Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering

Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering

An Interactive e

^{Tex t}

FI F T H ED I T I O N

Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering

An Interactive e

^{Te x t}

William D. Callister, Jr.

Department of Metallurgical Engineering The University of Utah

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

New York Chichester Weinheim Brisbane Singapore Toronto

Front Cover: The object that appears on the front cover depicts a monomer unit for polycarbonate (or PC, the plastic that is used in many eyeglass lenses and safety helmets). Red, blue, and yellow spheres represent carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, respectively.

Back Cover: Depiction of a monomer unit for polyethylene terephthalate (or PET, the plastic used for beverage containers). Red, blue, and yellow spheres represent carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, respectively.

Editor Wayne Anderson

Marketing Manager Katherine Hepburn

Associate Production Director Lucille Buonocore Senior Production Editor Monique Calello Cover and Text Designer Karin Gerdes Kincheloe Cover Illustration Roy Wiemann

Illustration Studio Wellington Studio This book was set in 10/12 Times Roman by Bi-Comp, Inc., and printed and bound by Von Hoffmann Press. The cover was printed by Phoenix Color Corporation.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.䊊^앝

The paper in this book was manufactured by a mill whose forest management programs include sustained yield harvesting of its timberlands.

Sustained yield harvesting principles ensure that the number of trees cut each year does not exceed the amount of new growth.

Copyright2001, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of

the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (508) 750-8400, fax (508) 750-4470.

Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158-0012, (212) 850-6011, fax (212) 850-6008,

e-mail: PERMREQ@WILEY.COM.

To order books or for customer service call 1-800-CALL-WILEY (225-5945).

ISBN 0-471-39551-X

Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

DEDICATED TO THEM^{EMORY OF} D^AVIDA. S^TEVENSON M^Y A^DVISOR, A C^OLLEAGUE,

AND FRIEND AT

S^TANFORDU^NIVERSITY

Preface

F

With regard to the order of presentation, there are two common approaches to teaching materials science and engineering—one that I call the ‘‘traditional’’

approach, the other which most refer to as the ‘‘integrated’’ approach. With the traditional approach, structures/characteristics/properties of metals are presented first, followed by an analogous discussion of ceramic materials and polymers. Intro- duction, Fifth Edition is organized in this manner, which is preferred by many materials science and engineering instructors. With the integrated approach, one particular structure, characteristic, or property for all three material types is pre- sented before moving on to the discussion of another structure/characteristic/prop- erty. This is the order of presentation in Fundamentals.

Probably the most common criticism of college textbooks is that they are too long. With most popular texts, the number of pages often increases with each new edition. This leads instructors and students to complain that it is impossible to cover all the topics in the text in a single term. After struggling with this concern (trying to decide what to delete without limiting the value of the text), we decided to divide the text into two components. The first is a set of ‘‘core’’ topics—sections of the text that are most commonly covered in an introductory materials course, and second, ‘‘supplementary’’ topics—sections of the text covered less frequently. Fur- thermore, we chose to provide only the core topics in print, but the entire text (both core and supplementary topics) is available on the CD-ROM that is included with the print component of Fundamentals. Decisions as to which topics to include in print and which to include only on the CD-ROM were based on the results of a recent survey of instructors and confirmed in developmental reviews. The result is a printed text of approximately 525 pages and an Interactive eText on the CD- ROM, which consists of, in addition to the complete text, a wealth of additional resources including interactive software modules, as discussed below.

The text on the CD-ROM with all its various links is navigated using Adobe Acrobat
. These links within the Interactive eText include the following: (1) from the Table of Contents to selected eText sections; (2) from the index to selected topics within the eText; (3) from reference to a figure, table, or equation in one section to the actual figure/table/equation in another section (all figures can be enlarged and printed); (4) from end-of-chapter Important Terms and Concepts to their definitions within the chapter; (5) from in-text boldfaced terms to their corresponding glossary definitions/explanations; (6) from in-text references to the corresponding appendices; (7) from some end-of-chapter problems to their answers;

(8) from some answers to their solutions; (9) from software icons to the correspond- ing interactive modules; and (10) from the opening splash screen to the supporting web site.

vii

The interactive software included on the CD-ROM and noted above is the same that accompanies Introduction, Fifth Edition. This software, Interactive Materials Science and Engineering, Third Edition consists of interactive simulations and ani- mations that enhance the learning of key concepts in materials science and engi- neering, a materials selection database, and E-Z Solve: The Engineer’s Equation Solving and Analysis Tool. Software components are executed when the user clicks on the icons in the margins of the Interactive eText; icons for these several compo- nents are as follows:

Crystallography and Unit Cells Tensile Tests

Ceramic Structures Diffusion and Design Problem

Polymer Structures Solid Solution Strengthening

Dislocations Phase Diagrams

E-Z Solve Database

My primary objective in Fundamentals as in Introduction, Fifth Edition is to present the basic fundamentals of materials science and engineering on a level appropriate for university/college students who are well grounded in the fundamen- tals of calculus, chemistry, and physics. In order to achieve this goal, I have endeav- ored to use terminology that is familiar to the student who is encountering the discipline of materials science and engineering for the first time, and also to define and explain all unfamiliar terms.

