Secure Attachment to Friends and its Association with Body Appreciation

Master thesis, 30 ECTS

The Programme for Master of Science in Psychology, 300 ECTS Autumn term 2020

Supervisor: Jeong Jin Yu

SECURE ATTACHMENT TO FRIENDS AND ITS

ASSOCIATION WITH BODY APPRECIATION

My Erixon and Alma Joyce

would not have been possible.

Abstract

In recent years, researchers have become interested in the concept of a positive body image.

Interpersonal relationships influence the acceptance and appreciation of the body. However, prior studies on positive body image has almost exclusively focused on studying general instead of specific relationships. The present study sought to investigate whether the association between secure attachment to friends and body appreciation is moderated by the personality trait Extraversion in young adults. The participants were 194 men and women aged 18 to 25 years (M = 22, SD = 1.78) who completed a questionnaire measuring body appreciation, secure attachment to friends and Extraversion. The results of a hierarchal regression showed that secure attachment to friends did not predict body appreciation and that Extraversion did not have a moderating effect. Extraversion was, however, positively associated with body appreciation, above and beyond the effect of sex, BMI and parental socioeconomic status. These findings contribute to a richer understanding of the potential advantages of including Extraversion when studying body image in young adults.

Keywords: Body appreciation, secure attachment to friends, Extraversion, BMI.

Sammanfattning

Begreppet positiv kroppsbild har under den senaste tiden börjat att fånga forskares intresse.

Acceptans och uppskattning av sin kropp påverkas av interpersonella relationer. Tidigare studier på positiv kroppsbild har dock nästan uteslutande fokuserat på att studera generella istället för specifika relationer. Denna studie syftade till att utforska huruvida trygg anknytning till vänner hos unga vuxna påverkar kroppsuppskattningen och om sambandet modereras av personlighetsdraget Extraversion. Deltagarna var 194 kvinnor och män i åldrarna 18 till 25 år (M = 22, SD = 1.78) som besvarade en enkät gällande kroppsuppskattning, trygg anknytning till vänner och extraversion. Resultatet av en hierarkisk regression visade att trygg anknytning till vänner inte förutspådde kroppsuppskattning och att extraversion inte hade en modererande effekt. Extraversion var dock positivt korrelerat med kroppsuppskattning, även efter det att kön, BMI och föräldrars socioekonomiska status kontrollerats för. Dessa fynd bidrar till en större förståelse för de potentiella fördelarna med att inkludera extraversion vid studier av positiv kroppsbild bland unga vuxna.

Nyckelord: Kroppsuppskattning, trygg anknytning till vänner, Extraversion, BMI.

Secure Attachment to Friends and its Association with Body Appreciation Body image is a multifaceted construct that consists of both behaviours, attitudes and perceptions (Wood-Barkalow et al., 2010). It includes both positive and negative components but as of today most research has explored the negative aspects of body image such as body dissatisfaction (Tiggemann, 2004). There is extensive research concerning body image and researchers have been successful in finding consequences of having a negative body image (Wood-Barkalow et al., 2010). Having a negative body image is significantly related to negative emotions, a poor quality of life and functional impairment in women (Becker et al., 2017). Women tend to be more dissatisfied with their bodies than men (Lobera & Ríos, 2011;

Tiggemann, 2004; Swami et al., 2008), although men are reporting body dissatisfaction as well but greater desire for muscularity (McCreary & Sasse, 2000), which has been associated with poorer mental health (McCreary, 2007). While research often is focused on how to improve and understand a negative body image, it is also of importance for psychologists to promote a positive body image (Wood-Barkalow et al., 2010). The field of research regarding a positive body image is relatively unexplored due to the assumptions of a positive body image simply reflecting lower levels of a negative body image, although a positive body image is not solely the opposite of body dissatisfaction (Avalos et al., 2005; Iannantuono & Tylka, 2012;

Tiggemann & McCourt, 2013). Striegel-Moore and Cachelin (1999) highlight how a positive body image might be connected to variables not associated with a negative body image.

Body appreciation could be defined as acceptance towards one's own body regardless of its appearance and described as an aspect, a dimension or a construct of a positive body image (Avalos et al., 2005; Webb et al., 2015). It also concerns respecting and taking care of the body by engaging in healthy behaviours, such as regular exercise and eating healthy (Webb et al., 2015; Wood-Barkalow et al., 2010). Body appreciation involves resisting internalization of unrealistic beauty ideals from the media (Webb et al., 2015). Women with a positive body image are described as having more social support, greater self-esteem and appearance satisfaction and lower internalization of beauty ideals from media and less destructive eating (Williams, 2003). According to Andrew et al. (2016b), body appreciation is negatively associated with weight-loss behaviours and positively associated with seeking medical attention, sun protection and skin screening. In summary, this all indicates that body appreciation can greatly influence health outcomes and that promoting positive body image is of high importance.

