UPPSATSER
Kulturgeografiska institutionen
Transitioning to a sustainable energy system a qualitative analysis of energy planning policy in
Sweden.
Joel Fenel
Kurs: 2KU035: Masteruppsats i kulturgeografi 30hp Termin: VT2020
ABSTRACT
Fenel, J. 2020. Transitioning to sustainable energy systems: a qualitative analysis of energy planning policy in Sweden. Uppsatser Kulturgeografiska institutionen, Uppsala universitet. Masteruppsats I kulturgeografi 30hp, VT20
This study examines the transition to a sustainable energy system in Swedish society, by analysing research, policy and strategies related to the energy sector. The study applies an institutional approach informed by evolutionary governance theory as well as energy smart and communicative planning theory to analyse how the transition is portrayed on a Nordic, National and regional level. As the purpose is to understand the decision-making process behind the transition, the research design is qualitative and uses official and private documents as the main source of data. To analyse the material, the study applies a method developed by Healey (1993) and Khakee (2000) as a model to read texts as the product of a broad discourse. The results show that the transition towards a sustainable energy system is driven by institutional governance informed by increased European intervention. The Nordic countries, especially Sweden, have during the past decade established structures to become 100 per cent decarbonised and reliant on energy generated from renewable energy sources. Although the core ideology behind the transition is positive from a sustainable perspective, there are many technical challenges on a domestic and regional level that have not yet been solved.
Keywords: Energy systems, energy policy, sustainability, evolutionary governance theory, communicative planning.
Advisor: Sofia Cele
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 4
1.1 Background 4
1.2 Problem definition 5
1.3 Purpose and Research questions 6
1.4 Concepts 7
1.5 Boundaries 10
1.6 Thesis disposition 11
2. METHOD AND APPROACH 13
2.1 Research design 13
2.2 Documental case study 13
2.3 Using thematic analysis to code the material 16
2.4 Critique 17
3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 18
3.1 Evolutionary Governance Theory 18
3.2 Energy smart and communicative planning 22
4. AN INSIGHT INTO THE NORDIC ENERGY PERSPECTIVE 25
5. AN INSIGHT INTO THE SWEDISH ENERGY PERSPECTIVE 29
5.1 National policy 36
6. AN INSIGHT INTO THE REGIONAL PERSPECTIVE 44
6.1 Case 1: Stockholm county 45
6.2 Case 2: Scania county 51
7. ANALYSIS 56
7.1 Themes 56
7.2 Findings 59
8. CONCLUDING DISCUSSION 65
8.1 Future studies 66
LITERATURE 67
Web sources 70
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1. INTRODUCTION
During the past decade the notion of the impending climate change and its global consequences, have been thoroughly investigated by several research institutions. The consensus is that humanity’s energy expenditure among other factors are causal links to environmental degradation, effectively disrupting biotopes and livelihoods of most species living on earth.
The burning of fossil fuels in the production of electricity has during the past 200 years drastically changed how humanity operates by dawning in a new age of technological innovation, mobility and comfortability. However, as we now know, the actions taken in the past have never been sustainable in the truest sense of the word. The problems of greenhouse gas emissions are well documented and usually blamed on the widespread use of fossil fuels and the conversion of energy (Shahbaz et al. 2020: 1). The fossil fuels that we use are not infinite, nor are they re-usable. By burning coal, oil and gas, we have polluted the air we breathe with carbon dioxide, created staggering amounts of non-degradable waste and irreparably damaged vast parts of the earth to make room for our industrial complexes. Furthermore, our urban areas are the core of energy consumption which expend 75 per cent of the world’s total energy use (Maltese et al. 2016: 26). As a result, these areas are prone to generate large amounts of greenhouse gas emissions, which broadens the difficulty if attaining sustainable society is the goal. Considering a yearly increase in energy consumption, it is fair to argue that this global structure we have implemented would eventually break down. Thus, nations, institutions and organisations have in the past decade collectively begun to change their ways regarding the production, consumption and transportation of energy as to correct the mistakes of the past.
This development is considered a paradigm shift in the energy sector as more nations are constructing infrastructure to accommodate a larger share of renewable energy sources (Calvillo et al. 2016: 283).
1.1 Background
The most notable development in recent international energy policy, is the event called COP 21 also known as “The Paris Agreement”, where representatives of 188 countries signed an agreement to implement measures in their home countries to reduce the global temperature below 2 degrees Celsius (UNFCCC 2020). This marked the first time in history where the world’s biggest climate influencers came together to combat the problem of climate change.
The European Union and other global actors have since deemed the energy expenditure and environmental degradation one of the key challenges of this generation and has invested numerous resources in establishing directives and goals for sustainable policy and planning (European Commission 2017). Most of these goals include mandatory objectives that should be achieved by a certain timetable, as the purpose is to put pressure on the member nations.
However, the power to change existing domestic energy systems falls on each individual
5 country, as global initiatives only have so much influence over domestic economy, policy and planning. Although this may be the case, some areas have better cooperation than others, as for example the Nordic countries. Following the EU’s directive regarding climate and energy goals, Denmark, Finland, Iceland Norway and Sweden have intensified their collaboration concerning climate and energy research (Nordic Energy Research & International Energy Agency 2016). The research covers most sectors in society, as the energy system is not closed off and often relies on intersectional collaboration and international trade. According to a recent report published by the International Energy Agency (2019: 11), Sweden is ranked among the leading nations in Europe to transition towards a carbon free and energy efficient energy system. Being highly ranked also means that other countries look at Sweden as an example of good practice, which also means that expectations are higher and that the practices are examined more closely (Urban et al. 2018). But is the Swedish energy system portrayed fairly on an international level? And is the Swedish decision-making process through policies and plans a standard to appeal to regarding the transition towards a sustainable energy system? To examine this phenomenon, this thesis will examine the energy system by incorporating Nordic, Swedish and regional perspectives on the subject.
1.2 Problem definition
The idea of altering society to become more applicable to sustainable and energy efficient strategies is generally perceived as a goal to pursue by European countries, but there are hardly any practical frameworks that describe how this could be achieved. Recently, global and local initiatives have appeared that try to establish new frameworks and methods of operation within the energy sector (European Commission 2017: 14), but progress tends to be slow and difficult due to the multi-layered problems sustainable energy reorganisation creates. The fact that the Swedish regional climate and energy strategies were adopted in the past 5 years, shows that there has not been an established framework that links international and domestic policy to local energy initiatives (Länsstyrelsen i Stockholms län 2020: 3). However, there are some fundamental problems in the energy sector that need to be elaborated upon before delving into the problems that exist within the Nordic region.