The second objective is to present the subject matter in a logical order, from the simple to the more complex. Each chapter builds on the content of previous ones.

The third objective, or philosophy, that I strive to maintain throughout the text is that if a topic or concept is worth treating, then it is worth treating in sufficient detail and to the extent that students have the opportunity to fully understand it without having to consult other sources. In most cases, some practical relevance is provided. Discussions are intended to be clear and concise and to begin at appro- priate levels of understanding.

The fourth objective is to include features in the book that will expedite the learning process. These learning aids include numerous illustrations and photo- graphs to help visualize what is being presented, learning objectives, ‘‘Why Study . . .’’ items that provide relevance to topic discussions, end-of-chapter ques- tions and problems, answers to selected problems, and some problem solutions to help in self-assessment, a glossary, list of symbols, and references to facilitate understanding the subject matter.

The fifth objective, specific to Fundamentals, is to enhance the teaching and learning process using the newer technologies that are available to most instructors and students of engineering today.

Most of the problems in Fundamentals require computations leading to numeri- cal solutions; in some cases, the student is required to render a judgment on the basis of the solution. Furthermore, many of the concepts within the discipline of viii ● Preface

Preface ● ix materials science and engineering are descriptive in nature. Thus, questions have also been included that require written, descriptive answers; having to provide a written answer helps the student to better comprehend the associated concept. The questions are of two types: with one type, the student needs only to restate in his/

her own words an explanation provided in the text material; other questions require the student to reason through and/or synthesize before coming to a conclusion or solution.

The same engineering design instructional components found in Introduction, Fifth Edition are incorporated in Fundamentals. Many of these are in Chapter 20,

‘‘Materials Selection and Design Considerations,’’ that is on the CD-ROM. This chapter includes five different case studies (a cantilever beam, an automobile valve spring, the artificial hip, the thermal protection system for the Space Shuttle, and packaging for integrated circuits) relative to the materials employed and the ratio- nale behind their use. In addition, a number of design-type (i.e., open-ended) questions/problems are found at the end of this chapter.

Other important materials selection/design features are Appendix B, ‘‘Proper- ties of Selected Engineering Materials,’’ and Appendix C, ‘‘Costs and Relative Costs for Selected Engineering Materials.’’ The former contains values of eleven properties (e.g., density, strength, electrical resistivity, etc.) for a set of approxi- mately one hundred materials. Appendix C contains prices for this same set of materials. The materials selection database on the CD-ROM is comprised of these data.

S

W

S

The web site that supports Fundamentals can be found at www.wiley.com/

college/callister. It contains student and instructor’s resources which consist of a more extensive set of learning objectives for all chapters, an index of learning styles (an electronic questionnaire that accesses preferences on ways to learn), a glossary (identical to the one in the text), and links to other web resources. Also included with the Instructor’s Resources are suggested classroom demonstrations and lab experiments. Visit the web site often for new resources that we will make available to help teachers teach and students learn materials science and engineering.

I

’ R

Resources are available on another CD-ROM specifically for instructors who have adopted Fundamentals. These include the following: 1) detailed solutions of all end-of-chapter questions and problems; 2) a list (with brief descriptions) of possible classroom demonstrations and laboratory experiments that portray phe- nomena and/or illustrate principles that are discussed in the book (also found on the web site); references are also provided that give more detailed accounts of these demonstrations; and 3) suggested course syllabi for several engineering disciplines.

Also available for instructors who have adopted Fundamentals as well as Intro- duction, Fifth Edition is an online assessment program entitled eGrade. It is a browser-based program that contains a large bank of materials science/engineering problems/questions and their solutions. Each instructor has the ability to construct homework assignments, quizzes, and tests that will be automatically scored, re- corded in a gradebook, and calculated into the class statistics. These self-scoring problems/questions can also be made available to students for independent study or pre-class review. Students work online and receive immediate grading and feedback.

Tutorial and Mastery modes provide the student with hints integrated within each problem/question or a tailored study session that recognizes the student’s demon- strated learning needs. For more information, visitwww.wiley.com/college/egrade.

A

Appreciation is expressed to those who have reviewed and/or made contribu- tions to this alternate version of my text. I am especially indebted to the following individuals: Carl Wood of Utah State University, Rishikesh K. Bharadwaj of Systran Federal Corporation, Martin Searcy of the Agilent Technologies, John H. Weaver of The University of Minnesota, John B. Hudson of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Alan Wolfenden of Texas A & M University, and T. W. Coyle of the University of Toronto.