Body Appreciation in Young Adulthood

Adolescence is characterized as a time period of rapid (Frisén et al., 2015) and developmental changes, making it a critical time for body image development due to more attention being brought towards their physical appearance (Gattario & Frisén, 2019). Research conducted on body image development mostly indicates that adolescents often experience a significant increase in negative body image in early adolescence (Bucchianeri et al., 2013;

Eisenberg et al., 2006; Frisén et al., 2015). The body image then tends to stabilize in

midadolescence (Wang et al., 2019) and emerging adulthood (Gattario & Frisén, 2019; Grogan,

2017). However, some studies documented that most participants overcome their negative body

image by the age of 18 and thereafter develop a more positive body image, suggesting that

body image development could take positive turns in the end of adolescence (Gattario & Frisén,

2019). The authors further suggest beneficial turning points in the participants’ body image

development, such as the discovery of a new social context where they felt approved and

accepted. Although it is not yet well-established in what direction body image develops during

adolescence and young adulthood, there is some evidence suggesting that adolescents’ social context can change and improve their body image. Thus, it would be fruitful to explore how close relationships are of importance for young people and their body image development.

Body dissatisfaction in adolescents is associated with several negative consequences, such as overweight (Loth et al., 2015) and disturbed eating habits (Neumark-Sztainer et al., 2006). Furthermore, it predicts psychological well-being, such as depressive symptoms (Holsen et al., 2001; Sharpe et al., 2017), low self-esteem (Paxton et al., 2006), and suicidal ideation (Crow et al., 2008; Kim & Kim, 2009). Additionally, functional impairment in everyday life (Mond & Hay, 2007) and subjective quality of life related to health (Mond et al., 2013) have also been associated with body dissatisfaction. On the other hand, studies have found that body appreciation is associated with a range of positive outcomes such as greater optimism, self-compassion and self-esteem for young adults (Andrew et al., 2016a; Andrew et al., 2016b; Avalos et al., 2005; Williams, 2003). Further, Tylka (2012) stresses how studying positive body image has enormous practical value in promoting good feelings about the self and body.

Low levels of body dissatisfaction might not reflect a more positive body image since they are independent constructs (Avalos et al., 2005; Iannantuono & Tylka, 2012). A positive body image entails accepting and appreciating one’s body, despite being dissatisfied with the body’s appearance (Menzel & Levine, 2011). As a result, individuals may not be content with their appearance, but still report high levels of body appreciation (Menzel & Levine, 2011). In order for individuals to acquire a positive body image, it is not sufficient to simply remove features of a negative body image (Iannantuono & Tylka, 2012), since that would at most generate average health (Fredrickson & Losada, 2005; Williams, 2003), and neutral attitudes towards the body (Iannantuono & Tylka, 2012). Instead, it is of importance to inspire individuals towards replacing these negative attitudes with more positive and healthy attitudes in regard to their bodies (Iannantuono & Tylka, 2012). Investigating positive body image could help reducing negative emotions and enhance psychological health (Halliwell, 2015). Thus, studying how to promote a positive body image adds to existing literature, and may enhance well-being in young adults.

Secure Attachment to Friends and its Link to Body Appreciation

Relationships affect the feelings we have towards ourselves (Homan et al., 2017), and influence how we perceive our bodies (Cheng & Mallinckrodt, 2009; Frederick et al., 2016).

Secure attachment is characterized by trust and comfort and serves as a model for how to build and maintain strong and healthy interpersonal relationships (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991;

Bowlby, 1980). Forming meaningful connections with significant others might increase body appreciation, consequently promoting a more positive body evaluation (Wood-Barcalow et al., 2010). Thus, in order to understand how interpersonal relationships influence body appreciation, secure attachment is a relevant construct to examine.