Firstly, Stoeglehner et al. (2016: v) argue that “the link between energy and spatial planning is that it cuts not only across two of the most basic scientific concepts, space and energy, but puts very different actors with various backgrounds in the same boat”. However, the communication within this hypothetical boat seems to be problematic, as the interdisciplinary viewpoints tend to clash over matters of prioritization. Another point is the obscure mentality regarding sustainable energy planning and how it is utilized most effectively. Some actors say that sustainability within the energy sector can only be achieved by international cooperation by public and private organisations. However, a recent study by Shahbaz et al. (2020: 9), showed that international public-private investments in the energy sector can have negative effects on local environmental quality due to conflicting values, which effectively counteracts
6 the main objective. This dilemma of contradicting statements in planning policy is nothing new, but due to the experimental nature of renewable energy implementation, pinpointing the validity of the statements becomes exceedingly hard. Hence, identifying specific problem areas is essential if one is to understand the scope of the undertaking. Secondly, according to Trutnevyte et al. (2015: 170-171) one of the core issues regarding the transition to sustainable energy systems is to make the renewable energy market alluring for investment, as the restructuring cannot be achieved without financial means to challenge the existing fossil fuel market. Many of the propositions in planning policy also rely heavily on innovative cost- effective solutions to fill some of the motivational gaps, while being intentionally vague about the expenses of developing new technologies (Maltese et al. 2016: 26; Bhowmik et al. 2017:
796). Thirdly, due to the varying stages of infrastructural development of energy industries between countries in Europe, it is exceedingly difficult to develop a framework that works for everyone. For example, energy production in Sweden largely utilizes hydropower due to its several waterways, which means that a framework developed for Swedish standards would be both financially and geographically difficult to implement elsewhere (Swedish Energy Agency 2019: 7). Furthermore, according to a recent news article published in Dagens Nyheter (Fröberg 2020), the southern part of Sweden currently suffers from interregional energy transmission shortages, which means that not even Sweden is unified enough create a domestic model.
Hence, discussing the energy sector comparatively outside the Nordic region might not be fruitful data-wise, as the differences become too large.
These problems are but a few that exist within the energy sector, nevertheless they all came to be as the result of insufficient frameworks and vague policies. Thus, the thesis will look at these problems from an institutional level, to try to surmise the issues that are behind the difficulties in transitioning towards a new energy system.
1.3 Purpose and Research questions
The purpose of this thesis is to examine how the transition towards a sustainable energy system is portrayed in Swedish society and understand why this process have recently begun to take shape, by analysing research, policy and plans connected to the energy sector. The decision- making process regarding climate and energy policy is often vaguely discussed in scientific studies, although being one of the defining developments of our generation. Furthermore, the governance of the energy system does have a grave impact on how society functions in the future, since energy intensive apparatuses are intertwined in the modern way of life. Thus, the following research questions are meant to answer why energy systems are so vaguely discussed literature.
• What are the main drivers of change in the energy discussion on a Nordic, a national and a regional level?
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• How are narratives and interests represented in climate and energy literature when filtered through Healey’s (1993) and Khakee’s (2000) model?
• How are opportunities and challenges discussed, and are the current solutions viable?
As Sweden is currently in the process of transitioning towards more international energy market with the intention of increasing the share of renewable energy being utilized in all sectors of society (International Energy Agency 2019: 11-12), I examine this transition by adapting an institutional approach to create an overview of the phenomenon. In other words, this thesis adapts a macro perspective to examine how formal and informal institutions, organisations and actors operate in, and transform the overarching process, instead of looking at specific individuals and how their actions affect the structure. For this to be possible, it is necessary to look at the energy sector from several angles. Thus, this study gives an insight into three different levels of the energy sector, specifically from: a Nordic perspective by examining collaborative research; a Swedish perspective by examining current events and relevant energy policy; a regional perspective by examining two climate and energy strategies, specifically Stockholm and Scania county. Although this thesis does not give a complete or comprehensive account of each level, it will hopefully give an overall picture of what informs the current decision-making process in the energy sector. The chosen theoretical framework namely, evolutionary governance theory as well as energy smart and communicative planning theory similarly reflects this approach, by describing how institutions, organisations and actors govern and decide the course of action in societal structure. By applying concepts and ideas from the theoretical framework to examine how the decision-making process within the energy sector is done, it becomes easier to analyse why these decisions are made. For this purpose, the study applies a tool introduced by Healey (1993) and later refined by Khakee (2000) to filter and analyse patterns within policies and plans, such as context, vision, economic premise, discourse, ambiguity and power relations. The tool is consequently used as the thematic structure of the analysis, as it utilizes the concepts presented in the theoretical framework.
1.4 Concepts
To understand the energy system, some concepts need a short description to contextualise why they are prevalent in energy discussions and how they appear in discourse. These concepts are meant to assist the reader in grasping difficult subjects that are introduced throughout the thesis.
1.4.1 Sustainability in terms of energy planning
According to Scoones (2007), sustainability has since the terms recognition in the Rio conference of 1992 been plagued by conceptualisation issues. As mentioned earlier, the problem relates to the difficulties in putting many actors with their own ideas, to compete for whose idea is best and should be prioritised. Generally, the term sustainability or sustainable
8 development is used as a buzzword within the political discourse as something positive, long- term and established from the premise that what we are doing presently is unsustainable. Due to the term’s popularity and broadness, the context of how something is sustainable is often left intentionally vague, as sustainability cannot be assessed equally in every scenario (Rosen 2018:
3). What is generally accepted, is that sustainability is dependent on three main societal pillars, namely economic development, social development and environmental protection (Environmental Science 2018). Additionally, “sustainability is highly correlated with energy since it implies a careful use of resources”, which is bolstered by the fact that renewable energy seems to be at the forefront of sustainable literature (La Greca & Martinico 2016: 51).
