IMPLEMENTS ERS

M IMPLEMENTS

ERS

Bjiirn Mothander Finn Kjzrby

Kjell Havnevik

Scandinavian Institute of African Studies

FARM IMPLEMENTS

FOR SMALL-SCALE FARMERS IN TANZANIA

Bjorn Mothander Finn Kjzrby Kjell Havnevik

Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, Uppsala 1989

ISBN 91-7106-290-4

O The authors and Nordiska afi-ikainstitutet, 1989 Pi-inted in Sweden by

Motala Grafiska, Motala 1989

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Abbreviations 7

Preface 9

Introduction 13

Chapter 1

TYPES OF FARM IMPLEMENTS USED IN TANZANIA 1.1 Introduction

1.2 Description of Common Factory-Made Hand Implements Used in Tanzania 1.3 Description of Factory-Made Ox-Drawn

Implements Used in Tanzania 1.3.1 The Ox-Plough

1.3.2 The Ox-Drawn Ridger 1.3.3 The Ox-Drawn Cultivator 1.3.4 Harrows and Planters 1.4 Village Visits

1.4.1 Introduction and Methodology

1.4.2 Main Conclusions from Village Visits 1.4.3 The Impact of the Farm Implements

Shortage on Productivity

1.4.4 Summary of Household Tool Inventory and Requirements and the General Supply Situation

1.5 Ox-Mechanization Chapter 2

INTRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NEW

FARM IMPLEMENTS 7 3

2.1 Approaches to Technology Introduction 7 3 2.2 Selective Priorities for Implements and

Designs to Improve Likelihood of Adoption 7 7 2.3 New Hand Implements for Cultivation 7 9

2.4 Ox-Drawn Equipment 8 0

2.5 Simple Post-Harvesting Equipment 8 3 2.6 Research, Testing and Extension 8 6

2.6.1 Introduction 8 6

2,6.2 CAMERTEC, Arusha 8 8

2.6.3 CAMERTEC1s Potential Role in the Introduction and Extention of the

Improved Farm Implements 9 8 2.6.4 Uyole Agricultural Centre, Mbeya 101 2.6.5 The Regional Oxenization Project,

Iringa 103

2.6.6 Kilimo Extension Service, Ox-Training Centres and the Shinyanga RIDEP

Extension Approach 10 6

2.7 Conclusion Chapter 3

DEMAND ESTIMATES 3.1 Hand Implements

3.2 The Demand for Ox-Ploughs

3.3 The Supply and Requirements for Plough Spare Parts

3.4 The Potential for Ox-Ploughing in the Next Decade

3.5 The Demand for Ridgers, Cultivators and Harrows

3.6 The Demand for Ox-Carts 3.6.1 Background

3.6.2 The Present Demand for Ox-Carts 3.6.3 Some Notes on the Relationship

between Design and Demand for Ox-Carts

Chapter 4

LOCAL PRODUCTION AND REPAIR FACILITIES FOR FARM IMPLEMENTS AND OX-CARTS

4.1 Blacksmiths

4.2 Support Programmes 4.3 Conclusion

4.4 Outline of Raw Material Support Programme 4.5 Ox-Cart Manufacturing

4.6 Support for Local Manufacturing of Ox-Carts

Chapter 5

INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION OF FARM IMPLEMENTS 5.1 Small-Scale Industrial Production

5.1.1 Production Units within the SIDO Industrial Estates

5.1.2 MAFOTCO, Moshi

5.1.3 Themi Farm Implements and Engineering CO Ltd

5.1.4 Other Small-Scale Industrial Units 5.2 Medium-Scale Production

5.2.1 The MEIDA "capacity-identifying"

Exercise

5.2.2 Cotex Metals and Machinery Ltd 5.2.3 Manufacture of Post-Harvesting

Equipment

5.3 Large-Scale Production

5.3.1 Ubungo Farm Implements Company (UFI) 5.3.2 Zana za Kilimo Ltd, Mbeya (ZZK) 5.3.3 Mwanza Farm Implements Factory

5.3.4 Mangula Mechanical and Machine Tools Company (MMT)

Chapter 6

DISTRIBUTION OF FARM IMPLEMENTS IN TANZANIA 186 6.1 The Distribution System 18 6 6.2 Distortions in the RTC Distribution System 188 6.3 Stock Position in October 1983 191 6.4 The Tanganyika Farmers' Association (TFA) 194

6.5 Credit and Prices 196

6.6 Future Distribution System 198

List of References 201

Appendix 1

Agricultural Policy of Tanzania Appendix 2

Rapid Rural Appraisal Survey Methodology 209 Appendix 3

Some Notes on the Costs of Importation List of Tables

Table 1.1 Basic Rural Household Tool Inventory Table 1.2 List of Imported or Domestically Man-

ufactured Common Types of Factory- Made Farm Implements Used in Tanza- nia

Table 1.3 Overview of Farmers Interviews

Table 3.1 NIDC demand figures, hand implements, 197 3

Table 3.2 TISCO demand figures, hand imple- ments, 1980

Table 3.3 UFI supply, hand implements 1979.- 1983

Table 3.4 RTC requirements, hand implements 1983/84

Table 3.5 Annual demand estimate for hand im- plement S 19 8 4

Table 3.6 The Regional Plough Population for Different Periods, as Given by Dif- ferent Surveys and Estimates