I am also indebted to Wayne Anderson, Sponsoring Editor, to Monique Calello, Senior Production Editor, Justin Nisbet, Electronic Publishing Analyst at Wiley, and Lilian N. Brady, my proofreader, for their assistance and guidance in developing and producing this work. In addition, I thank Professor Saskia Duyvesteyn, Depart- ment of Metallurgical Engineering, University of Utah, for generating the e-Grade bank of questions/problems/solutions.

Since I undertook the task of writing my first text on this subject in the early 1980’s, instructors and students, too numerous to mention, have shared their input and contributions on how to make this work more effective as a teaching and learning tool. To all those who have helped, I express my sincere thanks!

Last, but certainly not least, the continual encouragement and support of my family and friends is deeply and sincerely appreciated.

WILLIAMD. CALLISTER, JR. Salt Lake City, Utah August 2000 x ● Preface

Contents

xi Chapters 1 through 13 discuss core topics (found in both print and on the CD-ROM) and supplementary topics (in the eText only)

L^{IST OF}S^YMBOLS xix 1. Introduction 1

Learning Objectives 2 1.1 Historical Perspective 2

1.2 Materials Science and Engineering 2

1.3 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering? 4 1.4 Classification of Materials 5

1.5 Advanced Materials 6 1.6 Modern Materials’ Needs 6

References 7

2. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding 9 Learning Objectives 10

2.1 Introduction 10 ATOMICSTRUCTURE 10 2.2 Fundamental Concepts 10 2.3 Electrons in Atoms 11 2.4 The Periodic Table 17

ATOMICBONDING INSOLIDS 18 2.5 Bonding Forces and Energies 18 2.6 Primary Interatomic Bonds 20

2.7 Secondary Bonding or Van der Waals Bonding 24 2.8 Molecules 26

Summary 27

Important Terms and Concepts 27 References 28

Questions and Problems 28

3. Structures of Metals and Ceramics 30 Learning Objectives 31

3.1 Introduction 31 CRYSTALSTRUCTURES 31 3.2 Fundamental Concepts 31 3.3 Unit Cells 32

3.4 Metallic Crystal Structures 33

xii ● Contents

3.5 Density Computations—Metals 37 3.6 Ceramic Crystal Structures 38 3.7 Density Computations—Ceramics 45 3.8 Silicate Ceramics 46

• The Silicates (CD-ROM) S-1 3.9 Carbon 47

• Fullerenes (CD-ROM) S-3 3.10 Polymorphism and Allotropy 49 3.11 Crystal Systems 49

CRYSTALLOGRAPHICDIRECTIONS AND

PLANES51

3.12 Crystallographic Directions 51 3.13 Crystallographic Planes 54

3.14 Linear and Planar Atomic Densities (CD-ROM) S-4

•

3.15 Close-Packed Crystal Structures 58 CRYSTALLINE ANDNONCRYSTALLINE

M^ATERIALS 62 3.16 Single Crystals 62

3.17 Polycrystalline Materials 62 3.18 Anisotropy 63

3.19 X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of Crystal Structures (CD-ROM) S-6

•

3.20 Noncrystalline Solids 64 Summary 66

Important Terms and Concepts 67 References 67

Questions and Problems 68

4. Polymer Structures 76 Learning Objectives 77 4.1 Introduction 77

4.2 Hydrocarbon Molecules 77 4.3 Polymer Molecules 79

4.4 The Chemistry of Polymer Molecules 80 4.5 Molecular Weight 82

4.6 Molecular Shape 87 4.7 Molecular Structure 88 4.8 Molecular Configurations

(CD-ROM) S-11

•

4.9 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers 90

4.10 Copolymers 91

4.11 Polymer Crystallinity 92 4.12 Polymer Crystals 95

Summary 97

Important Terms and Concepts 98 References 98

Questions and Problems 99

5. Imperfections in Solids 102 Learning Objectives 103 5.1 Introduction 103

POINTDEFECTS 103

5.2 Point Defects in Metals 103 5.3 Point Defects in Ceramics 105 5.4 Impurities in Solids 107 5.5 Point Defects in Polymers 110 5.6 Specification of Composition 110

• Composition Conversions (CD-ROM) S-14

MISCELLANEOUSIMPERFECTIONS 111 5.7 Dislocations—Linear Defects 111 5.8 Interfacial Defects 115

5.9 Bulk or Volume Defects 118 5.10 Atomic Vibrations 118

MICROSCOPICEXAMINATION 118 5.11 General 118

5.12 Microscopic Techniques (CD-ROM) S-17

•

5.13 Grain Size Determination 119 Summary 120

Important Terms and Concepts 121 References 121

Questions and Problems 122

6. Diffusion 126

Learning Objectives 127 6.1 Introduction 127

6.2 Diffusion Mechanisms 127 6.3 Steady-State Diffusion 130 6.4 Nonsteady-State Diffusion 132 6.5 Factors That Influence Diffusion 136 6.6 Other Diffusion Paths 141