However, the methods of how sustainability is measured is still not very well defined, as some values simply cannot be quantified. According to Rosen (2018: 15), the best methods we have at the moment for measuring sustainability are simple calculations that either: a) assesses sustainable indicators by combining or separately measuring economic, social and environmental factors; or b) by indexing an aggregation of sustainable indicators to show simple correlations over time. The results of these measurements are mostly used as markers of the available research parameters, which means that sustainability as concept has limited use as a directive in the planning process, if not specified correctly to what end it is being used (Föreningen för Samhällsplanering [FFS] 2016: 12). It can be argued that the language in plans and official documents often misrepresent the concept of sustainability by exaggerating its actual use and leaving out important contextual factors. Thus, this study will define sustainability in accordance to the aforementioned societal pillars, but with an emphasis on energy related principles, which means that all societal pillars will not be prioritised equally.
1.4.2 The basics of energy, power and power systems
As this study delves into the energy sector, which in of itself is complex, some basic concepts need to be understood as they are frequently used in the literature. To start off, energy can be defined as the ability to do work (Greentech Media 2007; Mehling 2019: 4). The first law of thermodynamics states that energy is a constant and exist in many forms regardless of action, which means that energy can neither be produced nor destroyed (Mehling 2019: 5). Energy can only be converted into different forms of utility, as for example generating electricity by converting energy. Depending on which form of energy and how it is converted, different effects might be observed. As for example renewable energy sources such as energy converted from sunlight, wind and water, are different from energy converted from fossil fuels, since fossil fuels are depleted in the conversion process (Greentech Media 2007). The most common forms of energy in regard to energy systems are:
• Mechanical energy = Energy associated with the motion or position of an object. It can be observed in either kinetic energy (motion) or potential energy (stored). For example, energy harnessed from wind.
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• Chemical energy = Energy stored in the bonds that hold the atoms of molecules
• Electric energy = Energy stored in metals and other electron conducting materials that move electrical charges
• Nuclear energy = Energy stored in the nucleus of an atom.
• Thermal energy = Energy caused by vibration and movement of atoms and molecules within a substance, producing heat.
• Radiant energy = Electromagnetic energy that travels in waves which possess both electrical and magnetic properties. For example, sunlight.
Another important concept in energy systems is power. Power refers to the amount of energy transformed in a certain amount of time, by means of conversion, storage, transport or use (Mehling 2019: 43). Power can also be described as, (P = W / t) power equals work divided by time (Greentech Media 2007). The SI unit used to measure power is watts (W), which in this study will mostly be described in terms of gigawatts or terawatts as energy systems deal with bigger units of power.
Lastly, to distribute electricity that has been converted from some form of energy, we use what is called an electric power system. An electric power system can be understood as a network of devices that generate, convert, transfer and distribute electric power for consumption in households, industries and other electric driven services (Circuit globe 2018). As can be seen in Figure 1, the electric power system is divided into the generators that supply the power, the transmission system that transports the power from the generating centres and the distribution system that provides houses and industries with power. In Sweden the transmission system is managed by Svenska Kraftnät and the distribution systems are mainly owned by Ellevio, E.ON and Vattenfall. (SOU 2017:2: 117).
Figure 1: A simplified example of the power system. Source: Personal collection.
Generating system
• Power plants generate power
Step-up transformer
• transforms electricity for long-distance transport
Transmission system
& transmission lines
• Transmits large quantitites of electricity
Step-down transformer
• transfroms electricity for short-distance transport
Distribution system
& distribution lines
• Distributes electricity to households and industries
10 1.4.3 Sustainable energy systems
Energy systems can be understood as a culmination of all energy related mechanism in a societal structure. As can be seen in Figure 2, an energy system should be viewed as linear progression of how energy is industrialised, converted and finally used by society.
Figure 2: Illustration of the energy system, consisting of supply, conversion and distribution. Source:
Swedish Energy Agency 2019.
In this thesis I use the Swedish Energy Agency’s (2018) terminology of energy systems, which states:
“Energy systems consists of a combination of humans, technology, and infrastructure together with institutions such as policies, laws and societal values that all are linked together and influence each other.”
Sustainable energy systems can thus be related to sustainable human practices, green technology, energy efficient infrastructure that uses long-term, economically viable and environmentally friendly energy sources. This also implies that the rule of law, policies and values are adapted from the same mentality.
1.5 Boundaries
Sustainable energy systems do not exist in a societal vacuum and are as such interconnected in many vital sectors that must be mentioned to create a contextual scenario. Aspects within topics such as socioeconomic development, physics and politics are discussed, but from an
11 institutional energy and climate perspective as the two topics are interconnected when discussing current energy policy. To keep the study focused on energy related themes, the other topics will only be discussed if they are directly connected to Swedish energy and climate policy. Although European policy is mentioned, this study narrows the perspective to Nordic climate and energy policy, due to similarities in geographical space, economic development and established energy infrastructure. Furthermore, there already exists Nordic cooperation regarding the research and development of sustainable energy systems, which makes it more logical to start examining energy policy from a Nordic perspective.
1.6 Thesis disposition
The following summary presents the structure of this thesis with the intention to give the reader an overview of the topics discussed.
1. Introduction. The first chapter introduced the premise of the study, presented current problems within the field, discussed the purpose and research questions, introduced some important definitions and lastly set some boundaries of what can be accomplished. The aim was to provide a basic understanding of why society is moving towards sustainable energy systems and why it is important to look at the energy sector from multiple angles to establish an overall picture.
2. Method and approach. The second chapter describes the qualitative research design and the reasoning behind the chosen methodology. Furthermore, the motive for choosing a documental case study is explained, as well as the difficulties encountered when conducting the research.
3. Theoretical frameworks. The third chapter introduces the theoretical framework, specifically concepts and ideas from evolutionary governance theory as well as energy smart and communicative planning theory which are adapted to the institutional approach. Evolutionary governance theory introduces ideas from social system theory, poststructuralism as well as institutional and development economics which help explain institutional agency. Energy smart and communicative planning present more practical concepts of energy planning as well as tools for reading policies and plans.
4. to 6. Empirical content. The fourth chapter introduces the energy sector from a Nordic perspective, by delving into the latest collaborative energy research and how the transition to a sustainable energy system affects the Nordic countries. The fifth chapter presents the current energy situation in Sweden to establish a premise for the reasoning behind Swedish energy and climate policy. The sixth chapter presents the climate and energy strategies for two Swedish counties, for the purpose of showing how research and policy from the Nordic and the National level is conveyed on a regional level. The overall purpose with the empirical chapters is to describe the transition to sustainable energy systems from several angles, as the energy sector is more than a closed system and therefore needs a broader description.