Table 3.7 The Present Demand for Ox-Ploughs (1984/85)

Table 3.8 Regional Ox-Cart Population 1975-1983 and Estimated Demand for Ox-Carts 1984-1986

Table 4.1 UFI Regional Distribution of Raw Ma- terials for SIDO; June 1983-August 1983

Table 4.2 The Production of Ox-Carts, Wheel Barrows, Hand-Carts and Harrows from 8 Public and Private Manufacturers for the Years 1980-1983

Table 6.1 RTC Stock Position, Central Regional Godowns, October 1983

LISTOFABBREVIATIONS

AATP ACCO ADP AISCO

CAMARTEC CCM CFW

D A D 0 D A N I D A DMO DPO DSM EEC FAO FRG FSC I BRD

K i l imo Maji M E I D A

NAC NBC NDC N I DC NMC NORAD Oxfam OTC

A r u s h a A p p r o p r i a t e T e c h n o l o g y P r o j e c t A r u s h a C u t l e r y Company

A g r i c u l t u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t P r o j e c t , I r i n g a R e g i o n A g r i c u l t u r a l a n d I n d u s t r i a l S u p p l i e s Company B o a r d o f I n t e r n a l T r a d e

C e n t r e f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l M e c h a n i z a t i o n a n d R u r a l T e c h n o l o g y , A r u s h a

Chama c h a M a p i n d u z i

Common F a c i l i t i e s Workshop a t SIDO e s t a t e s D i s t r i c t A g r i c u l t u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t O f f i c e r D a n i s h I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t A u t h o r i t y D i s t r i c t M e c h a n i z a t i o n O f f i c e r

D i s t r i c t P l a n n i n g O f f i c e r Dar e s S a l a a m

E u r o p e a n Economic Community

U n i t e d N a t i o n s Food a n d A g r i c u l t u r e O r g a n i s a t i o n F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c o f Germany

F a r m e r S e r v i c e C e n t e r s

I n t e r n a t i o n a l Bank f o r R e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d D e v e l o p m e n t ( W o r l d Bank)

I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t A s s o c i a t i o n

I n t e r n a t i o n a l Fund f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e

M i n i s t r y o f W a t e r

Metal E n g i n e e r i n g I n d u s t r i e s D e v e l o p m e n t A s s o c i a t i o n

N a t i o n a l A l l o c a t i o n C o m m i t t e e N a t i o n a l Bank o f Commerce

N a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n

N a t i o n a l I n d u s t r i a l D e v e l o p m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n ( a n I n d i a n c o n s u l t a n c y o r g a n i s a t i o n )

N a t i o n a l M i l l i n g C o r p o r a t i o n The N o r w e g i a n Aid Agency

A P r i v a t e B r i t i s h Aid O r g a n i s a t i o n Ox T r a i n i n g C e n t r e

P e o p l e s R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a

RADO RCW R a n d D KDD

R/ E RIDEP RMO R PO RTC SAP SEK SIDA SIDO S h s TAMTU TC A TDFL TFA T I B TISCO TRDB TShs TWICO UAC UF I UK U N I D O URT USAID USD

R e g i o n a l A g r i c u l t u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t O f f i c e r R u r a l . C r a f t Workshop

R e s e a r c h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t

R e g i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t D i r e c t o r ( p r e s e n t l y R e g i o n a l E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r )

Round e y e d

R e g i o n a l I n t e g r a t e d D e v e l o p m e n t P l a n / P r o j e c t R e g i o n a l M e c h a n i z a t i o n O f f i c e r

R e g i o n a l P l a n n i n g O f f i c e r R e g i o n a l T r a d i n g C o r p o r a t i o n S t r u c t u r a l A d j u s t m e n t Programme S w e d i s h k r o n o r

S w e d i s h I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t A u t h o r i t y S m a l l I n d u s t r i e s D e v e l o p m e n t O r g a n i s a t i o n T a n z a n i a n s h i l l i n g s

T a n z a n i a A g r i c u l t u r a l M a c h i n e r y T e s t i n g U n i t T a n z a n i a C o t t o n A u t h o r i t y

T a n g a n y i k a D e v e l o p m e n t a n d F i n a n c e Company L t d T a n g a n y i k a F a r m e r s ' A s s o c i a t i o n

T a n z a n i a I n v e s t m e n t Bank

T a n z a n i a I n d u s t r i a l S t u d i e s a n d C o n s u l t i n g O r g a n i s a t i o n

T a n z a n i a R u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t Bank T a n z a n i a n s h i l l i n g s

T a n z a n i a Wood I n d u s t r i e s Company U y o l e A g r i c u l t u r a l C o l l e g e (Mbeya) Ubungo Farm I m p l e m e n t s

U n i t e d Kingdom

U n i t e d N a t i o n s I n d u s t r i a l D e v e l o p m e n t O r g a n i s a t i o n

U n i t e d R e p u b l i c o f T a n z a n i a U n i t e d S t a t e s Aid Agency U n i t e d S t a t e s D o l l a r s Zana z a K i l i m o L t d ( M b e y a ) m i l l i o n

t h o u s a n d pound

PREFACE

I n 1 9 8 2 , t h e T a n z a n i a n Government a p p r o a c h e d t h e Swe- d i s h G o v e r n m e n t w i t h a r e q u e s t f o r s u p p o r t t o t h e Tan- z a n i a n a g r i c u l t u r a l i m p l e m e n t s i n d u s t r y . T h e r e was a g e n e r a l c o n s e n s u s t h a t t h i s was a n area w h e r e d o n o r s u p p o r t would b e u s e f u l .