Extensive research has established positive associations between attachment anxiety and a negative body image (Bamford & Haliwell, 2009; Cash et al., 2004; Cheng &

Mallinckrodt, 2009; DeVille et al., 2015; Hardit & Hannum, 2012; McKinley & Randa, 2005;

Patton et al., 2014). Similarly, a growing number of researchers have documented inverse

associations between attachment anxiety and measures of positive body image (Frederick et

al., 2016; Keating et al., 2013; McKinley & Randa, 2005; van den Brink et al., 2015). Although

this approach is interesting, it is unexplored whether securely attached individuals display

greater body appreciation. Given that low levels of attachment anxiety are not necessarily

equivalent to higher levels of secure attachment (Graci & Fivush, 2017; Liu & Ma, 2019), the

present investigation sought to explore if secure attachment contributes to a higher body appreciation in young adults.

The association between attachment in close relationships and body image in general is well established (Iannantuono & Tylka, 2012). However, research has revealed that individuals experience distinctions in attachment patterns to parents and friends (Caron et al., 2012;

Imamoğlu & Imamoğlu, 2006). Parents serve as the most important attachment figures during childhood, and remain influential during adolescence (Nickerson & Nagle, 2005). However, in late adolescence, friends emerge in importance (Furman & Buhrmester, 1992) and adolescents report more communication and trust to friends than their parents (Nickerson & Nagle, 2005).

In contrast to parents, friendships are voluntary and reciprocal which encourages adolescents’

strive for autonomy (Furman et al., 2002; Mounts, 2001) and their social and emotional competence (Nickerson & Nagle, 2005). Given the unique role of friends in adolescence, the aim of this study was to further extend current knowledge of the role of friendship in young adulthood.

To our knowledge, only one study has examined peer attachment anxiety in relation to body appreciation (Raque-Bogdan et al., 2016), despite that friends play a major role in adolescence. Raque-Bogdan et al. (2016) found that attachment anxiety to friends predicted low body appreciation. Previous studies have established that attachment to peers is of importance for body image (O’Koon, 1997), and that deficits in perceived peer support has been linked to body image issues (Patton et al., 2014; Tasca et al., 2006). While securely attached individuals may develop a greater level of care for the self (Frisén et al., 2014; Neff

& McGehee, 2010), which is a crucial component of body appreciation (Wood-Barcalow et al., 2010), friends are an important contributor to psychological well-being in adolescence in terms of self-esteem, anxiety, depression and stress (Secor et al., 2017; Sherman et al., 2000). Future research including attachment styles with friends is called for (Raque-Bogdan et al., 2016), making this study an important contributor to the field of body image research. Accordingly, it was hypothesised in the present study that secure attachment to friends would be associated with higher body appreciation.

Extraversion as a Moderator Between Secure Attachment to Friends and Body Appreciation

The five factor model of personality is composed of five dimensions: Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism (Goldberg, 1990). The Big Five model is the most widely accepted model because it clearly explains individual differences in personality (Swami et al., 2013), and have also been shown to predict individual and interpersonal outcomes, such as relationship quality, health and longevity (Ozer

& Benet-Martinez, 2006). Literature presents a clear and consistent relationship between Neuroticism and poorer emotional well-being (DeNeve & Cooper, 1998; McCann, 2010), and Neuroticism has repeatedly been linked to body image issues (Davis et al., 2001; Frederick et al., 2016; Kvalem et al., 2006), and lower body appreciation (Swami et al., 2008). In contrast, only a handful of studies have investigated Extraversion and its link to body appreciation (Benford & Swami, 2014; Swami et al., 2008; Swami et al., 2013), even though associations between Extraversion and well-being have been reported (Hayes & Joseph, 2003; Steel et al., 2008).

The dimension of Extraversion corresponds to personality traits such as being outgoing,

active, sociable, and lively. It further involves engagement in socializing, leading and

entertaining others, and may promote gains in social contacts (Ashton & Lee, 2007). As a result

of their positive attitude, Extroverts tend to have a more positive appearance evaluation

(Frederick et al., 2016; Kvalem et al., 2006). Thus, they are more likely to report a more

accepting, protective and respectful attitudes towards their body, which are in line with greater body appreciation (Benford & Swami, 2014). Based on previous studies, it is probable that extraversion will function as a moderator between secure attachment to friends and body appreciation.

Control Variables for Body Appreciation in Young Adults Body Mass Index

Multiple studies have established that Body Mass Index (BMI) is inversely related to body appreciation for both men and women. This correlation is true for adolescents and adults from most Western and non-Western countries (Lobera & Ríos, 2011; Ng et al., 2015; Swami

& Chamorro-Premuzic, 2008; Tylka & Kroon Van Diest, 2013; Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015; Webb et al., 2014, 2015). Hence, on the basis of previous studies, we predicted that BMI would be inversely related to body appreciation.

