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Journal of Human Rights
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State surveillance and the COVID-19 crisis
Kristine Eck & Sophia Hatz
To cite this article: Kristine Eck & Sophia Hatz (2020) State surveillance and the COVID-19 crisis, Journal of Human Rights, 19:5, 603-612, DOI: 10.1080/14754835.2020.1816163
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/14754835.2020.1816163
© 2020 The Author(s). Published with license by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Published online: 11 Nov 2020.
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State surveillance and the COVID-19 crisis
Kristine Eck and Sophia Hatz Uppsala University
ABSTRACT
The outbreak of COVID-19 has ushered in a global rise in state surveillance.
In an effort to trace the spread of the disease and to enforce lockdowns, governments in democracies and autocracies alike have turned to surveil- lance technologies such as contact tracing apps. Governments have also tightened their hold on communication flows in other ways, through cen- sorship and information manipulation. These kinds of government actions are not new: States have long recognized the value of controlling informa- tion in times of crisis. In this article, we consider these tactics in the con- text of the COVID-19 pandemic, in which, unlike most other security threats, the threat posed is not endogenous to governance and applies to all countries. We consider how observations from this context prompt future research and reflect on the implications of information control for civil liberties.
Introduction
In April 2020, the Norwegian Institute of Public Health (NIPH) launched a mobile app called Smittestopp (“infection stop”) designed to collect users’ geolocated movement data in order to help authorities trace the spread of COVID-19. This app was described by Amnesty International (2020) as one of the most invasive COVID-19 contact tracing apps in the world, alongside those in countries like Bahrain and Kuwait. By June, the Norwegian data oversight agency warned the NIPH that it would stop it from handling data collected through the app (Agence France- Presse 2020).
Norway’s Smittestopp exemplifies an unexpected byproduct of the COVID-19 pandemic: a glo- bal rise in state surveillance. Since the outbreak of COVID-19, governments in country after country have turned to surveillance as a means of tracing the spread of the disease and enforcing lockdowns. Autocratic countries like China and Singapore were quick to adapt and extend exist- ing digital surveillance technologies to monitor COVID-19. And democratic countries followed suit: In a matter of months, more than 34 countries enacted surveillance measures; 22 of them were full democracies (OneZero 2020).
1Governments have also responded to a rapid outpouring of misinformation in social media outlets. Rumors and falsehoods about the origins, symptoms, and remedies for COVID-19 became so widespread that in February 2020 the World Health Organization (WHO) deemed the situation an “infodemic”—weeks before it declared a pandemic.
2In this context, governments have taken measures such as the censorship of online content and the criminalization of “fake news. ” But some governments themselves have also contributed to this infodemic by deliberately misrepresenting information about the disease.
CONTACT
Kristine Eck
kristine.eck@pcr.uu.seBox 514, 75120 Uppsala, Sweden.
ß 2020 The Author(s). Published with license by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
JOURNAL OF HUMAN RIGHTS 2020, VOL. 19, NO. 5, 603 –612
https://doi.org/10.1080/14754835.2020.1816163
These kinds of government actions are not new: States have long recognized the value of con- trolling information in times of crisis. Scholars will recognize the measures implemented by gov- ernments during the COVID-19 pandemic as examples of surveillance, censorship, and information manipulation. Previous research has described how governments use these tactics to contain domestic political threats: Surveillance allows for the detection of dissent and for the tar- geted application of repression (Gohdes 2019); censorship enables states to restrict criticism of the government, to cut communication necessary for collective action, and to silence reports of abuse (Gunitsky 2015); and information manipulation can serve as a tool for distracting the pub- lic, for discourse framing, and for countermobilization (Gunitsky 2015; King, Pan and Roberts 2017). Although a pandemic is a different context than contentious politics, we have seen an analogous tendency of states to ramp up personal data collection and to tighten their control over information.
3In this article, we begin by defining surveillance, censorship, and information manipulation, and anchoring these concepts in the existing literature. Although researchers tend to study these tactics separately, we observe that these practices often cooccur. We suggest that jointly consider- ing the array of information control tactics governments have at their disposal may provide insights into how states adjudicate between them. We probe this idea in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, which prompted a global rise in information-control practices, especially state surveillance. We conclude by reflecting on the implications of information control during COVID-19 for the protection of civil liberties.
Surveillance, censorship, and information manipulation
We view surveillance, censorship, and information manipulation as distinct tactics that are com- ponents of a more general strategy, which we label information control. Information control tac- tics differ in the means by which control is achieved, as well as in the types of information that are controlled. A government may use these tactics individually or in tandem, and it may change its strategy over time.
State surveillance involves the monitoring, collecting, and/or processing of personal data by a government. This can include the monitoring of online activity, location tracking via Bluetooth or Global Positioning System (GPS), tracking financial transactions, video surveillance, facial scans, and the collection of biometric data. The kinds of information states have the capacity to collect and connect is vast, precise, and often private in nature. Foundational works in sociology, economics, and philosophy consider state surveillance as fundamental to both governance and social control: It is a method of identifying individuals, ordering society, and ensuring discipline.
4State surveillance received renewed scholarly attention with the advent of the internet and other advanced information and communications technology (ICT). ICT massively increases the power, reach, and capacity of governments to monitor their populations (Lyon 2007; Marx 2015).
Within political science, much research on surveillance has come to focus on its application by authoritarian regimes, as a tool to counter domestic political threats (e.g., Kuran 1997; Jiang and Yang 2016), as surveillance allows for the detection of dissent and the extraction of intelligence, which enables the targeted application of repression (Gohdes 2019).