Numerous s t u d i e s h a d b e e n u n d e r t a k e n o n t h e a g r i c t u r a l i m p l e m e n t s s i t u a t i o n i n t h e c o u n t r y . However, t h e s e s t u d i e s were e i t h e r t h e o r e t i c a l i n n a t u r e o r c o n c e r n e d w i t h s p e c i a l i z e d a s p e c t s . I n p a r t i c u l a r t h e r e w a s a l a c k o f k n o w l e d g e o f t h e p e a s a n t s ' own p e r c e p t i o n o f r e q u i r e m e n t s o f i m p l e m e n t s . W i t h t h e a i m o f a s s i s t i n g t h e T a n z a n i a n G o v e r n m e n t t o o b t a i n more i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e a c t u a l s i t u a t i o n i n t h i s s u b - s e c t o r o f t h e economy, a n d a s a b a s i s f o r S w e d i s h s u p p o r t , SIDA d e c i d e d t o c o m m i s s i o n a s t u d y t o l o o k i n t o t h e t y p e s o f i m p l e m e n t s i n u s e , t h e i r u s a g e , t h e demand f o r d i f f e r e n t t y p e s , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d i m p o r t a - t i o n o f f a r m i m p l e m e n t s .

D u r i n g t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 ' s T a n z a n i a h a d u n d e r g o n e a com- p l e t e " r e - p l a n n i n g " e x e r c i s e , w h i c h r e s u l t e d i n t h e S t r u c t u r a l Ad j u s t m e n t Programme o f J u n e , 1 9 8 2 . The r e n e w e d e m p h a s i s o n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e r e were k n o w l e d g e g a p s a s t o t h e c o n s t r a i n t s a n d p o t e n t i a l i t i e s o f t h i s s e c t o r . I n p a r t i c u l a r it was f o u n d t h a t t h e l a c k o f e m p i r i c a l d a t a g a v e r i s e t o a number o f v e r y d i f f e r e n t o p i n i o n s , e . g . o n t h e s i z e o f t h e n a t i o n a l demand f o r v a r i o u s f a r m i m p l e m e n t s .

P a r t o f t h e work c a r r i e d o u t b y t h e s t u d y g r o u p c o n s i s - t e d o f a c o m p i l a t i o n o f p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s a n d p l a n n i n g d o c u m e n t s o f r e l e v a n c e . A l i s t o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t

r e p o r t s i s g i v e n i n t h e l i s t o f r e f e r e n c e s . However, many o f t h e s e s t u d i e s c o m p l a i n a b o u t t h e s c a r c i t y o f a c t u a l f i e l d d a t a t o s u p p o r t a s s u m p t i o n s made. I t was t h e r e f o r e f e l t t h a t t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n , a l t h o u g h i t s b a s i c p u r p o s e was t o p r o p o s e a w o r k a b l e s t r a t e g y f o r SIDA s u p p o r t ( a n d n o t a s t u d y w i t h s c i e n t i f i c a s p i r a -

t i o n s ) , would h a v e t o b e b a s e d on a c t u a l f i e l d d a t a . One o f t h e ways t o a c h i e v e t h i s was t o i n c l u d e i n t h e team p e o p l e w i t h a d e q u a t e e x p e r i e n c e o f p e a s a n t c o n d i - t i o n s i n T a n z a n i a . The o t h e r way was t o i n c l u d e a f i e l d a s s e s s m e n t of m a t t e r s o f i m p o r t a n c e . T h e s e f i e l d t r i p s , a l t h o u g h e x t e n s i v e , d i d n o t a l l o w t h e f o r m i n g o f a n y s c i e n t i f i c a l l y b a s e d c o n c l u s i o n s , b u t were r a t h e r a way o f c o n t r a s t i n g s t u d y f i n d i n g s a n d p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e team members w i t h c o n d i t i o n s i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y . We would l i k e t o u s e t h e t e r m " r a p i d r u r a l a p p r a i s a l " m e t h o d o l o g y f o r t h e f i e l d work. More d e t a i l s on t h e m e t h o d o l o g y a r e f o u n d i n Appendix 2 .

The r e s u l t o f t h e work o f t h e s t u d y g r o u p was a d e - s c r i p t i o n of t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l i m p l e m e n t s s u b - s e c t o r , b a s e d on a g r a s s r o o t p e r s p e c t i v e b u t y e t a t t e m p t i n g t o g i v e a c o m p r e h e n s i v e p i c t u r e . The d a t a o b t a i n e d r e f e r t o t h e mid- 1983 s i t u a t i o n .