12 7. Analysis. The seventh chapter combines the empirical material with the theoretical framework presented in previous chapters. The themes are categorised in accordance to Khakee’s (2000) tool presented in chapter 2, and subsequently interpreted to construct concepts that are explored further.
8. Concluding discussion and final remarks. The final chapter summarizes the results discovered in the analysis and discusses the relevant facts to the phenomenon. The discussion will also revisit the problems and research questions presented in the first chapter and evaluate if the study reached the intended purpose. Lastly, some subjective remarks that were discovered while researching the topic are discussed, which will hopefully encourage further studies to be conducted within the discipline.
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2. METHOD AND APPROACH
This chapter introduces the research design, the empirical gathering method, relevant documents, method of analysis, coding model and lastly some critiques against the methods used.
2.1 Research design
Since my goal is to examine the transition to sustainable energy systems by interpreting information from private and official documents rather than measuring quantified data, this study will adapt a qualitative research design. Plans and policies are often drafted for a broad audience with diverging degrees of expertise, which is why this study is purposefully written in a more normative language that is better suited for a descriptive qualitative approach.
Qualitative methods are also best applied when the researcher needs to be able to interpret the meanings behind actions, statements and opinions (Bryman & Nilsson 2011: 346). In regard to my research questions, I test the ideas from evolutionary governance theory as well as energy smart and communicative planning theory against the empirical data by using a modified inductive approach, as the goal is to describe a phenomenon rather than proving a hypothesis (Bryman & Nilsson 2011: 26). Furthermore, it is not uncommon for qualitative studies use a blend of deductive and inductive reasoning (Bryman & Nilsson 2011: 28). Thus, the goal for this thesis is not to reach absolute truths, rather bring forth an informed perspective of the current energy system.
2.2 Documental case study
Official documents, reports and plans are used as the cornerstone of this thesis due to the policy-heavy nature of the phenomenon. Thus, policies, referral responses, regional development plans, energy reports and more are incorporated as empirical data, considering that the statements in these documents will act as the bulk of the analysis. However, since documental studies are dependent on the authors interpretation and values, it is important to review several sources in order to ascertain meaning and validity (Bowen 2009: 27; Bryman &
Nilsson 2011: 488). According to Bowen (2009: 28) the procedure entails discovering, selecting, assessing and synthesising the data, which can then be used as the cornerstone for the analysis.
I found case studies to be a complementary method for a documental study, as looking at regional development might shed some light on how policies are implemented. Case studies are “well suited to new research areas or research areas for which existing theory seems inadequate”, which resonates with the topic of sustainable energy systems, as there are new angles that can be explored within the discipline (Rowley 2002: 16). A case study can be
14 defined as an empirical enquiry of contemporary phenomena in its context, which is not restricted by strict research paradigms (Rowley 2002: 18). Its suits the flexibility of the overall research design, as the study will open a contemporary window to the world of energy systems, which will inevitably look completely different in a decade. Furthermore, case studies tend to have a descriptive quality when trying to answer questions of how and why something happens, which is in line with the chosen research questions (Rowley 2002: 16).
As this study utilizes documents as the main source of data, the sample size is mainly selected through interpretation of relevance to the research questions. Although not following a specific method, the selection of empirical data did undergo a screening of relevance to the overall topic and how it could be approached. Firstly, based on the theoretical framework which emphasises an institutional approach, it was necessary to describe Nordic energy plans to establish a premise for the Swedish outlook on energy policy. Secondly, the Swedish perspective informs both the mentality and background for the current energy system, as well as the creation of the regional climate and energy strategies. Finally, the cases of Stockholm and Scania county were chosen based on the traits they both share, namely a published climate and energy strategy, as well as power inefficiency within the geographical area due to capacity deficit within the electric power network. Although other documents were used to contribute to the study as a whole, they were not subjected to the same analytical process as the following research, policy and planning documents, as seen in Table 1. The institutions most relevant to this study are;
Nordic Energy Research, Government offices of Sweden and the governing boards of Stockholm and Scania county.
15 Table 1: Overview of the analysed documents
Document Adopted/
Published
Sample criteria Analysed excerpts Material about Nordic energy research
Nordic Energy
Technology Perspectives 2016: Cities, flexibility and pathways to carbon- neutrality
2016 Comprehensive report about the Nordic energy situation, its challenges and opportunities
Chapter:
Introduction, 1, 3
Tracking Nordic Clean Energy Progress 2019
2019 Situation and Progress Entire document Tracking Nordic Clean
Energy Progress 2020
2020 Situation and Progress Entire document Material on Swedish energy policy
Framework agreement 2016, June Long-term framework for Swedish energy policy
Entire document
SOU 2017:2 -
“Kraftsamling för framtidens energi”
2017, January
Comprehensive report about the Swedish energy situation, its challenges and opportunities
Entire document
Proposition 2017/18:228 -
“Energipolitikens inriktning”
2018, April Referral responses and evaluations on progress
Entire document
Material on regional energy strategies Climate and energy
strategy for Stockholm county 2020 – 2045
2020 Stockholm county’s regional energy plan
Entire document
Climate and energy strategy for Scania county 2018 - 2030
2018 Scania county’s regional energy plan
Entire document
Source: Personal collection
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2.3 Using thematic analysis to code the material
I chose to use thematic analysis as the main analytical tool, as it allows for greater interpretation when synthesising the empirical data. According to Bryman and Nilsson (2011: 528), thematic analysis works best when trying to find patterns or themes within the field of research, as the researchers own interpretation of the phenomenon becomes key to building a conceptual framework (Bryman & Nilsson 2011: 528). In other words, the framework in this study consists of themes derived from energy policy and planning, which are then categorised into workable concepts. This is done via coding the empirical material into core- and sub-themes, then applying it to the theoretical perspective, and lastly discussing the concepts and the meaning behind them. To help code the material and build the framework, Bryman and Nilsson (2011:
529) suggest paying close attention to repetitions, typologies, metaphors, paradigms, disparities in statements and missing data. This mentality is similar to Healey’s (1993) and Khakee’s (2000: 124) model that examines the language of written text and applies ideas and concepts from communicative planning theory (presented in chapter 3). The model adapts an institutional approach to examine underlying aspects in plan and policy texts by viewing them as products of a broad discourse. The model is designed to question for whom the texts are written, what stakeholders are involved, uncover obscurities and examine if there exists a dominating ideology that empowers or disempowers certain viewpoints (Khakee’s 2000: 123- 124). To do this, the model singles out certain patterns in the texts by categorising them into the following areas:
• The context: How structures and social relations are described and portrayed.