Sex

Women show more dissatisfaction than men (Lobera & Ríos, 2011; Swami et al., 2008;

Tiggeman, 2004) and a plausible explanation is that women are socialised to evaluate themselves based on their bodies and appearance to a greater extent than men (Crocker et al., 2003). However, it appears that the direction of the dissatisfaction differs with women being more focused on the shape of their body and men more focused on the actual weight (Abell &

Richards, 1996) and muscularity (McCreary & Sasse, 2000). Prior research on positive body image has mostly focused on women (Avalos et al., 2005). Because prior findings suggest significant gender differences in body image among men and women, it is relevant to control for body appreciation in the current study.

Socioeconomic Status

Adolescents transition into adulthood within a complex network of relationships, community, cultural, and societal influences, with their overall health affected by factors such as socioeconomic status (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002; Viner et al., 2012). Measures of socioeconomic status (SES) generally include income, education or occupation (Currie et al., 2008). However, adolescents often lack control and influence of their economy, are students, and are not established in the labour market yet (Currie et al., 2008). Therefore, the SES of the parents are usually applied to adolescents (Currie et al., 2008). To our knowledge, existing research on parental SES is not yet studied in relation to positive body image. However, prior research demonstrates that greater body dissatisfaction is more common among adolescents with higher parental SES (Abell & Richards, 1996; Mintem et al., 2014; van den Berg et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2005). It is likely that perceived pressure to be thin is greater for individuals in higher SES, especially among females (McLaren, 2007). In groups with higher SES, a slender body is more socially valued (McLaren, 2007), and research has shown that adolescents are more likely to strive for a thinner body if their parents are of higher occupational status (Wang et al., 2005). Furthermore, strong associations between maladaptive perfectionism, such as perceived parental criticism and expectations, and body dissatisfaction have been established among youth with high SES, particularly among females. These findings indicate that these individuals are at risk for developing body dissatisfaction (Lyman, 2014), possibly due to their perfectionistic tendencies. Thus, controlling for parental SES is of importance when investigating body image in young adults.

Present Study

To the best of our knowledge, no study has yet explored specifically secure attachment

to friends in young adulthood and its link to body appreciation and extraversion. Prior research

provides clues on how extraversion could serve as a moderator strengthening the relationship between attachment to friends and body appreciation in youth, but still remains an unexplored area in empirical research. We hypothesise that (1) secure attachment to friends will be positively related to body appreciation even after controlling for BMI, sex and socioeconomic status and (2) that extraversion will function as a moderator strengthening the relationship between attachment to friends and body appreciation among men and women aged 18-25 years, as presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1

Hypothesised model

Method Participants

The questionnaire was completed by a total of 226 participants. To be included in the study, the participants were required to be 18-25 years old. Data from 32 participants were excluded due to being more than 25 years old, not consenting to the terms of the study, not identifying as male or female, or their responses being registered as a duplicate entry in Google Forms. The final data set included responses from 194 participants (20% men and 79% women) aged 18-25 years (M age = 22, SD = 1.78) from Sweden. The sample was requited through social media platforms (i.e., Facebook), email to other universities and through social connections.

Out of all participants, 7% reported a parental total household income of 30 000kr or less, 20%

30 000 - 50 000kr, 30% 50 000 - 70 000kr, 20% 70 000 - 90 000kr, 11% 90 000 - 110 000kr and 10% 110 000kr or more. Approximately 25% of the sample reported that their parents had a university degree of some kind, 14% had an advanced university degree, 30% had a bachelor university degree, 26% had a high school diploma and 5% did not graduate high school.

Instruments Body Appreciation

Body appreciation was measured using Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2), an instrument developed by Tylka and Wood-Barcalow, (2015). While the original Body Appreciation Scale (BAS; Avalos et al., 2005) has acquired psychometric support, an improvement of the scale was refined ten years after its original release, henceforward referred to as BAS-2 (Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015). It is a quantitative measure used to understand

Independent variable:

Secure attachment to friends

Dependent variable:

Body Appreciation in young adulthood (18-25 years old)

Moderator:

Extraversion

Control variables:

BMI

SES

Sex

Figure 1. Hypothesised model.

features, correlates and potential outcomes of positive body image (Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015). Furthermore, studies have revealed equal measurement of the BAS-2 between women and men, indicating that the scores of men and women are comparable (Lemoine et al., 2018).