I t was l a t e r acknowledged t h a t t h i s d e s c r i p t i v e mate- r i a l t u r n e d o u t t o b e o f i n t e r e s t a l s o t o p e o p l e con- c e r n e d w i t h a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t i n g e n e r a l . For t h i s r e a s o n , a n d i n o r d e r t o make t h e m a t e r i a l more r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e , t h e S c a n d i n a v i a n

I n s t i t u t e of A f r i c a n S t u d i e s d e c i d e d t o p u b l i s h t h e p a r t s o f t h e s t u d y a s a r e s e a r c h r e p o r t w i t h f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t from SIDA.

One i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f t h e o r i g i n a l r e p o r t was t h e r e - commendations c o n c e r n i n g t h e s t r a t e g y t o f o l l o w i n s u p p o r t i n g t h e f a r m i m p l e m e n t s s u b - s e c t o r o f i n d u s t r y . T h i s p a r t h a s b e e n d e l e t e d i n t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h r e p o r t which m a i n l y p r e s e n t s t h e d e s c r i p t i v e p a r t s o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

I n e d i t i n g t h e m a t e r i a l f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h r e p o r t we h a v e t r i e d t o e m p h a s i z e t h r e e a s p e c t s . F i r s t l y , t o p r o - v i d e i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e p r a c t i c a l f u n c t i o n i n g o f a

c e n t r a l p a r t , t h e f a r m i m p l e m e n t s s e c t o r , o f a r u r a l economy. S e c o n d l y , we hope t o d e m o n s t r a t e some e l e m e n t s o f t h e b a s i c d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s , v i z . t h e p r e r e q u i s i - t i e s f o r , and t h e c o n d i t i o n s under w h i c h , f a r m e r s w i l l b e p r e p a r e d t o a d o p t c h a n g e s i n t e c h n o l o g y . F i n a l l y , we t r y t o o f f e r a n i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e

planning process in developing countries. The relevance of planning which is not based on actual knowledge of real conditions, but rather on assumptions and unrea- listic hopes, we believe is an important impediment to progress.

The material presented on farm implements in this report may also be of interest from the perspective that it was collected at a time, the second half of 1983, when

Tanzania was experiencing its peak crisis. Thus the report may shed light on the issue of or relative importance of problems related to production, distribution and suita- bility of farm implements for the agricultural stagnation in Tanzania during this period.

B jorn Mothander Finn Kjaerby Kjell Havnevik

INTRODUCTION

T o o l s f o r t i l l a g e

The h o e i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t t o o l i n p e a s a n t a g r i c u l - t u r e i n A f r i c a . I t i s , i n d e e d , s o c e n t r a l t h a t it i s o f t e n u s e d a s a symbol o f a g r i c u l t u r e .

The c o n c e p t o f t h e h o e , however, s i g n i f i e s a wide a r r a y o f t o o l s o f d i f f e r e n t s i z e s and d e s i g n s , u s e d f o r a v a r i e t y o f p u r p o s e s . But t h e i n d i v i d u a l p e a s a n t h a s a p r o f o u n d knowledge o f which t y p e o f hoe i s t h e most s u i t a b l e f o r t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f h i s o r h e r f i e l d , a n d w i l l b e most r e l u c t a n t t o buy a n y o t h e r h o e . One o f t h e q u e s t i o n s a s k e d i n t h i s s t u d y i s w h e t h e r m a n u f a c t u r e r s o f h o e s , a n d n a t i o n a l p l a n n e r s , h a v e t h e means o r e v e n t h e a m b i t i o n t o a l l o w t h i s b a s i c knowledge o f t h e p e a s a n t t o i n f l u e n c e t h e i r p r o d u c t s and p l a n s . One f u n d a m e n t a l i d e a o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s t h a t i n o r d e r t o meet t h e p e a s a n t need f o r h o e s , knowledge o f much more t h a n p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s i s r e q u i r e d .

Hoe t i l l a g e , a n d t h e t r a d i t i o n s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h i s form a v c u l t i v a t i o n , s e t s v e r y d e f i n i t e l i m i t s t o t h e a r e a t h a t c a n b e c u l t i v a t e d by one f a m i l y . The p r o g r e s - s i v e f a r m e r may t h e r e f o r e b e l o o k i n g f o r means o f

e x p a n d i n g h i s p r o d u c t i v e c a p a c i t y . H i s u l t i m a t e arnbi- t i o n i s s o m e t i m e s t o become t h e owner o f a t r a c t o r . Given t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o f many A f r i c a n e c o n o m i e s , t h i s a m b i t i o n c a n n o t b e s a t i s f i e d f o r more t h a n a s m a l l num- b e r o f f a r m e r s .

The i n t e r m e d i a t e s o l u t i o n i s p l o u g h c u l t i v a t i o n . I n T a n z a n i a , which i s t h e f o c u s of t h i s b o o k , t h e ox- p l o u g h r e p r e s e n t s a n i m p o r t a n t s t e p i n d e v e l o p m e n t and t h e s p r e a d of ox- plough c u l t i v a t i o n c o u l d h a v e a s i g n i - f i c a n t i m p a c t i n l a r g e a r e a s o f t h e c o u n t r y . However, t h e r e a r e a l s o a r e a s where c a t t l e a r e n o t found f o r v a r i o u s r e a s o n s , o r a t l e a s t a r e n o t u s e d f o r t r a c t i o n , a n d i n t h o s e a r e a s o t h e r e f f o r t s t h a n s u p p l y i n g f a r m e r s w i t h p l o u g h s w i l l b e r e q u i r e d .