• The frame of the plan: What aims, visions and dispositions are presented in the plans and policies, and do they acknowledge any missing information.
• The economic premise: Business conditions, unemployment, social priorities, conflicts between different agendas.
• The discourse and discourse arena: The language of the text, treatment of technical issues and objectives.
• The communicative qualities: Clarification of difficult subjects, dealing with ambiguities, misrepresentation of facts, explanation of policy issues and accessibility of information.
• The power relations: Does ambiguity in the text conceal powerlessness, the portrayal of formal and informal attitude to public interest and market interest respectively.
These categories will be the template for how the empirical content is analysed and discussed in chapter 7.
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2.4 Critique
There are some areas that need to be clarified regarding the credibility and validity of this study.
Firstly, this study was originally planned to apply semi-structured interviews in addition to the documental data, but due to the outbreak of Covid-19 the method was abandoned as national quarantine hindered access to key individuals. The research design was hence changed to a pure documental study and lacks any first-hand sources of knowledge. According to Bowen (2009: 28) it is often beneficial for a study to use multiple data sources and methods, such as interviews, observations or other first-hand sources. This is done to establish triangulation, ergo credibility through an aggregation of sources. Nevertheless, as the purposes is to describe a phenomenon rather than to obtain absolute truth, the official documents should provide enough credibility, to support the statements made in this thesis. An argument can be made that it will not represent reality in the same way, but then again that is a problem for most qualitative methods as people’s beliefs, values and morals are difficult to mirror through language.
Secondly, this study uses sources from many different disciplines as sustainable energy systems cannot be understood without assessing multiple layers of societal functions. That includes a basic understanding of concepts from economic theory, planning theory, social theory, environmental studies, judicial studies, human geography and more. As a scholar of urban planning studies, I am neither an expert or an authority in these disciplines and could therefore be missing some information due to a lack of knowledge. Furthermore, since the interdisciplinary approach takes into account multiple matters of interest, the study can be interpreted as vague or lacking a clear direction. However, as the purpose of the study is to interpret a phenomenon that is contextually an observation of a societal system, I find it rational to discuss the phenomenon from a broader perspective, instead of clinging to a methodology that focuses on certain details. In the process of researching this topic, I also became convinced that pursuing a narrower perspective when contextualising the topic, would exclude too many factors that are vital in understanding energy systems.
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3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This chapter presents the theories used to create the overall framework for the study. The first theory is called Evolutionary Governance Theory which establishes the premise for the institutionalist approach. The second theory is a blend between energy smart planning and communicative planning theory. The combination of these two is motivated by how they both approach iterative planning as a way to establish cooperation, which prevalent in how policy and planning documents are written. By adapting an institutionalist approach that utilizes modern thoughts on cooperative energy planning, polices and plans can be deduced in a way that is backed by established scientific research.
3.1 Evolutionary Governance Theory
Evolutionary governance theory was chosen as an explanatory framework for governance or community-based decision-making, and how it has evolved in unison with institutions and organisations instead of being a static form of power. A similar progression can be seen in the energy sector, as the view of fossil fuels and their institutional relevance in Nordic society has undergone a drastic transformation from being a staple in the industry, to being alienated and categorised as unsustainable. Thus, evolutionary governance theory might help illuminate institutional agency and how it has affected the transition to a sustainable energy system.
The term governance does not have an all-encompassing definition, as it varies depending on the context in which it is used, as well as the entities it is being applied to such as actors, knowledge, politics, objects, subjects, institutions and organizations to name a few (Beunen et al. 2015: 21). However, the basis of governance theory is derived from the idea that governmental structure in western society has changed “from central steering and expert- driven decision-making to more participatory forms of democracy” (Beunen et al. 2015: 6-7).
This supposed shift in decision-making with governance replacing government is well documented in academic literature and relates to the idea that networks and social connections have seized control from the traditional hierarchical structures in society, replacing them with more dispersed entities of power (Davies 2012: 2). Global governance theory similarly holds this position but on a bigger scale, as it “refers to the exercise of authority across national borders as well as consented norms and rules beyond the nation state” (Zürn 2018: 4). This proclamation is plausible due to the backing by the numeral global institutions and organisations that operate similarly and often towards the same goal. However, authors such as Davies (2012: 10) have made valid points in remarking that although governance theory can be applied to modern society, most adaptions fail to observe the importance of “hard power”
and how material incentives still hold a grip over agency. However, evolutionary governance theory attempts to solve this issue.
19 Evolutionary governance theory or EGT, takes the concept of governance one step further, by emphasising that decision-making structures are not static, but do change and adapt to the scenario in a similar way that actors do. This is because governance in its simplest form is made up by actors whose beliefs, ideologies and norms affect the discourse and steer the decision- making process. Contrary to the theory’s earlier adaptions, EGT does not assess the transition to governance as a specific structural shift, rather beholds the changes in governance as a constantly evolving mechanism (Beunen et al. 2014: 4). According to Beunen et al. (2014: 3), EGT is an interdisciplinary approach to decision-making structures, as it builds upon ideas from economics, political science, sociology, philosophy and other actor related studies. Hence the foundations of EGT also borrow from other established theoretical frameworks, namely social system theory, post-structuralism, institutional and development economics (Beunen et al. 2014: 9)
• Social System Theory builds upon the idea that communication is the key aspect in social systems and that these systems “are nothing else than on-going processes of interpretation and reinterpretation of internal and external environments” (Beunen et al. 2014: 10). Furthermore, these systems can be divided into three distinct categories depending on the scale of interaction. Firstly, social systems can be found in conversations as ideas and values can be communicated to an extent. Secondly, communication can be found in organizations as social systems with boundaries tend to reproduce “by means of decisions” (Beunen et al. 2014: 10). Lastly, we have function systems which work as communication via a unified perspective, in other words communication created as the result actors striving for a singular goal that is not restricted by membership
• Poststructuralism is a broad framework, but in the context of EGT it can be understood as “a constructivist epistemology”, a way to comprehend how realities are constructed and collide through discourse (Beunen et al. 2014: 12). In simplified terms, all actions we take, interactions we make, communications we establish and norms we uphold exist within discursive structures that change over time as a result of structural shifts.
