distribution and transport, and centralization vs decentralization. These areas were covered since they seemed to have the most significant impact and be important when designing a distribution system for hydrogen.

The search for relevant literature was mainly done through the search engine of Web of Science with keywords, in combination with each other, such as fuel cells and hydrogen, distribution,

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infrastructure, transports, heavy-duty, transport sector, transition, paradigm shift, development, fossil-free and carbon lock-in. Selection of articles was then made based on the relevance of the title and abstract of the article, and then the articles were skimmed through to judge their relevance for the studied topic further. Further, the selected articles were also cross- referenced to find more relevant articles; this resulted in various articles covering all the different areas of the literature review.

Besides, KTHB’s search tool was used with similar keywords as described previous, and two books were considered valid to cover the different aspects of the studied topic.

4.2.2 Interviews

When conducting qualitative research, it is common to collect data through interviews. This is a way to understand and get insights into attitudes, behaviors, processes, or prediction (Rowley, 2012). Further, when carrying out exploratory research, it is suggested to conduct semi- structured interviews with “experts” within the studied field. As mentioned earlier, this kind of research commences with a broad focus; however, semi-structured interviews helped guiding the subsequent stages of the research by depending on the quality of the contributions from the participants (Saunders, et al., 2015). Following the given motivations, a thorough analysis was conducted of which relevant actors were of interest and importance to interview to ensure good quality of the study.

The interviewees were contacted by email, and interviews were be held through digital platforms such as Zoom and Teams. No specific number of interviews was set to focus on quality instead of quantity. The number of interviews depended on the quality and in-depth knowledge and information that could be gathered. After 11 conducted interviews, data satyration was considered to be achieved. Data saturation refers to when sufficient numbers of interviews are conducted till nothing new is apparent, and new data tend to be redundant of the already collected data (Saunders, et al., 2018).

Table 2: Table of conducted interviews.

Date ID Type of Company Role Duration

[min]

2021-03-12 Interview A Manufacturing Company Director Sales 21 2021-03-15 Interview B Global Energy Company Senior Advisor 41

2021-03-16 Interview C Consultancy Group Manager 41

2021-03-19 Interview D Joint venture Managing Editor 38

2021-03-26 Interview E Gas Company Senior Business

Developer 26

2021-04-06 Interview F Waste Management Company Development Manager 63 2021-04-07 Interview G Global Energy Company Managing Director 36

2021-04-16 Interview H Research Institute Researcher 27

2021-04-16 Interview I Technical University Researcher 31

2021-04-20 Interview J Truck manufacturer Senior Expert Engineer 29 2021-05-03 Interview K Truck manufacturer Director Public Affairs 31

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4.3 Data Analysis

The data collected through interviews were transcribed to do a thematic analysis later, as proposed by Saunders et al. (2015). The thematic analysis identifies common themes regardless of the interviewee and which organization the interviewees work at, which helped the researcher be objective. Further, this approach is beneficial when analyzing a large amount of data and connecting different dots (Saunders, et al., 2015). This subsection provides a brief discussion of how the interviews were transcribed and how the thematic analysis was conducted.

4.3.1 Thematic Analysis

The level of detail when transcribing qualitative data differs (Arksey & Knight, 2011). In some studies, it is sufficient only to use notes summarizing key points, and in other studies, it may be essential to capture which tone the interviewee talked in, grunts, and pauses (ibid.). However, in this thesis, only the meaning of the answers was of interest, so the interviews were transcribed word by word but did not include a high level of details such as pauses, grunts, or hesitations.

The thematic analysis has been conducted with the guidance of literature by Nowell et al.

(2017), which offer a step-by-step approach based on various researchers' earlier literature (Nowell, et al., 2017). The first phase of the thematic analysis is to get familiarized with the data (ibid.), which was done by continuously reading through the transcribed data to actively search for common themes and patterns. The suggestion to read through the entire data set before coding it was followed. The second phase, to generate initial codes, means that the researcher focuses on the characteristic of the data and develops ideas of the data structure (ibid.). This was done after two read-throughs of the transcripts, and during the second read- through, initial codes in the form of keywords were written down. This was done to facilitate the work of the next phase, which is to search for themes. In the third phase, searching for themes, to get a holistic view of the collected data, it was triangulated before grouping the generated keywords into themes. The process of generating keywords and the search for themes was done with an inductive approach, meaning that the search was data-driven and not necessarily linked to the question asked (ibid.). At this stage, eight themes were identified and coded. At the end of this stage, the themes were interactively listed to follow a logic of how they fit together. At the last stage, the result of the thematic analysis was written in the report, partly by paraphrasing and partly by using quotes. However, after peer debriefing, some themes were grouped, and the number of themes were reduced to six.