I n o r d e r t o s u s t a i n a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n , t h e s u p p l y of h o e s t o t h e p e a s a n t i s c r u c i a l . To s t i m u l a t e a g r i - c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e s u p p l y o f p l o u g h s i s j u s t a s i m p o r t a n t . The s u p p l y o f improved i m p l e m e n t s ~ n u s t , how- e v e r , form p a r t o f a p r o c e s s o f a d a p t i n g t o t e c h n o l o g i - c a l c h a n g e s . One o t h e r c o n c e p t o f t h i s s t u d y i s t h a t t h i s a d a p t a t i o n p r o c e s s must b e b a s e d on t h e p e a s a n t ' s e x i s t i n g , and i n most c a s e s r e l e v e n t , body o f knowledge and t h e d e g r e e o f h i s c o n t r o l o v e r p r o d u c t i o n r e s o u r - c e s .

The i m p a c t of f a r m i m p l e m e n t s

A l t h o u g h food p r o d u c t i o n p r e s u p p o s e s t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f f a r m i m p l e m e n t s , t h e s e a r e f a r from t h e o n l y o r t h e most c r i t i c a l , i n p u t s i n food p r o d u c t i o n . U n l e s s t h e f a r m e r h a s s e e d s , f e r t i l i z e r s f o r c e r t a i n c r o p s , and a r a b l e l a n d , h e w i l l n o t b e a b l e t o p r o d u c e . Nor w i l l h i s s u r p l u s p r o d u c t i o n r e a c h d e f i c i t a r e a s w i t h o u t a p r o p e r l y f u n c t i o n i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e l n . Improved f a r m i m p l e m e n t s i s o n e , b u t c e r t a i n l y n o t t h e o n l y , c o n d i t i o n f o r i n c r e a s e d a g r i c u l t u r a l pro- d u c t i o n . S o i l a n d c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s , s e e d s , t h e

s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n , food p r e f e r e n c e s , p e s t i c i d e s and r e l a t i v e p r o d u c e r p r i c e s must a l s o b e t a k e n i n t o

a c c o u n t a n d a l l t h e s e t o g e t h e r w i l l d e t e r m i n e t h e com- p o s i t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n . Improving f a r m i m p l e m e n t s o f t e n means c h a n g i n g t h e f a r m i n g t e c h n i q u e , which i n t u r n may c a l l f o r more t h a n j u s t a n improved implement. A c a s e i n p o i n t i s o x - p l o u g h i n g , which w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l f u r t h e r on i n t h i s r e p o r t . Ox- p l o u g h i n g c e r t a i n l y makes c u l t i v a t i o n o f a l a r g e r a r e a p o s s i b l e , compared t o hand c u l t i v a t i o n . But l a b o u r con- s t r a i n t s p l a c e a l i m i t on t h e a r e a which c a n b e weeded, and i f weeding i s n o t m e c h a n i s e d , which r e q u i r e s a d i f f e r e n t i m p l e m e n t , o x - p l o u g h i n g w i l l n o t r e s u l t i n h i g h e r y i e l d s .

To t h e m a j o r i t y o f f a r m e r s i n T a n z a n i a t h e r e i s p r e - s e n t l y no a l t e r n a t i v e t o hand c u l t i v a t i o n . Hand t o o l s w i l l r e m a i n o f c r i t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e f o r a l o n g p e r i o d t o come. I n t h i s r e p o r t we i n t e n d t o a n a l y s e t h e r e q u i r e - m e n t s i n r e s p e c t o f s u c h t o o l s , t h e demand f o r them and t h e s u p p l y t o f a r m e r s . We h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o l o o k a t t h e

t y p e s o f h a n d t o o l s a v a i l a b l e , t h e i r s u p p l y t o t h e f a r m e r s , t h e n a t i o n a l demand f o r t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t h a n d t o o l s , t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e c o u n t r y a n d t h e a l t e r n a t i v e c o s t s f o r i m p o r t i n g t h e m .

The u s e o f a n i m a l s i n c u l t i v a t i o n h a s t h e p o t e n t i a l o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f o n e f a r m e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y . O x - p l o u g h i n g d i d n o t s t a r t i n T a n z a n i a u n t i l t h e 1 9 3 0 s b u t i t s i m p o r t a n c e i s i n c r e a s i n g . W e w i l l d i s c u s s b e l o w t h i s f o r m o f p r o d u c t i o n . We b e l i e v e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l i n v e s t m e n t s c a n h a v e i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t s i n t h e medium t e r m .

The n e x t s t e p i n a g r o - m e c h a n i s a t i o n , t h e u s e o f t r a c - t o r - d r a w n i m p l e m e n t s , r e q u r i e s a c o m p l e x p a t t e r n o f i n - p u t s , management a n d s e r v i c e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , s e v e r a l o f w h i c h p r e s u p p o s e t h e i r own d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m s , T h i s t y p e o f i m p l e m e n t i s e x c l u d e d f r o m t h i s s t u d y . Our v i e w i s t h a t t h i s t y p e o f f a r m i n g w i l l o n l y b e a v i a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e i n some r e s t r i c t e d a r e a s i n T a n z a n i a f o r many y e a r s t o come g i v e n t h e w e a k n e s s i n t h e p r e s e n t t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m , t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f m a i n t e n a n c e a n d r e p a i r , a n d t h e u n r e l i a b l e s u p p l y o f f u e l . I n v e s t - m e n t s i n p r o d u c t i o n o f t r a c t o r - d r a w n i m p l e m e n t s l o c a l l y w o u l d , i n o u r v i e w , t h u s b e a m i s a l l o c a t i o n o f r e s o u r - c e s .