Although discourses change, the foundations are based upon the previous discursive structure, which means that for all intents and purposes it evolves into a discursive structure better adapted for the times. In this sense, it is similar to how governance theory describes societal structures, and how they change and reproduce in accordance to the public discourse.
• Institutional and development economics wraps up social system theory and poststructuralism by adding the missing piece to the formula, namely explaining the role of market behaviour and institutional agency. Firstly, institutional and development economics acknowledge that institutions, organisations and markets have evolved either through formal or informal means in tandem with politics, public
20 discourse and the rule of law (Beunen et al. 2014: 13). Secondly, due to this co- evolution, markets and institutions are intrinsically intertwined and affect each other’s interests, which has resulted in market influence and institutional agency being more dispersed. Thirdly, the dispersion of influence and agency can be interpreted as the progression towards a free market which differs depending on the discursive structure (Beunen et al. 2014: 13). In summary market behaviour and institutional agency shape each other and base their foundations within discursive structures. It also means “that no logic of action (e.g. of rational market behaviour) can be distilled independent of discourse” (Beunen et al. 2014: 13).
Although the foundations of the EGT framework have been explained, some basic concept within the theory need to be summarised, as the practical application cannot be properly understood without them.
Firstly, the concepts of formal, informal and dead institutions are relevant to EGT as they contextualise how and why certain decisions are made. Formal institutions are often associated with the state, their actions, decisions, organizations and rule of law, while informal institutions are associated with alternative actions, decisions and so on (Beunen et al. 2015: 338-339).
According to Beunen et al. (2014: 22), “formal institutions are not only embedded in informality, but carry it as a shadow of alternative coordination options”, which makes the difference between formal and informal a choice of labelling or with whom legitimacy resides.
Dead institutions on the other hand, are referred to as written down institutions that no longer hold any meaning to modern society but were once considered formal. As any historical text, they show a version of what once was, but can never be fully revived as they have been replaced by new formal and informal coordination options (Beunen et al. 2015: 339; Beunen et al. 2014:
22).
Secondly, as EGT uses a framework with a constructivist epistemological stance, it naturally views reality as constructed with material and immaterial differentiations. That includes the construction of conceptual boundaries, specifically spatial and social boundaries. Spatial and social boundaries, separate place from social identity, effectively perceiving the formation of objects and subjects as different entities (Beunen et al. 2014: 38-39). Although separate, they influence eachother as for example social groups identifying themselves as citizens of a country, which with all intents and purposes is a spatial boundary. In addition to influencing eachother, spatial and social boundaries can also construct new conceptual boundaries, by fore example morphing social groups together to create a new social group that identify with eachother within a spatial boundary. Beunen et al. (2014: 39), exemplify this by inferring to how Celts and Franks eventually merged and became Frenchmen. In summary, by first distinguishing the differences of conceptual boundaries, it becomes easier to see how actors and organizations interact within space and reshape it.
21 Thirdly, EGT follows Focault’s and Flyvberg’s thoughts on knowledge and power, whom imply that both concepts are intertwined as power defines what counts as rationality and knowledge, while knowledge is a form of power. Power is neither inherently good nor bad, rather it is a force that can be perceived as good or bad depending on how it is used. Actors, groups and organizations constantly reinforce and legitimize their position through knowledge and power, which in turn informs their actions and decisions. Governance in this sense, serves as the collective where “binding decisions are strived for, and decisions with an impact on the lives of many are institutionalised e.g. in the form of policies, plans, and laws” (Beunen et al.
2014: 41-42).
The last concept that helps describe the application of EGT, is the concept of narrative.
According to Beunen et al. (2014: 45), narratives can give actors, institutions and objects legitimacy by influencing the discursive structure. Narratives can also make societal concepts more palatable for the general public by infusing values and criteria that better fit the discursive structure. In a sense those who have the power to implement narratives, can hypothetically create stories that vilify or glorify agendas to serve one owns purposes. However, as Beunen et al. (2014: 47) explain, power distribution in a governance system is seldom unified to a degree that actors, organisations and institutions can create a tyrannical narrative that disenfranchises a community.
As any theoretical framework that utilizes ideas and concepts from multiple disciplines, the applied scenario becomes key to interpreting and understanding the underlying processes. As governance “is the coordination of collectively binding decisions for a community” that consists of actors, organizations, institutions and discourses, the theoretical framework is best utilized from a top-down perspective (Beunen et al. 2014: 79). Furthermore, EGT being an experimental adaption of governance, most arguments are still adapted through the lens of the original theory but with the mindset that actors, knowledge, politics, objects, subjects, institutions and organizations have co-evolved. However, to avoid the risk of becoming too vague, it is suggested that EGT be applied via three different configurations:
1. Configuration of formal and informal institutions
a. Assessing patterns of formal, informal and dead institutions that have resulted from a specific governance evolution.
2. Configuration of actors and institutions
a. Assessing how actors transform in governance. How they coordinate, confront, strategize, idealize and involve themselves in policies, plans and laws.
3. Configuration of power and knowledge
a. Assessing the power struggle between actors, their values and norms.
Interactions such as confrontations, competitions, cooperation and compromise all play a role in the analyses as transformations in the status quo leads to new insights in governance.
22 These three configurations are similar to the methodology that is to be used in the analysis, which is why EGT can help find decision-making motives within a field that is evolving from a well-established energy system to a sustainable energy system. These ideas will be further enhanced by energy smart and communicative planning theory, as they add concepts specific to the energy sector, as well as gives a more practical framework for how to read plans, policies and reports.
3.2 Energy smart and communicative planning
According to Maltese et al. (2016: 25) the term smart cities is derived from the concept of urban smartness, which considers sustainability, governance, spatiality and mobility as part of the planning process. Without going into particulars, the concept of what is to be considered smart has evolved into more nuanced fields of urban planning, one of which is energy smart planning. Energy smart planning in this context is not a concrete theory, but rather a collection of ideas from different disciplines, which contribute to the understanding of how sustainable and energy efficient societies can be planned. Most of the ideas are borrowed from planning theory, as the fundamental concept is to strive for the improvement of human utilized space (FFS 2016: 13). Factors such as public discourse, power relations, networks, policy, rule of law, norms, market behaviour and more, all play a role in how well energy smart planning can be implemented and run sustainably. Furthermore, planning energy smart cities and transitioning to a new energy system, creates a situation where innovation and technology are often asserted as the key to success. However, it is a common mistake to view technology as free pass to success and ignore the difficulties that arise from treading on new ground.