6.7 Diffusion in Ionic and Polymeric Materials 141

Summary 142

Important Terms and Concepts 142 References 142

Questions and Problems 143

7. Mechanical Properties 147 Learning Objectives 148 7.1 Introduction 148

7.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain 149 ELASTICDEFORMATION153

7.3 Stress–Strain Behavior 153 7.4 Anelasticity 157

7.5 Elastic Properties of Materials 157

Contents ● xiii

MECHANICALBEHAVIOR—METALS 160 7.6 Tensile Properties 160

7.7 True Stress and Strain 167 7.8 Elastic Recovery During Plastic

Deformation 170

7.9 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformation 170

MECHANICALBEHAVIOR—CERAMICS 171 7.10 Flexural Strength 171

7.11 Elastic Behavior 173

7.12 Influence of Porosity on the Mechanical Properties of Ceramics (CD-ROM) S-22

•

MECHANICALBEHAVIOR—POLYMERS 173 7.13 Stress–Strain Behavior 173

7.14 Macroscopic Deformation 175 7.15 Viscoelasticity (CD-ROM) S-22

•

HARDNESS ANDOTHERMECHANICALPROPERTY

CONSIDERATIONS 176 7.16 Hardness 176

7.17 Hardness of Ceramic Materials 181 7.18 Tear Strength and Hardness of

Polymers 181

PROPERTYVARIABILITY ANDDESIGN/SAFETY

FACTORS 183

7.19 Variability of Material Properties 183

• Computation of Average and Standard Deviation Values (CD-ROM) S-28 7.20 Design/Safety Factors 183

Summary 185

Important Terms and Concepts 186 References 186

Questions and Problems 187

8. Deformation and Strengthening Mechanisms 197

Learning Objectives 198 8.1 Introduction 198

DEFORMATIONMECHANISMS FORMETALS 198 8.2 Historical 198

8.3 Basic Concepts of Dislocations 199 8.4 Characteristics of Dislocations 201 8.5 Slip Systems 203

8.6 Slip in Single Crystals (CD-ROM) S-31

•

8.7 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Metals 204

8.8 Deformation by Twinning (CD-ROM) S-34

•

MECHANISMS OFSTRENGTHENING IN

METALS 206

8.9 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction 206

8.10 Solid-Solution Strengthening 208 8.11 Strain Hardening 210

RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION,ANDGRAIN

GROWTH 213 8.12 Recovery 213 8.13 Recrystallization 213 8.14 Grain Growth 218

DEFORMATIONMECHANISMS FORCERAMIC

MATERIALS 219

8.15 Crystalline Ceramics 220 8.16 Noncrystalline Ceramics 220

MECHANISMS OFDEFORMATION AND FOR

STRENGTHENING OFPOLYMERS 221 8.17 Deformation of Semicrystalline

Polymers 221

8.18a Factors That Influence the Mechanical Properties of Semicrystalline Polymers [Detailed Version (CD-ROM)] S-35

•

8.18b Factors That Influence the Mechanical Properties of Semicrystalline Polymers (Concise Version) 223

8.19 Deformation of Elastomers 224 Summary 227

Important Terms and Concepts 228 References 228

Questions and Problems 228

9. Failure 234

Learning Objectives 235 9.1 Introduction 235

FRACTURE 235

9.2 Fundamentals of Fracture 235 9.3 Ductile Fracture 236

• Fractographic Studies (CD-ROM) S-38 9.4 Brittle Fracture 238

9.5a Principles of Fracture Mechanics [Detailed Version (CD-ROM)] S-38

•

9.5b Principles of Fracture Mechanics (Concise Version) 238

9.6 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics 248

• Static Fatigue (CD-ROM) S-53 9.7 Fracture of Polymers 249 9.8 Impact Fracture Testing 250

xiv ● Contents

FATIGUE 255

9.9 Cyclic Stresses 255 9.10 The S – N Curve 257

9.11 Fatigue in Polymeric Materials 260 9.12a Crack Initiation and Propagation

[Detailed Version (CD-ROM)] S-54

•

9.12b Crack Initiation and Propagation (Concise Version) 260

9.13 Crack Propagation Rate (CD-ROM) S-57

•

9.14 Factors That Affect Fatigue Life 263 9.15 Environmental Effects (CD-ROM) S-62

•

CREEP265

9.16 Generalized Creep Behavior 266 9.17a Stress and Temperature Effects

[Detailed Version (CD-ROM)] S-63

•

9.17b Stress and Temperature Effects (Concise Version) 267

9.18 Data Extrapolation Methods (CD-ROM) S-65

•

9.19 Alloys for High-Temperature Use 268 9.20 Creep in Ceramic and Polymeric

Materials 269 Summary 269

Important Terms and Concepts 272 References 272

Questions and Problems 273

10 Phase Diagrams 281 Learning Objectives 282 10.1 Introduction 282

DEFINITIONS ANDBASICCONCEPTS 282 10.2 Solubility Limit 283

10.3 Phases 283

10.4 Microstructure 284 10.5 Phase Equilibria 284

EQUILIBRIUMPHASEDIAGRAMS 285 10.6 Binary Isomorphous Systems 286 10.7 Interpretation of Phase Diagrams 288 10.8 Development of Microstructure in