N a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s

What a r e , t h e n , t h e n a t i o n a l T a n z a n i a n p o l i c i e s p e r - t a i n i n g t o t h e f a r m i m p l e m e n t s s u b - s e c t o r ? W e w i l l r e v i e w t h o s e p o l i c i e s a n d c o n t r a s t t h e m t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n a b o v e .

The N a t i o n a l Food S t r a t e g y 1 9 6 2 i n c l u d e s some o b j e c - t i v e s r e l e v a n t t o o u r s t u d y . The S t r a t e g y a n n o u n c e s t h a t s t e p s w i l l b e t a k e n t o i m p r o v e s u p p l y m a i n l y t h r o u g h t h e p l a n n e d e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f Farm S e r v i c e C e n t r e s . The S t r a t e g y f u r t h e r e n v i s a g e s a b i g p u s h f o r o x e n i z a t i o n b o t h i n t h e s h o r t a n d l o n g r u n , s u b j e c t h o w e v e r t o c u l t u r a l a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n s t r a i n t s . A more d i v e r s i f i e d u s e o f o x e n i s s e e n t o b e t h e k e y s t r a t e g y t o r e v o l u t i o n i z e a g r i c u l t u r e .

The S t r u c t u r a l A d j u s t m e n t Programme f o r T a n z a n i a (SAP) w a s f o r m u l a t e d i n J u n e , 1 9 8 2 . I n 1 9 8 3 it was t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t d o c u m e n t f o r d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n n i n g i n Tan- z a n i a , i n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e f i n a n c i n g o f t h e Programme h a d n o t b e e n a g r e e d w i t h t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p r o s p e c t i v e f i n a n c i e r s t h e r e o f , t h e IMF a n d IBRD/IDA.

The m e r i t o f t h e SAP, b u t a l s o i t s w e a k n e s s i n t h e a b s e n c e o f f i n a n c i n g , w a s i t s c o m p r e h e n s i v e a p p r o a c h t o t h e n a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s .

The SAP d o e s n o t g i v e much g u i d a n c e i n t e r m s o f p o l i - c i e s f o r t h e s u p p l y o f f a r m i m p l e m e n t s . I t s t a t e s :

" O n l y a f e w r e g i o n s a n d d i s t r i c t s a r e r e l a t i v e l y w e l l s e r v i c e d w i t h w e l l s t o c k e d s p e c i a l i s e d o r o t h e r s a l e s o u t l e t s f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l i n p u t s , b u t t h e r e s t l a c k s u c h o u t l e t s . T h u s , i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o e n s u r e t h a t a r a n g e o f i n p u t s ( p r i m a r i l y f e r t i l i z e r s , p e s t i c i d e s , t o o l s , s p r a y e r s a n d a n i m a l - d r a w n e q u i p m e n t ) a r e a v a i l a b l e t o f a r m e r s u n d e r o n e r o o f , w h e r e e v e r p o s s i b l e on a c a s h b a s i s , i n a l l a r e a s .

E x i s t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s ( i n c l u d i n g t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l a n d I n d u s t r i a l S u p p l i e s Company, C o o p e r a t i v e s , Crop Autho- r i t i e s , T a n z a n i a S e e d Company, T a n z a n i a F e r t i l i z e r Com- p a n y , T a n g a n y i k a F a r m e r s ' A s s o c i a t i o n , IRDB, Ubungo Farm I m p l e m e n t s a n d R e g i o n a l T r a d i n g C o m p a n i e s ) w i l l b e a s s i s t e d t o w i d e n t h e r a n g e o f i n p u t s o n s a l e a n d

e x p a n d t h e number o f s a l e s o u t l e t s . I n a d d i t i o n , a n e t - work o f Farm S e r v i c e C e n t e r s w i l l b e e s t a b l i s h e d

g r a d u a l l y e x t e n d i n g t o e v e r y d i s t r i c t . The M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s i d e n t i f i e d a b o v e w i l l p r e p a r e a d e t a i l e d , f u l l y c o s t e d programme" . l

A s a f o l l o w - u p , t h e M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e f o r m u l a t e d t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l P o l i c y o f T a n z a n i a , w h i c h i s d a t e d March 3 1 s t , 1 9 8 3 . The p o l i c y s t a t e s t h a t t h e d o m i n a n t mode o f a g r i c u l t u r e i n T a n z a n i a i s i n d i v i d u a l p e a s a n t p r o d u c t i o n . B u t ,

" F a r m i n g i n t h e v i l l a g e s n e e d s m o d e r n i z a t i o n ; i n t h e m a j o r i t y o f cases it i s s t i l l c a r r i e d o n a c c o r d i n g t o t r a d i t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s , w i t h o u t t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e o f

1 . SAP, p a r a s 3 1 . 1 3 a n d 3 1 . 1 4

modern knowledg a n d t h e s h o k a

-

d u c t i o n m e t h o d s

e o r modern t o o l s . The j e m b e , t h e p a n g a , a l l h a n d s t o o l s

-

s t i l l d o m i n a t e p r o - now"

.