According to Papa and Fistola (2016: v), there needs to be a change in the mindset of how we implement technology in the planning process, by adopting technology as a part of the planning process, instead of merely adding technology to existing plans. In other words, current models of planning regarding energy systems must be updated to incorporate new perspectives about energy, as unknown issues tend to appear when approaching new territory. Furthermore, the replacement of any societal system brings a web of issues that are seldom contained within itself. Stoeglehner et al. (2016: 1) describe the transition towards a sustainable energy system as a confrontation against:
“the base values of society, the interplay of different policies with relevance for energy policy (e.g., economic policies, agricultural policies, fiscal policies, environmental policies), the availability of technologies, regional and local resource potentials, demographic development of societies, individual lifestyles, economic practices as well as the physical and planned spatial development”.
Thus, the simplistic view that implementing new technology to existing plans and overriding policy for the benefit of sustainability, is anything but simple. But circling around the issues and describing the topic with fancy terms does not bring us closer to a practical model that can be applied to reality. Luckily, to combat the problems of unsustainable energy practices, there
23 has been an increase in energy research and how practical models could be implemented on a national scale.
In the report named “Energismart samhällsplanering” which was created as part of the EU- project SPECIAL (Spatial Planning and Energy for Communities In All Landscapes), some of the latest tools and methods on how energy smart planning can be done in practice, have been gathered (FFS 2016: 5). One of the tools presented is called “4 big leaps and 20 small steps”
and it portrays energy smart planning in a systematic yet flexible way (FFS 2016: 28). Although this framework focuses on more locally based projects, the strategy integrates energy questions into planning and policy. This framework is set up as an iterative planning tool which promotes interdisciplinary collaboration. This means that the planning process is done in stages, as numeral factors need to be considered before creating an overall picture of the opportunities and issues that are related to the planning area. Planning projects are usually broad in scope and involves multiple actors whose knowledge and experience contribute to the overall efficiency of the planning process (FFS 2016: 30). When working on a general level such as a regional project, it is more important to focus on a few key issues that are relevant to the topic, instead of going into details. That said, every planning project needs an overview of the spatial properties of the area as well as general knowledge about existing structures (FFS 2016: 32).
Energy questions are assessed similarly and are in a way the focal point in how the structures operate. Although the framework gives tools to analyse projects about energy planning, this study needs an additional framework how to analyse energy policy. Thus, to understand an energy system, structures such as energy supply and use, as well as challenges and opportunities need to be incorporated in the study for contextual discernment (presented in chapter 5).
The aforementioned framework is contextually similar to what is called collaborative or communicative planning theory, which also views planning as an “interactive and iterative process that involves several fluid and overlapping discourse groups” (Healey 1993: 88;
Healey 1997: 34; Khakee 2000: 120). Communicative planning was established as several planning practices came to believe that urban and regional change were aligned with the processes of governance through which political communities could collectively address their common dilemmas (Healey 1997: 30). Before then it was widely accepted that “the state could 'take charge' and 'control' spatial organisation and the location of development, in contrast to the current interest in the combination of flexible enabling and regulatory governance”
(Healey 1997: 4-5). Over the years the theory has mostly been applied to local forms of planning or broad perspectives of institutional collaboration, since it is easier to distinguish collaboration on a specific level. However, some authors have criticised this type of application of communicative planning theory, as it has the tendency to ignore the overall context, the importance of power and conflicting agendas (Calderon & Westin 2019: 1). Be it short-term local planning or long-term institutional policies, on their own they “provide limited insights into how context influences specific collaborative planning processes, i.e. sequences of
24 facilitated activities intended to enable deliberation between multiple stakeholders across differences towards consensual outcomes” (Calderon & Westin 2019: 2). Planners, actors, organizations, stakeholders are all rooted in institutions and form community-based agency, which is why it is detrimental to perceive national and the local actions as inherently separate.
Therefore, this thesis applies an interregional view of the energy system and uses communicative planning as a contextual tool to dissect plans and policy and consequently interpret meaning behind intent and language.
As mentioned in chapter 2, the study utilizes a framework developed as a tool for communicative planning. By examining policy and plans in this way, themes, issues and opportunities become tangible and easier to analyse. According to Khakee (2000: 134), by adapting an institutional approach and reading plans and policies in an iterative way, patterns such as how language often conceal a deeper meaning, become clearer. Khakee (2000: 120) also emphasises the importance of examining for whom the text is written, as:
“in communicative planning, the readership includes all those who are affected by the plan, the text of the plan is a result of interactive discourse and the resulting set of guidelines provide a ‘direction of travel’
that is accepted by those involved and can be changed if required”.
Although this is a broad statement over the readership, it still holds a valid point in that most texts are written in a way that caters to a certain discourse. The discourse can also be moulded by stakeholders to fit a certain narrative and help direct interests towards a desired outcome (Healey 1993: 84). In the light of this, there are five things to look out for in texts, when reading them as products of a broad discourse (Khakee 2000: 134). Firstly, narrative often emphasises the role of various actors within a specific context. In other words, highlighting agency in a common system of meaning (Healey 1993: 85). Secondly, legal and political explanations are often used to give legitimacy. Thirdly, the context helps clarify how structures and social relations correlate. Fourthly, the examination of the discourse helps clarify how institutional capital is generated. Lastly, communicative qualities are nurtured in order to appreciate the power of language and are essential to change the material conditions.
As evolutionary governance theory, energy smart and communicative planning theory can be considered informed by an institutionalist perspective, it seems rational to adapt an institutionalist approach in the analysis of energy policy as well. The evaluation hence becomes a study of not only the integrity of energy policy but also the effectiveness and legitimacy of its implementation. By questioning how relevant institutions, organisations and actors promote a certain discourse in plans and policy and to what extent the language in these texts reflect reality, a clearer view of the overall situation can be established.