BAS-2 consists of 10 items (e.g., “I feel good about my body”). A Likert scale ranging from 1

= Never to 5 = Always was used for each statement. All item scores were averaged with higher scores indicating higher levels of body appreciation (Gattario & Frisén, 2019). Test–retest reliability and construct (convergent, incremental, and discriminant) validity were upheld for participants, indicating the instrument to be a psychometrically sound measure of positive body image (Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015). BAS-2 was translated into Swedish by Gattario and Frisén, (2019). An evaluation of the Swedish translation of BAS-2 demonstrated a convergent validity in accordance with past results (Lemoine et al., 2018). Cronbach’s α for BAS-2 in the present study was .94.

Extraversion

Extraversion was measured using the HEXACO-60 model of personality structure which is a short personality inventory that assesses the 6 dimensions: Honesty-Humility (H), Emotionality (E), Extraversion (X), Agreeableness versus Anger (A), Conscientiousness (C), and Openness to Experience (O) (Ashton & Lee, 2007, 2009). The HEXACO–60 dimensions of Extraversion, Conscientiousness, and Openness to Experience scales correlated strongly with their NEO–FFI counterparts (Ashton & Lee, 2007) and the model constitutes as a viable alternative to the well-known Big Five or five-factor model (Ashton & Lee, 2009). A Likert scale ranging from 1 = Strongly disagree to 5 = Strongly agree was used for each of the 10 statements (e.g., “I feel reasonably satisfied with myself overall”) assessing the Extraversion dimension. A mean across all items was calculated after recoding reverse-keyed items. The Swedish translation of HEXACO-60 was used in the present study (Bergh & Akrami, 2016).

Evaluation of the Swedish HEXACO instrument revealed adequate reliability and a factor structure that resembles the original HEXACO model (Bergh & Akrami, 2016). The internal consistency of HEXACO in this study was α = .80.

Attachment to Friends

The Relationship Scales Questionnaire (RSQ) is utilized to assess adult attachment and consists of 30 short phrases measuring the four attachment styles; secure, preoccupied, dismissing and fearful (Griffin & Bartholomew, 1994). RSQ can be reworded to measure attachment in general as well as in specific close relationships (Griffin & Bartholomew, 1994).

The participants rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 = Not at all like me to 5 = Very like me, in accordance to how well they agreed to the five statements corresponding to the secure attachment dimension (e.g., “I find it easy to get emotionally close to others”). To fit the purpose of the present study, all questions were rephrased from referring to “significant others”

to “friends”. After recoding reversed responses, the scores of RSQ were acquired by taking the mean of all items. The present study used the Swedish version of RSQ (Backström & Holmes, 2001). In this study, Cronbach’s α for RSQ was .56.

Procedure

The online questionnaire was created using Google Forms. The questionnaire consisted of measurements of body appreciation, extraversion and attachment to friends.

Further, demographic information concerning age and gender were collected. Parents' highest

education and household income were gathered in order to calculate SES. The participants were

asked to report their height in centimeters and weight in kilograms in order to calculate BMI

and were informed that the questionnaire would take 5-10 minutes to complete. The collection

of data occurred during a two week period in the autumn of 2020. No compensation for

participation was given.

Plan of Analysis

Data analysis was conducted using IBM SPSS version 26.0. To test the relationship between all studied variables, a correlation analysis was performed. A hierarchical linear regression analyses was conducted to examine the moderating effect of extraversion onto body appreciation.

Ethical Considerations

Participation was voluntary and the participants were informed of the purpose of the study. The questionnaire included information targeting the purpose of the study and ethical principles such as anonymity and confidentiality. The participants had the right to withdraw at any moment and none of the questions in the questionnaire were mandatory. To ensure confidentiality they were not asked to report any personal information such as name or email.

We are not aware of any known risks in participating in the study.

Results

Descriptive statistics (M and SD) and Pearson correlations for all variables are presented in Table 1. Covariates included self-reported BMI, sex, parental income and parental education. Self-reported BMI had a mean of 23.14 (SD = 3.84) which is considered within the normal range (The national food administration of Sweden, 2020). As shown in Table 1, Extraversion was significantly and positively correlated with RSQ, BMI and body appreciation.

As expected, being female is negatively correlated with body appreciation. Parental income displayed a positive significant association with parental education and a negative association with BMI.