Isomorphous Alloys (CD-ROM) S-67

•

10.9 Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous Alloys 292

10.10 Binary Eutectic Systems 292 10.11 Development of Microstructure in

Eutectic Alloys (CD-ROM) S-70

•

10.12 Equilibrium Diagrams Having

Intermediate Phases or Compounds 297 10.13 Eutectoid and Peritectic Reactions 298 10.14 Congruent Phase Transformations 301

10.15 Ceramic Phase Diagrams (CD-ROM) S-77

•

10.16 Ternary Phase Diagrams 301

10.17 The Gibbs Phase Rule (CD-ROM) S-81

•

THEIRON– CARBONSYSTEM302 10.18 The Iron – Iron Carbide (Fe – Fe3C)

Phase Diagram 302

10.19 Development of Microstructures in Iron – Carbon Alloys 305

10.20 The Influence of Other Alloying Elements (CD-ROM) S-83

•

Summary 313

Important Terms and Concepts 314 References 314

Questions and Problems 315

11 Phase Transformations 323 Learning Objectives 324 11.1 Introduction 324

PHASETRANSFORMATIONS INMETALS 324 11.2 Basic Concepts 325

11.3 The Kinetics of Solid-State Reactions 325

11.4 Multiphase Transformations 327

MICROSTRUCTURAL ANDPROPERTYCHANGES IN

IRON– CARBONALLOYS327 11.5 Isothermal Transformation

Diagrams 328

11.6 Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams (CD-ROM) S-85

•

11.7 Mechanical Behavior of Iron – Carbon Alloys 339

11.8 Tempered Martensite 344

11.9 Review of Phase Transformations for Iron – Carbon Alloys 346

PRECIPITATIONHARDENING 347 11.10 Heat Treatments 347

11.11 Mechanism of Hardening 349 11.12 Miscellaneous Considerations 351

CRYSTALLIZATION, MELTING,ANDGLASS

TRANSITIONPHENOMENA INPOLYMERS 352 11.13 Crystallization 353

11.14 Melting 354

11.15 The Glass Transition 354 11.16 Melting and Glass Transition

Temperatures 354

11.17 Factors That Influence Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures (CD-ROM) S-87

•

Contents ● xv Summary 356

Important Terms and Concepts 357 References 357

Questions and Problems 358

12. Electrical Properties 365 Learning Objectives 366 12.1 Introduction 366

ELECTRICALCONDUCTION 366 12.2 Ohm’s Law 366

12.3 Electrical Conductivity 367

12.4 Electronic and Ionic Conduction 368 12.5 Energy Band Structures in Solids 368 12.6 Conduction in Terms of Band and

Atomic Bonding Models 371 12.7 Electron Mobility 372

12.8 Electrical Resistivity of Metals 373 12.9 Electrical Characteristics of Commercial

Alloys 376

SEMICONDUCTIVITY376

12.10 Intrinsic Semiconduction 377 12.11 Extrinsic Semiconduction 379 12.12 The Temperature Variation of

Conductivity and Carrier Concentration 383

12.13 The Hall Effect (CD-ROM) S-91

•

12.14 Semiconductor Devices (CD-ROM) S-93

•

ELECTRICALCONDUCTION INIONICCERAMICS AND INPOLYMERS 389

12.15 Conduction in Ionic Materials 389 12.16 Electrical Properties of Polymers 390

DIELECTRICBEHAVIOR 391 12.17 Capacitance (CD-ROM) S-99

•

12.18 Field Vectors and Polarization (CD-ROM) S-101

•

12.19 Types of Polarization (CD-ROM) S-105

•

12.20 Frequency Dependence of the Dielectric Constant (CD-ROM) S-106

•

12.21 Dielectric Strength (CD-ROM) S-107

•

12.22 Dielectric Materials (CD-ROM) S-107

•

OTHERELECTRICALCHARACTERISTICS OF

MATERIALS 391

12.23 Ferroelectricity (CD-ROM) S-108

•

12.24 Piezoelectricity (CD-ROM) S-109

•

Summary 391

Important Terms and Concepts 393 References 393

Questions and Problems 394

13. Types and Applications of Materials 401

Learning Objectives 402 13.1 Introduction 402

TYPES OFMETALALLOYS 402 13.2 Ferrous Alloys 402 13.3 Nonferrous Alloys 414

TYPES OFCERAMICS 422 13.4 Glasses 423