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4. AN INSIGHT INTO THE NORDIC ENERGY PERSPECTIVE
To establish a depiction of how the Nordic countries perceive the energy sector and its subsequent transition to a more sustainable energy system, it is helpful to examine how countries collaborate regarding policy and research. As mentioned earlier, the progress of sustainable energy technology and environmental protection has become an increasingly international topic. As policy and discourse have moved towards highlighting the issues of our current energy systems, so has the cooperation increased between countries to fix them. It is important to emphasize the transition from global to national to regional, since most of regional energy policies start at the international level, with certain goals being set and boundaries being established. However, there are some issues that arise when adapting international policy as national policy, as pre-existing conditions vary greatly depending on infrastructure and available energy sources. Fortunately, the energy sector is co-operative by nature, as the import and export of fuels, electricity and other energy related materials need to be in a constant balance to avoid deficiencies in supply and demand (International Energy Agency 2019: 110- 111). It is therefore fruitful to discuss sustainable energy systems from a Nordic perspective, as there already exist co-operation between the countries and the energy infrastructure is similar.
The Nordic countries have during the past decade established an effective collaboration of research and development to support the goals of the Paris agreement. One of these collaborative organisations is the Nordic Energy Research (2019), which is a “platform for cooperative energy research and policy development reporting to the Nordic Council of Ministers”. The platform consists of the five Nordic countries, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Norway and Iceland which are also responsible for the majority of the funding. The main target of the platform is to help institutions and organizations establish a unified perspective and help transition the Nordic energy systems towards becoming decarbonised. According to Nordic Energy Research and the International Energy Agency (2016: 12):
“there is a clear technological and economical pathway for the Nordic region to push towards a near carbon-neutral energy system in 2050. Together, Nordic countries can send a strong signal to the global community that the ambitious aims of the Paris Climate Agreement are achievable”.
Nordic electricity generation is already 87 per cent decarbonised, which is a testament to the improving sustainable development of the energy sector (Nordic Energy Research 2020: 10).
However, this was not achieved without having some form of strategy to direct policymakers on a domestic level to adapt. According to the collaborative report Nordic Energy Technology Perspectives 2016 (NETP 2016), four short-term policy suggestions and three long-term main strategic actions have been the main drivers of Nordic cooperation regarding energy policy and governance for a carbon-neutral energy system (Nordic Energy Research & International Energy Agency 2016). The short-term policy suggestions promote:
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• Incentivising investment in innovative technologies and services to increase the flexibility of energy use in the Nordic energy system.
• Boosting the cooperation between Nordic and European countries to develop a coherent transmission network and electricity market.
• Ensuring long-term competitiveness of Nordic industries while reducing emissions from industrial processes.
• Accelerating transport decarbonisation using tried and tested policies and means of control.
The long-term strategic actions on the other hand present more of a broad guideline on how to move forward in achieving the carbon-neutral scenario by the year 2050. These are:
• Plan for a Nordic electricity system that is significantly more interconnected to Europe, as well as being flexible to a more distributed electricity supply with a high share of wind power.
• Ramp up development of short-distance transport electrification, long-distance transport decarbonisation and innovation of industrial carbon capture and storage technology.
• Strengthen national decarbonisation of metropolitan areas by aligning national and local policy in developing energy efficiency initiatives in transportation and construction.
Every year Nordic Energy Research (2020) follows up upon how well the Nordic countries have adapted to the strategies set in NETP 2016. Nordic Energy Research (2020: 5) has recognised eight areas of interest, which have been analysed according to how much progress has been made in the past decade. These are:
• Transforming the power sector – good progress
o Most of the Nordic countries have increased their production of electricity from renewable energy sources and decreased the use of fossil fuels, which consequently has reduced the generation of CO² emissions in the past decade by a third.
• Electrification of transport – average progress
o Although Norway has seen a spike in the usage of electric vehicles, the average usage of electric vehicles in the Nordic countries is only about 3 per cent.
• Green mobility – average progress
o Several policies that encourage the use of sustainable transportation have been implemented in Nordic cities, such as bicycles, kickboards and electrical busses.
However, transportation via car still accounts for 85 per cent of the daily transport, which contributes to increased levels of carbon dioxide emissions, especially in metropolitan areas.
• Electrification of heat supply – average progress
27 o The heating of biomass is still essential in district heating, but due to increased efficiency of wind and solar power in producing heat via electrification, portions of biomass can now be used in other areas.
• Decarbonisation of industry – slow progress
o The effective use of residual heat energy created in industrial production is still technologically unviable. Although the Nordic countries are comparably resource efficient to other European countries, public and private policies hinder any significant progress.
• Boosting bioenergy – slow progress
o The demand for bioenergy converted to biofuel has increased, but the supply has not been able to keep up, resulting in the majority of the supply still going into heavy transportation while neglecting personal vehicles.
• Energy efficient and smart buildings – slow progress
o Although carbon dioxide emissions have decreased in housing, the energy demand has only shown slight decrease which remains strain on the energy system. The way infrastructure is constructed is still deemed inefficient.
• Energy storage – slow progress
o Energy storage is by no means the biggest problem facing the Nordic countries which generally have good amounts of storage capacity via hydro reservoirs.
The issue lies in efficient use and the slow progress of new technologies that can eventually decrease CO² emissions.
Although the progress might look dim, it is important to note that these targets are meant to track the progress of achieving carbon neutrality in the Nordic countries by the year 2050 (Nordic Energy Research 2020: 4). Thus, it is fair to say that Nordic energy systems have come a fair bit of the way in establishing cooperation of sustainable energy development, but still have far to go.
In the light of this, there are some differences in how the Nordic energy systems work regarding energy supply and use, compared to the rest of the EU. According to Nordic Energy Research (2020: 8), the Nordic region has good opportunities to utilize renewable energy sources due to varied landscapes. For example, Sweden has constructed numeral hydropower plants from renewable energy sources such as rivers, lakes and other water ways, while Norway has utilized wind power by constructing massive wind parks both on land and sea. As of 2016, only 41 per cent of the total energy supply came from fossil fuels, compared to EU’s 73 per cent. While, 46 per cent of the Nordic energy supply was converted from renewable energy sources, whereas EU averaged around 16 per cent (SOU 2017:2: 72). However, the dependence of renewable energy sources in Nordic energy systems is not necessarily always a good thing. Due to the climate, geographical location and choice of power generation, energy supply and use vary greatly as seasonal changes directly influence electricity production capabilities and infrastructural energy use. Furthermore, “economic and technical potential in the Nordic