Table 1

Descriptive statistics and Pearson correlations for the studied variables

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. RSQ -

2. BAS-2 .27** -

3. Extraversion .43** .57** -

4. BMI .16* -.11 .19* -

5. Age .00 .02 .11 .05 -

6. Sex -.09 -.17* -.14 -.14 -.18* -

7. Parental income

.07 -.06 .09 -.17* .10 -.04 -

8. Parental education

.09 -.00 .05 -.27** .02 .10 .49** -

M 3.35 3.43 3.20 23.14 22.48 - 3.42 3.36

SD .66 .80 .65 3.84 1.78 - 1.40 1.11

Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01 level. RSQ = Relationship Scale Questionnaire. BAS-2 = Body Appreciation Scale 2. N varied from 187-194. Sex: 0 = Male, 1 = Female. Total parental income: 1 = 30 000kr or less; 2 = 30 000 - 50 000kr; 3 = 50 000 - 70 000kr; 4 = 70 000 - 90 000kr; 5 = 90 000 - 110 000kr; 6 = 110 000kr or more. Parental education: 1 = Less than high school; 2 = High school diploma; 3 = University degree of some kind; 4 = Bachelor’s degree;

5 = Advanced university degree.

To test the moderating effect of extraversion on the association between attachment to friends and body appreciation, a hierarchical multiple linear regression was used. The first step of the regression included the participants’ family SES. The second step was the participants’

own demographic variables such as BMI, age and sex. The first two steps were found nonsignificant. To reduce the problem of multicollinearity, mean centering of the independent variables was conducted before the third step, following Aiken and West’s (1991) recommendations. In the third step, RSQ and Extraversion were entered, as well as the interaction term between the two. The overall model was found significant R ² =.40, F(8,173) = 14.54, p < .05), and predicted 40% of the variance of body appreciation. Presented in Table 2 is the third step of the hierarchical linear regression, displaying the moderating role of extraversion. The interaction term and attachment to friends was found nonsignificant.

Extraversion was positively significantly associated with body appreciation. Higher parental income, higher BMI and being female was significantly associated with lower body appreciation. Greater extraversion and being male were significantly related to higher body appreciation. Opposed to our first hypothesis, attachment to friends was not associated with body appreciation. Contrary to our second hypothesis, extraversion did not moderate the relationship between attachment to friends and body appreciation.

Table 2

Hierarchical linear regression analysis of the moderating role of extraversion onto body appreciation

Unstandardized coefficients

Standardized coefficients

B SE β t Sig.

(Constant) 5.67 .71 8.01 .00

Parental income -.08 .04 -.14 -2.06 .04

Parental education .00** .05 .00** .06 .95

Age -.02* .03 -.05 -.87 .39

BMI -.05 .01 -.27 -4.10 .00

Sex -.28 .13 -.14 -2.20 .03

RSQ .03* .08 .03* .41 .68

Extraversion .74 .08 .60 8.96 .00

RSQ x Extraversion .02* .10 .01* .120 .84

Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01 level. RSQ = Relationship Scale Questionnaire. BAS-2 = Body Appreciation Scale 2. N varied from 187-194. Sex: 0 = Male, 1 = Female. Total parental income: 1 = 30 000kr or less; 2 = 30 000 - 50 000kr; 3 = 50 000 - 70 000kr; 4 = 70 000 - 90 000kr; 5 = 90 000 - 110 000kr; 6 = 110 000kr or more. Parental education: 1 = Less than high school; 2 = High school diploma; 3 = University degree of some kind; 4 = Bachelor’s degree;

5 = Advanced university degree.

Discussion

Promoting a positive body image in youth could be salient for their health and well- being. Researchers within the field of body image are challenged to broaden their perspectives by not solely alleviating symptoms of a negative body image, but also finding ways to promote a positive body image (Halliwell, 2015). Attachment theory is a useful theoretical framework for understanding factors associated with a positive body image (Halliwell, 2015). While research regarding attachment to friends is called for (Raque-Bogdan et al., 2016), friendships gain importance in adolescence and influence the way adolescents perceive their bodies (e.g., Furman & Buhrmester, 1992; Raque-Bogdan et al., 2016). The primary purpose of the current study was to gain a better understanding if and how attachment to friends relates to body appreciation in youth. Inspired by recent evidence revealing that high Extraversion relates to greater body appreciation (Benford & Swami, 2014; Swami et al., 2008; Swami et al., 2013), we hypothesised that attachment to friends and body appreciation would be moderated by Extraversion. However, it was revealed in the present study that extraversion did not have a moderating effect, nor did this research provide sufficient evidence of secure attachment to friends being associated with body appreciation. We will unpack the details of our findings in the following section.