^l

The p o l i c y g o e s o n t o s t a t e :

" I n c r e a s i n g t h e o u t p u t a n d t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f a g r i c u l - t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e v i l l a g e s i s c e n t r a l t o i n c r e a s - e d n a t i o n a l o u t p u t M . 2

The p o l i c y i s s t r o n g l y o r i e n t e d t o w a r d s t h e i n t r o d u c - t i o n o f m e c h a n i z e d a g r i c u l t u r e . A s h i f t f r o m h a n d t o o l s t o a n i m a l - d r a w n i m p l e m e n t s , a n d f r o m t h o s e t o t r a c t o r - drawn e q u i p m e n t i s f o r e s e e n . The i m m e d i a t e o b j e c t i v e i s s a i d t o b e a c h i e v e m e n t o f n a t i o n a l f o o d

s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y a s w e l l a s a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n f o r t h e i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r a n d i n c r e a s e d e a r n i n g s f r o m

e x p o r t c r o p s . B u t t h e m a j o r t a s k i s " t o move t h e p e a - s a n t f a r m e r s f r o m r e l i a n c e o n h a n d t o o l s t o t h e u s e o f a n i m a l a n d m e c h a n i c a l l y a s s i s t e d i m p l e m e n t s " .

The p o l i c y e x p r e s s e s s t r o n g s u p p o r t f o r r e s e a r c h , t e s t - i n g a n d e x t e n s i o n a c t i v i t i e s . I m p o r t s s h a l l o n l y b e made o f e v a l u a t e d a n d t e s t e d e q u i p m e n t a n d l o c a l p r o - d u c t i o n w i l l b e s t e p p e d u p t o meet g r o w i n g demand f o r i m p r o v e d h a n d t o o l s a n d a n i m a l - d r a w n i m p l e m e n t s .

I t i s c l e a r l y s t a t e d t h a t o x - p l o u g h i n g s h a l l b e s p r e a d , t h a t new o x - i m p l e m e n t s s h a l l b e i n t r o d u c e d a n d t h e u s e o f ox a n d d o n k e y c a r t s e n c o u r a g e d . R e p a i r f a c i l i t i e s i n v i l l a g e s s h a l l b e p r o m o t e d .

An i m p o r t a n t p o i n t c o n c e r n s d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f a r m i n - p u t s . The M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e i s e n v i s a g e d t o h a v e a n i m p o r t a n t s u p e r v i s o r y a n d c o o r d i n a t i n g r o l e i n t h i s s y s t e m , On r e g i o n a l l e v e l C O - a p e r a t i v e u n i o n s w i l l p l a y a d o m i n a n t r o l e a n d w i l l s u p p l y t h e p r i m a r y c o - o p e r a - t i v e s o c i e t i e s a n d v i l l a g e s h o p s . We w i l l d e s c r i b e b e l o w t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m i n

1. APT, p 8 2. APT, p l 1

1 9 8 3 , a n d what p l a n s a r e a f o o t t o c h a n g e t h e s y s t e m . A l o t o f u n c e r t a i n t y i s s t i l l a t t a c h e d t o t h e implementa- t i o n o f t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s .

We would l i k e t o e n d t h i s b r i e f summary o f t h e A g r i c u l - t u r a l P o l i c y w i t h a q u o t e , which we b e l i e v e p u t s t h e P o l i c y a n d t h e work u n d e r t a k e n w i t h i n t h i s s t u d y , i n i t s p r o p e r p e r s p e c t i v e :

" B u t i t i s s t i l l p o s s i b l e t o improve t h e q u a n t i t y a n d q u a l i t y o f o u r o u t p u t , p r o v i d e d t h a t a l l a c t i v i t y by t h e Government a n d by e v e r y p u b l i c employee i s b a s e d on t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f one s i m p l e t r u t h : i t i s t h e f a r m e r s a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h e p e a s a n t s , o f T a n z a n i a who p r o d u c e a g r i c u l t u r a l g o o d s , a n d t h e women among them who do a v e r y l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e work".

I n Appendix 1 we h a v e c o l l e c t e d t h e s t a t e m e n t s i n t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l P o l i c y which we c o n s i d e r a r e o f i m p o r t a n c e t o t h i s s t u d y .

T h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e o f e m p h a s i s b e t w e e n o u r c o n c e p t s a n d t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l P o l i c y . Whereas we want t o s t r e s s d e v e l o p m e n t on t h e b a s i s o f a v a i l a b l e r e s o u r c e s and t e c h n i q u e s , t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l P o l i c y s e e s t h e s h i f t i n g t o more modern t e c h n i q u e s a s t h e p r i o r i t y . However, i f t h e t i m e e l e m e n t i s i n t r o d u c e d , t h e r e may n o t b e s u c h a g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e o f a p p r o a c h . I t w i l l s u r e l y b e a l o n g t i m e b e f o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n i m a l t r a c t i o n o r ox-mecha- n i z a t i o n i s i n t r o d u c e d on a l a r g e s c a l e , and e v e n l o n g e r b e f o r e t r a c t o r m e c h a n i z a t i o n i s implemented. We want t o e m p h a s i z e o u r v i e w , however, t h a t t r a c t o r m e c h a n i z a t i o n s h o u l d b e s e e n a s a p o l i c y f o r t h e

f u t u r e , b u t i t s h o u l d n o t b e a l l o w e d t o draw r e s o u r c e s away from t h e immediate s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e s p r e a d and d e v e l o p m e n t of o t h e r a g r i c u l t u r a l t e c h n i q u e s , i n p a r t i - c u l a r o x - u t i l i z a t i o n .