13.5 Glass–Ceramics 423 13.6 Clay Products 424 13.7 Refractories 424

• Fireclay, Silica, Basic, and Special Refractories

(CD-ROM) S-110 13.8 Abrasives 425 13.9 Cements 425

13.10 Advanced Ceramics (CD-ROM) S-111

•

13.11 Diamond and Graphite 427 TYPES OFPOLYMERS 428 13.12 Plastics 428

13.13 Elastomers 431 13.14 Fibers 432

13.15 Miscellaneous Applications 433 13.16 Advanced Polymeric Materials

(CD-ROM) S-113

•

Summary 434

Important Terms and Concepts 435 References 435

Questions and Problems 436

Chapters 14 through 21 discuss just supplementary topics, and are found only on the CD-ROM (and not in print)

14. Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials (CD-ROM) S-118

Learning Objectives S-119 14.1 Introduction S-119

FABRICATION OFMETALS S-119 14.2 Forming Operations S-119 14.3 Casting S-121

14.4 Miscellaneous Techniques S-122

xvi ● Contents

THERMALPROCESSING OFMETALS S-124 14.5 Annealing Processes S-124

14.6 Heat Treatment of Steels S-126 FABRICATION OFCERAMICMATERIALS S-136 14.7 Fabrication and Processing of Glasses

S-137

14.8 Fabrication of Clay Products S-142 14.9 Powder Pressing S-145

14.10 Tape Casting S-149

SYNTHESIS ANDFABRICATION OFPOLYMERS

S-149

14.11 Polymerization S-150 14.12 Polymer Additives S-151

14.13 Forming Techniques for Plastics S-153 14.14 Fabrication of Elastomers S-155 14.15 Fabrication of Fibers and Films S-155

Summary S-156

Important Terms and Concepts S-157 References S-158

Questions and Problems S-158

15. Composites (CD-ROM) S-162 Learning Objectives S-163 15.1 Introduction S-163

PARTICLE-REINFORCEDCOMPOSITES S-165 15.2 Large-Particle Composites S-165 15.3 Dispersion-Strengthened Composites

S-169

FIBER-REINFORCEDCOMPOSITES S-170 15.4 Influence of Fiber Length S-170 15.5 Influence of Fiber Orientation and

Concentration S-171 15.6 The Fiber Phase S-180 15.7 The Matrix Phase S-180

15.8 Polymer–Matrix Composites S-182 15.9 Metal–Matrix Composites S-185 15.10 Ceramic–Matrix Composites S-186 15.11 Carbon–Carbon Composites S-188 15.12 Hybrid Composites S-189

15.13 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites S-189

STRUCTURALCOMPOSITES S-195 15.14 Laminar Composites S-195 15.15 Sandwich Panels S-196

Summary S-196

Important Terms and Concepts S-198 References S-198

Questions and Problems S-199

16. Corrosion and Degradation of Materials (CD-ROM) S-204

Learning Objectives S-205 16.1 Introduction S-205

CORROSION OFMETALS S-205

16.2 Electrochemical Considerations S-206 16.3 Corrosion Rates S-212

16.4 Prediction of Corrosion Rates S-214 16.5 Passivity S-221

16.6 Environmental Effects S-222 16.7 Forms of Corrosion S-223 16.8 Corrosion Environments S-231 16.9 Corrosion Prevention S-232 16.10 Oxidation S-234

CORROSION OFCERAMICMATERIALS S-237 DEGRADATION OFPOLYMERS S-237 16.11 Swelling and Dissolution S-238 16.12 Bond Rupture S-238

16.13 Weathering S-241 Summary S-241

Important Terms and Concepts S-242 References S-242

Questions and Problems S-243

17. Thermal Properties (CD-ROM) S-247 Learning Objectives S-248

17.1 Introduction S-248 17.2 Heat Capacity S-248 17.3 Thermal Expansion S-250 17.4 Thermal Conductivity S-253 17.5 Thermal Stresses S-256

Summary S-258

Important Terms and Concepts S-259 References S-259

Questions and Problems S-259

18. Magnetic Properties (CD-ROM) S-263 Learning Objectives S-264

18.1 Introduction S-264 18.2 Basic Concepts S-264

18.3 Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism S-268 18.4 Ferromagnetism S-270