This study aimed to further extend the knowledge of the role of friends to body image in young adults. Contrary to our predictions, attachment to friends did not predict body appreciation in the current study. Prior studies have concluded that attachment anxiety to friends and deficits in peer support is linked to body image issues and low body appreciation (O’Koon, 1997; Patton et al., 2014; Raque-Bogdan et al., 2016; Tasca et al., 2006). Our results suggest, in line with previous research, that low levels of attachment anxiety to friends may have a greater effect on body appreciation than having secure relationships. A possible explanation for our null findings might be that low attachment anxiety is not necessarily equivalent to secure attachment, as reported by Graci and Fivush, (2017) and Liu and Ma, (2019). In line with previous studies (Frederick et al., 2016; Keating et al., 2013; McKinley &

Randa, 2005; van den Brink et al., 2015), it is plausible that low levels of attachment anxiety contribute to a positive body image, rather than secure attachment promoting positive feelings about the body. However, since friends are an important contributor in reducing depression, stress and anxiety in young adults (e.g., Sherman et al., 2000), it would be worthwhile to continue to explore if the quality of friendships enhances body appreciation in a larger and more diverse population of youth.

In regard to our second hypothesis, the results revealed that extraversion did not have a

moderating effect between secure attachment to friends and body appreciation, although, the

association between Extraversion and body appreciation remains significant even after controlling for BMI, sex, and parental SES. This is consistent with previous findings showing that high levels of Extraversion is related to a more positive appearance evaluation and greater body appreciation (Benford & Swami, 2014; Davis et al., 2001; Frederick et al., 2016; Kvalem et al., 2006; Swami et al., 2008; Swami et al., 2013). There are several possible explanations for these findings. Due to their active lifestyle, extroverts may be more likely to participate in health-promoting activities, consequently resulting in higher body appreciation. Further, extroverts are more sociable which leads to an increased social network (Ashton & Lee, 2007).

Since body appreciation has been linked to greater (Williams, 2003) and more meaningful (Gattario & Frisén, 2019) social support, it is probable that extroverts experience higher body appreciation as a result of their social engagement. As put forward by Kvalem et al., (2006) and Frederick et al., (2016), extroverts' positive attitude contributes to a more positive appearance evaluation, consequently resulting in a more positive body image. Altogether, these findings suggest that young adults who have positive attitudes and are outgoing are more likely to appreciate their bodies.

Confirming previous studies (e.g., Tiggemann, 2004), the present results found that women have a lower body appreciation than men. These findings echo earlier work suggesting that body dissatisfaction expresses itself differently between men and women, where women are taught to evaluate themselves based on their bodies and appearance to a greater extent than men (Abell & Richards, 1996; Crocker et al., 2003; McCreary & Sasse, 2000). The observed decrease of body appreciation among women could be interpreted as a result of them not experiencing that they fit into society's view of how women should look. BMI was found inversely related to body appreciation, which is consistent with previous literature (Lobera &

Ríos, 2011; Ng et al., 2015; Swami & Chamorro-Premuzic, 2008; Tylka & Kroon Van Diest, 2013; Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015; Webb et al., 2014, 2015). Body appreciation involves resisting distorted beauty ideals (Webb et al., 2015) and our results suggest that individuals with high BMI struggle to accept and like their bodies. This implies that society should aim to educate and strive for diversity in beauty ideals among youths. It is probable that this could contribute to young people of all body sizes having more body acceptance.

In regard to family SES, parental income, but not education, showed a significant negative association with body appreciation. Some researchers documented that higher parental SES is associated with greater body dissatisfaction (Abell & Richards, 1996; Mintem et al., 2014; van den Berg et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2005). This suggests that parental income tends to negatively affect the body appreciation of young adults. An explanation for this may be that parents with high SES have more perfectionistic expectations on their children (Lyman, 2014) and that pressure to be thin is more prominent in high SES groups, resulting in greater body dissatisfaction (McLaren, 2007). In contradiction to earlier findings showing that education is inversely associated with body dissatisfaction (McLaren, 2007), parental education was not significantly related to body appreciation in our study. A possible interpretation for our results is that it is the economic resources, and not the education that is most important for body image expectations. Thus, this indicates that family SES continues to be of importance when studying body image, calling for further investigation.