4.4 Research Quality

This subsection provides information on how validity and reliability are handled and considered in this thesis.

4.4.1 Validity

Internal validity concerns the phase of data analysis (Gibbert, et al., 2008). To enhance the validity of a study, it is suggested to formulate a clear research framework, explaining how the logic and reasoning behind the study’s outcome (ibid.). This is ensured by describing the theoretical framework thoroughly and which literature it is based on; see section 2 ‘Theoretical Framework’. In addition, the research methodology presented includes how the literature review was conducted, how primary data were collected and thematically analyzed. An interview guide can be found in the Appendix. Further, it is suggested to theory triangulate the collected data to observe the studied phenomena from different angles, this also enhances the constructed validity (ibid.). The data collection was from literature and interviews, where the

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interviewees offered different perspectives from different sectors and industries, shown in Table 2.

Moreover, external validity regards the problem of judging if a study’s results and findings can be generalized beyond the case study itself (Yin, cop. 2003). It is stated that single case studies, as this thesis, generally create a poor base for generalizing (ibid.). In addition, it is argued that a cross-case analysis including four to 10 case studies could provide a solid base for analytic generalization and could be a good starting point for developing theory (Gibbert, et al., 2008).

It should be noted that this is not the case in this thesis.

4.4.2 Reliability

Reliability concerns the absence of random errors, enabling subsequent researchers to come to the same insights if following the same research steps (Gibbert, et al., 2008). A study should not be dependent on who conducted it (Blomkvist & Hallin, 2015), and a study should offer transparency, and the goal should be to minimize biases and errors (Yin, cop. 2003).

Reliability and transparency are provided in several ways. The thesis includes a thorough description of the method used to gather data regarding how the literature review is conducted and how the interviews were conducted, including an interview guide. However, it could be noted that some of the digital sources are accessed through the Royal Institute of Technology and might not be open to the public, which can affect traceability and, in turn, reliability.

Internal reliability is suggested to be achieved by using more than one researcher to conduct interviews and analyze the data (Saunders, et al., 2015). This was not possible since a single researcher carried out the thesis; however, this issue was addressed by interviewing actors within different sectors and industries to minimize bias. This way, it was possible to gain different insights and gave several perspectives to the collected data. Moreover, full transparency regarding the conducted interviews was not possible due to the anonymization of the interviewees, which were agreed on when conducting the interviews. Further, it was chosen to anonymize the companies they represented since it was not considered to provide any added value and ensure full anonymity.

4.5 Ethical Considerations

This thesis has been conducted by the guidance of the ‘Swedish Research Council’s principles of ethical research for humanities and social science’, which have been applied when collecting data through interviews. Scientific work in social science must meet four principal requirements established; the information requirement, consent requirement, confidentiality requirement and the good use requirement (Blomkvist & Hallin, 2015).

The first requirement, the information requirement, connotes that the interviewees have to be informed about the purpose of the study (ibid). This requirement was fulfilled by stating the purpose when contacting interviewees and asking if they wanted and could participate in the study. Further, at the start of each interview, it was also stated and clarified. According to the consent requirement, data from interviews have only been collected from people who have agreed to participate in an interview, this by an inquiry per email. The third listed requirement regarding confidentiality has been met by treating all collected information confidently, i.e., no information given in confidence is communicated. In addition, organizations and companies were anonymized (Vetenskapsrådet, 2017). The fourth requirement, the good use requirement, entails that the data collected through interviews is only used for the stated purpose (Blomkvist

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& Hallin, 2015). This is also fulfilled and is promised and noted at the beginning of each interview.

Furthermore, to later be able to transcribe the interviews, with permission from the interviewees, the sound of the interviews was recorded. The choice to only record the sound is to not intrude on the individual’s integrity and private lives; in addition, video recording would not contribute anything extra to the collected data (Vetenskapsrådet, 2017). The interviewees are anonymized, and all documents connected to them are made de-identified by leaving out personal information and named after a number code. This was done so no unauthorized person could re-establish it (Vetenskapsrådet, 2017).

References

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