18.5 Antiferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism S-272

18.6 The Influence of Temperature on Magnetic Behavior S-276

18.7 Domains and Hysteresis S-276 18.8 Soft Magnetic Materials S-280 18.9 Hard Magnetic Materials S-282

Contents ● xvii 18.10 Magnetic Storage S-284

18.11 Superconductivity S-287 Summary S-291

Important Terms and Concepts S-292 References S-292

Questions and Problems S-292

19. Optical Properties (CD-ROM) S-297 Learning Objectives S-298

19.1 Introduction S-298 BASICCONCEPTSS-298

19.2 Electromagnetic Radiation S-298 19.3 Light Interactions with Solids S-300 19.4 Atomic and Electronic Interactions

S-301

OPTICALPROPERTIES OFMETALS S-302 OPTICALPROPERTIES OFNONMETALS S-303 19.5 Refraction S-303

19.6 Reflection S-304 19.7 Absorption S-305 19.8 Transmission S-308 19.9 Color S-309

19.10 Opacity and Translucency in Insulators S-310

APPLICATIONS OFOPTICALPHENOMENAS-311 19.11 Luminescence S-311

19.12 Photoconductivity S-312 19.13 Lasers S-313

19.14 Optical Fibers in Communications S-315 Summary S-320

Important Terms and Concepts S-321 References S-321

Questions and Problems S-322

20. Materials Selection and Design Considerations (CD-ROM) S-324

Learning Objectives S-325 20.1 Introduction S-325

MATERIALSSELECTION FOR ATORSIONALLY

STRESSEDCYLINDRICALSHAFT S-325 20.2 Strength S-326

20.3 Other Property Considerations and the Final Decision S-331

AUTOMOBILEVALVESPRING S-332 20.4 Introduction S-332

20.5 Automobile Valve Spring S-334 ARTIFICIALTOTALHIPREPLACEMENT S-339 20.6 Anatomy of the Hip Joint S-339 20.7 Material Requirements S-341

20.8 Materials Employed S-343

THERMALPROTECTIONSYSTEM ON THESPACE

SHUTTLEORBITERS-345 20.9 Introduction S-345

20.10 Thermal Protection System — Design Requirements S-345

20.11 Thermal Protection

System — Components S-347 MATERIALS FORI^NTEGRATEDC^IRCUIT PACKAGES S-351

20.12 Introduction S-351

20.13 Leadframe Design and Materials S-353 20.14 Die Bonding S-354

20.15 Wire Bonding S-356

20.16 Package Encapsulation S-358 20.17 Tape Automated Bonding S-360

Summary S-362 References S-363

Questions and Problems S-364

21. Economic, Environmental, and Societal Issues in Materials Science and Engineering (CD-ROM) S-368

Learning Objectives S-369 21.1 Introduction S-369

ECONOMICCONSIDERATIONS S-369 21.2 Component Design S-370 21.3 Materials S-370

21.4 Manufacturing Techniques S-370 ENVIRONMENTAL ANDSOCIETAL

CONSIDERATIONS S-371

21.5 Recycling Issues in Materials Science and Engineering S-373

Summary S-376 References S-376

Appendix A The International System of Units (SI) 439

Appendix B Properties of Selected Engineering Materials 441

B.1 Density 441

B.2 Modulus of Elasticity 444 B.3 Poisson’s Ratio 448 B.4 Strength and Ductility 449

B.5 Plane Strain Fracture Toughness 454 B.6 Linear Coefficient of Thermal

Expansion 455

B.7 Thermal Conductivity 459

xviii ● Contents

B.8 Specific Heat 462 B.9 Electrical Resistivity 464 B.10 Metal Alloy Compositions 467 Appendix C Costs and Relative Costs for Selected Engineering Materials 469 Appendix D Mer Structures for

Common Polymers 475

Appendix E Glass Transition and Melting Temperatures for Common Polymeric Materials 479

Glossary 480

Answers to Selected Problems 495 Index 501

List of Symbols

T

xix

A⫽ area

A˚ ⫽ angstrom unit

Ai ⫽ atomic weight of element i (2.2) APF ⫽ atomic packing factor (3.4)

%RA ⫽ ductility, in percent reduction in area (7.6)

a ⫽ lattice parameter: unit cell x-axial length (3.4)

a ⫽ crack length of a surface crack (9.5a, 9.5b)

at% ⫽ atom percent (5.6)

B ⫽ magnetic flux density (induction) (18.2)

Br ⫽ magnetic remanence (18.7) BCC ⫽ body-centered cubic crystal

structure (3.4)

b ⫽ lattice parameter: unit cell y-axial length (3.11) b ⫽ Burgers vector (5.7) C ⫽ capacitance (12.17)

Ci ⫽ concentration (composition) of component i in wt% (5.6) C⬘i ⫽ concentration (composition) of

component i in at% (5.6) Cv, C_p⫽ heat capacity at constant volume, pressure (17.2)

CPR⫽ corrosion penetration rate (16.3) CVN ⫽ Charpy V-notch (9.8)