Limitations and Future Directions

The present study is an initial step towards examining the relationship between

attachment to friends, extraversion and positive body image in young adults, even though our

hypotheses were not supported. Hopefully this study may improve knowledge about body

appreciation that will be helpful and suggest directions for future research. A number of

potential limitations need to be considered. First, the reliance on a single informant may not be

accurate since it is reported from only one single source (Macaulay, 2009). To reduce the potential information bias, future studies might benefit from inviting the participant’s friends, observing their interactions and interviewing the pairs of friends. Second, the attachment measure of this study has low reliability. This could, according to Backström and Holmes (2001), possibly be due to the poor or low number of questions of the secure scale, or that the questions of the scale are related to more than one attachment style. Therefore, future studies could potentially benefit from creating a new instrument that suits this purpose. It can also be argued that the participants’ interpretation of the questions might have been influenced by cultural factors since the instrument is not originally developed in Sweden.

Third, caution must be taken regarding if the results of the study can be generalized to a broad population. The sample size was small and may not be applied to adults older than 25 years old. Further, the present study was conducted on a Swedish sample and our findings may therefore not be applied outside of Sweden. Further, most studies on body appreciation are from the U.S and few studies have been conducted on a Swedish sample. Hence, more research on body appreciation in Sweden is needed in order to understand body appreciation from a Swedish cultural context. Our findings might be useful to further understand positive body image in men. However, the sample was disproportionately female (20% male), and thus, our results should be validated by a larger sample size. Fourth and finally, since the present study was a cross-sectional design, any causality of the studied relationships cannot be retained. For instance, being satisfied with body image might lead to higher Extraversion. Thus, a longitudinal design is necessary to better establish causality.

As previously mentioned, the majority of studies are conducted on a negative body image (Halliwell, 2015; Wood-Barkalow et al., 2010). Much more research is required in order to fully establish what promotes a positive body image, especially since it might differ from features associated with a negative body image (e.g., Iannantuono & Tylka, 2012). However, the current study contributes to extended knowledge towards understanding what enhances body appreciation. This is an important area for further research given that a positive body image is associated with several health benefits (Halliwell, 2015). Further, there are important variables not addressed in this study. This may involve resisting internalization of unrealistic beauty ideals from the media, which is a part of body appreciation (Webb et al., 2015), given that individuals in today’s society are daily confronted with appearance-related media images and messages (Tylka, 2012). Future studies on body appreciation are therefore suggested to elucidate which role media plays for young peoples’ body image.

Implications

In spite of these potential limitations, several theoretical and practical implications for enhancing body appreciation can be suggested. The present study provides further evidence for the positive role of Extraversion to body appreciation, where Extraversion may serve as a favorable trait when promoting body appreciation. This emphasises the need to take personality into account when examining body image. Further, our results add to the existing theory on body appreciation, where women seem to display lower body appreciation than men. This strengthens the idea that women tend to evaluate their bodies mostly based on appearance.

Further, our results regarding BMI are consistent with previous findings indicating that individuals with high BMI display lower acceptance and approval for the body. Our results strengthen already existing evidence that high parental income negatively affects body appreciation. Our study thereby contributes to more detailed knowledge on that parental income and education can affect body appreciation in youth differently.

The evidence from this study implies that females with low levels of Extraversion, high

BMI and high parental income, are at risk for lower body appreciation. Given that extroverts'

ability to socialize and engage in health-promoting activities may enhance body appreciation, it is plausible that interventions encouraging social and physical activities may be beneficial for individuals with low body appreciation. Further, to encourage a more active lifestyle might consequently decrease high BMI, resulting in greater body appreciation. Designing specific therapeutic interventions aimed towards managing parental criticism and expectations, and promoting unrealistic body ideals, may enhance body appreciation among young adults of high SES. Finally, given that women seem more susceptible to lower body appreciation due to their focus on appearance, interventions could center on shifting focus from the body's appearance to what Wood-Barkalow et al., (2010) describe as features of a more positive body image, such as accepting the shape and functionality of their bodies.

Conclusion

In spite of the fact that this study has several limitations, we hope that our research will

serve as a base for future studies on the unique perspective of secure attachment to friends in

relation to body appreciation. Hopefully this study has attracted interest to further investigate

these associations. This study revealed expected gender differences, where females displayed

lower body appreciation than men. Lower levels of body appreciation were also found among

participants with high SES and high BMI. Furthermore, results showed that Extraversion was

positively and significantly associated with body appreciation, even when controlling for

family SES and BMI. These findings contribute to a growing number of evidence linking

Extraversion to body appreciation. Extraversion did not serve as moderator between attachment

to friends and body appreciation in this study, nor did attachment to friends yield higher body

appreciation. Although our hypotheses were not confirmed, this research could provide clues

on how to promote a positive body image, consequently enhancing well-being in young adults.

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