State censorship involves a government blocking or altering communication in order to control
the information individuals disseminate to one another. For example, states can place filters to
restrict the results returned by online search engines, remove specific online content and block
websites, disable social media, remove leaks by whistleblowers,
5and shut down the internet. Like
most recent research on surveillance, contemporary studies of censorship take ICT as a point of
departure and tend to focus on authoritarian regimes (e.g., Roberts 2018; Gohdes 2019; Gl€aßel
and Paula 2020). ICT has facilitated the spread of popular sentiments and provided new tools for
collective action, but it has also bolstered governments’ capacities to intervene in communications
and social networks (Weidmann and Rød 2019). By deleting information from the public eye, states are able to restrict criticism of the government, silence reports of abuse, limit communica- tion necessary for the coordination of collective action, and curtail the dissemination of informa- tion the public uses to form policy opinions (Hayes and Reineke 2007; King, Pan, and Roberts 2013; Gunitsky 2015). Governments may also cut digital communication completely; when infor- mation flows may be too great to selectively censor, governments may resort to inter- net shutdowns.
States do not only censor information, however: They also actively engage in state information manipulation, which is the manipulation, fabrication, or cooptation of information for strategic purposes (Gunitsky 2015).
6Examples include a government’s production of fake news, fabrication of social media posts, dissemination of propaganda or libel, and restriction of access to govern- mental data. For example, the Chinese government hires internet commentators to post large numbers of fabricated social media comments as if they were the genuine opinions of ordinary Chinese people, a tactic aimed at distracting the public and shifting focus (King et al. 2017;
Roberts 2018). Other scholars have pointed to how states disseminate propaganda or false infor- mation for purposes such as shaping the political attitudes of citizens (Geddes and Zaller 1989) and for countermobilization of a regime’s support base (Gunitsky 2015).
Although some research contains an implicit recognition that states employ an array of tactics to collect and control information (e.g., Geddes and Zaller 1989), the field more often tends to silo these different tactics. For instance, although the monitoring of individuals and of communi- cations is necessary for their silencing, studies of state censorship rarely account for ongoing state surveillance, theoretically or empirically. In practice, state uses of surveillance, censorship, and information manipulation often occur in tandem.
Information control in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic
The COVID-19 pandemic provides a unique setting for understanding state information control as, unlike most other security threats, the threat posed by the disease is not endogenous to gov- ernance and is applicable to all countries.
7Because information control is routine in most autoc- racies, we focus particularly on consolidated democracies, where new information control practices risk undermining established civil liberties.
Surveillance
Surveillance is the tactic that has been most readily embraced by democratic governments, which they have seemingly adopted with the same energy as their autocratic counterparts. The types of surveillance measures adopted in response to the COVID-19 pandemic include public surveillance of population movements under lockdown through closed-circuit television (CCTV), drones, mobile phone usage data, and biometric tracker bracelets.
8But the most prominent form of sur- veillance has been the adoption of mobile applications that allow for COVID-19 tracking. The basic premise is to scale up traditional contact tracing by leveraging digital technology. Yet there is a tension in the digital utopianism that sees mobile phones as a means by which to help pro- tect from disease and fears of privacy invasion. Concerns about digital overreach in democracies are not new, but the high stakes of the COVID-19 pandemic have seen official state surveillance efforts fast-tracked and securitized in a way that is new to the digital landscape.
There is no single approach to these surveillance apps, and they vary depending on whether they are the result of public or private initiatives,
9what sort of technology is used to track contact between individuals,
10whether data storage is centralized or decentralized, whether the app is voluntary, whether limitations are placed on data collection, whether there are provisions for destroying the data, whether the data is anonymized, and whether the app is transparent (e.g.,
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through open-source code). All of these technologies raise questions not only of privacy infringe- ment but also of whether they are even effective to begin with (Stanley and Granick 2020).
Most democratic governments have reiterated their commitment to ensuring privacy in this context, but concerns remain. Anonymized data, for example, are at risk of reidentification (De Montjoye, Hidalgo, Verleysen and Blondel 2013), and although data may be stored on users ’ phones rather than centralized in order to minimize privacy concerns, there are fears that the data can be hacked. Citizens have generally allowed governments a wide berth in responding to the pandemic, but privacy activists have raised questions about the extent to which these surveil- lance measures are truly “extraordinary,” as opposed to extensions of already ongoing moves by democratic states to engage in domestic surveillance.
Importantly, we see variation across democratic governments in terms of the extent to which they have sought to ensure that encroachments on civil liberties are necessary, effective, and pro- portionate. If we consider the Norwegian example, the benefits of the app were ultimately deemed insufficient to warrant its overreach into citizen privacy. Indeed, numerous governments ’ own oversight bodies have pushed back in relation to the design of contact tracing apps. Slovakia, for example, fast-tracked several amendments to its telecommunications act that expanded telecom companies ’ obligations to retain individual location data. These measures were challenged at the Slovakian Constitutional Court and were subsequently suspended due to their “vagueness and insufficient safeguards against misuse” (Electronic Frontier Foundation 2020).
Table 1 shows the development of COVID-19 tracking apps across European democracies as of June 19, 2020. Fifteen countries had already launched COVID-19 tracking apps. They were in development in an additional seven countries, whereas 14 countries had opted against the apps for the time being. There are likely to be numerous and heterogeneous reasons for this cross- national variation, but eyeballing the data, it is evident that it is not only a question of feasibility:
Many countries that have the technological resources to quickly develop an app have opted not to do so. Similarly, many countries that are famously concerned with personal privacy protection, such as Germany, have been forerunners in adopting apps.
This variation in surveillance is evident not only in Europe but across the globe. In India, for example, the government and many major private employers are requiring employees to down- load the official, ostensibly voluntary COVID-19 tracking app. India has no national data privacy law, and critics have pointed out that it is not clear who has access to data from the app and in what situations (O’Neill 2020).
Table 1.