%CW ⫽ percent cold work (8.11) c⫽ lattice parameter: unit cell

z-axial length (3.11) c⫽ velocity of electromagnetic

radiation in a vacuum (19.2) D ⫽ diffusion coefficient (6.3)

D ⫽ dielectric displacement (12.18) d ⫽ diameter

d ⫽ average grain diameter (8.9) d_hkl⫽ interplanar spacing for planes of

Miller indices h, k, and l (3.19) E⫽ energy (2.5)

E⫽ modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus (7.3)

E ⫽ electric field intensity (12.3) Ef ⫽ Fermi energy (12.5)

Eg⫽ band gap energy (12.6) Er(t)⫽ relaxation modulus (7.15)

%EL⫽ ductility, in percent elongation (7.6)

e⫽ electric charge per electron (12.7)

e^⫺⫽ electron (16.2)

erf ⫽ Gaussian error function (6.4) exp ⫽ e, the base for natural

logarithms

F ⫽ force, interatomic or mechanical (2.5, 7.2)

F ⫽ Faraday constant (16.2) FCC⫽ face-centered cubic crystal

structure (3.4) G ⫽ shear modulus (7.3)

H ⫽ magnetic field strength (18.2) Hc⫽ magnetic coercivity (18.7) HB ⫽ Brinell hardness (7.16)

HCP ⫽ hexagonal close-packed crystal structure (3.4)

HK⫽ Knoop hardness (7.16) HRB, HRF⫽ Rockwell hardness: B and F

scales (7.16)

n_n⫽ number-average degree of polymerization (4.5) n_w ⫽ weight-average degree of

polymerization (4.5)

P⫽ dielectric polarization (12.18) P – B ratio⫽ Pilling–Bedworth ratio (16.10)

p ⫽ number of holes per cubic meter (12.10)

Q ⫽ activation energy

Q ⫽ magnitude of charge stored (12.17)

R⫽ atomic radius (3.4) R⫽ gas constant

r⫽ interatomic distance (2.5) r⫽ reaction rate (11.3, 16.3)

r_A, r_C ⫽ anion and cation ionic radii (3.6) S ⫽ fatigue stress amplitude (9.10) SEM⫽ scanning electron microscopy or

microscope T⫽ temperature

Tc⫽ Curie temperature (18.6) T_C ⫽ superconducting critical

temperature (18.11)

T_g⫽ glass transition temperature (11.15)

T_m ⫽ melting temperature TEM⫽ transmission electron

microscopy or microscope TS ⫽ tensile strength (7.6)

t ⫽ time

t_r⫽ rupture lifetime (9.16) U_r⫽ modulus of resilience (7.6) [uvw]⫽ indices for a crystallographic

direction (3.12)

V⫽ electrical potential difference (voltage) (12.2)

VC ⫽ unit cell volume (3.4) V_C ⫽ corrosion potential (16.4) V_H ⫽ Hall voltage (12.13)

V_i⫽ volume fraction of phase i (10.7) v⫽ velocity

vol% ⫽ volume percent

Wi⫽ mass fraction of phase i (10.7) wt% ⫽ weight percent (5.6)

xx ● List of Symbols

HR15N, HR45W⫽ superficial Rockwell hardness:

15N and 45W scales (7.16) HV ⫽ Vickers hardness (7.16)

h ⫽ Planck’s constant (19.2) (hkl ) ⫽ Miller indices for a

crystallographic plane (3.13) I ⫽ electric current (12.2) I ⫽ intensity of electromagnetic

radiation (19.3) i ⫽ current density (16.3)

i_C ⫽ corrosion current density (16.4) J⫽ diffusion flux (6.3)

J⫽ electric current density (12.3) K⫽ stress intensity factor (9.5a) K_c⫽ fracture toughness (9.5a, 9.5b) K_Ic ⫽ plane strain fracture toughness

for mode I crack surface displacement (9.5a, 9.5b) k ⫽ Boltzmann’s constant (5.2) k ⫽ thermal conductivity (17.4)

l ⫽ length

lc⫽ critical fiber length (15.4) ln ⫽ natural logarithm

log ⫽ logarithm taken to base 10 M ⫽ magnetization (18.2) Mn⫽ polymer number-average

molecular weight (4.5) Mw ⫽ polymer weight-average

molecular weight (4.5) mol% ⫽ mole percent

N⫽ number of fatigue cycles (9.10) NA⫽ Avogadro’s number (3.5)

Nf ⫽ fatigue life (9.10)

n ⫽ principal quantum number (2.3) n ⫽ number of atoms per unit cell

(3.5)

n ⫽ strain-hardening exponent (7.7) n ⫽ number of electrons in an

electrochemical reaction (16.2) n ⫽ number of conducting electrons

per cubic meter (12.7) n ⫽ index of refraction (19.5) n⬘ ⫽ for ceramics, the number of

formula units per unit cell (3.7)