The p u r p o s e of t h i s s t u d y

C o n s i d e r i n g t h e p r i o r i t i e s o f t h e a b o v e p l a n n i n g docu- m e n t s , t h e r e i s , i n o u r o p i n i o n , a need t o c o l l e c t f a c t u a l , d e s c r i p t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n , t o a s s e s s t h e p l a n s and t h e i r g o a l s , w h e t h e r t h e y a r e r e a l i s t i c and under

w h a t c o n d i t i o n s a n d t i m e - f r a m e s t h e y c o u l d b e a c h i e v e d , T h e o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s s t u d y i s t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h i s

i m p o r t a n t a n d c o n t i n u o u s e x e r c i s e .

S u b - s e c t o r O r g a n i s a t i o n a n d C o - o r d i n a t i o n

S e v e r a l m i n i s t r i e s i n t h e T a n z a n i a n g o v e r n m e n t s t r u c - t u r e a r e d i r e c t l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h m a t t e r s p e r t a i n i n g t o f a r m i m p l e m e n t s . The M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e ( K i l i m o ) i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p r o m o t i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e c o u n t r y . P l a n n i n g m e a s u r e s u n d e r t a k e n i n K i l i m o w i l l h a v e c o n s e q u e n c e s o n m a t t e r s a f f e c t i n g c r o p p r o - d u c t i o n a n d t h e c h o i c e b e t w e e n v a r i o u s c r o p s . ( E . g . , t h e i m p a c t o f p r o d u c e r p r i c e s . ) Above w e h a v e r e v i e w e d t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l P o l i c y f o r T a n z a n i a w h i c h p r o v i d e s a c o m p r e h e n s i v e p o l i c y f r a m e - w o r k . A p a r t f r o m p l a n n i n g , e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s i s a n i m p o r t a n t a r e a f o r K i l i m o i n v o l v e m e n t . T h e r e a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y t w o s e c t i o n s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e f a r m i m p l e m e n t s d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s r e p o r t ; t h e M e c h a n i z a t i o n s e c t i o n ( t h e o x - m e c h n i z a t i o n u n i t ) a n d t h e Farm i n p u t s e c t i o n . I n t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l P o l i c y i t i s a l s o m e n t i o n e d t h a t K i l i m o w o u l d h a v e a r o l e i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f a r m i m p l e m e n t s .

D i s t r i b u t i o n i s o t h e r w i s e a m a t t e r f o r t h e M i n i s t r y o f T r a d e . Under t h i s M i n i s t r y t h e B o a r d o f I n t e r n a l T r a d e

( B I T ) i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e n a t i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s e t - u p , c o - o r d i n a t i n g t h e R e g i o n a l T r a d i n g C o m p a n i e s

( R T C s ) , w h i c h w e d i s c u s s i n C h a p t e r 6 . BIT i s a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l a n d I n d u s t r i a l S u p p l i e s Company ( A I S C O ) .

I t h a s b e e n d e c i d e d t h a t t h e c o - o p e r a t i v e s w i l l h a v e a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e v i l l a g e s i n t h e f u t u r e .

C o - o p e r a t i v e s ( a n d v i l l a g e g o v e r n m e n t s ) a r e o r g a n i s e d b y t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r ' s O f f i c e (PM01

.

^PM0 i s a l s o

c h a i r i n g t h e N a t i o n a l A l l o c a t i o n C o m m i t t e e ( N A C ) , w h i c h d e c i d e s t h e r e g i o n a l a l l o c a t i o n s f o r f a r m i m p l e m e n t s , among o t h e r t h i n g s . T h e s e c r e t a r i a t i s p r o v i d e d b y B I T , T h e l e g i s l a t i o n o n c o n f i n e m e n t a n d p r i c e d e t e r m i n a t i o n h a s , a s we s h o w i n C h a p t e r 6 , a p r o f o u n d i m p a c t o n t h e

f a r m i m p l e m e n t s s u b - s e c t o r , b o t h i n t e r m s o f manu- f a c t u r i n g a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h i s l e g i s l a t i o n i s h a n d l e d b y t h e M i n i s t r y o f T r a d e .

T h e M i n i s t r y o f I n d u s t r i e s ( V i w a n d a ) p l a n s i n d u s t r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t i n T a n z a n i a , a n d i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c o - o r d i n a t i n g m a n u f a c t u r i n g a c t i v i t i e s . U n d e r V i w a n d a

f a l l s , e . g . , NDC a n d SIDO, w h i c h a r e p a r a s t a t a l o r g a n i - z a t i o n s . MEIDA i s n o t a p a r a s t a t a l b u t a n a s s o c i a t i o n o f m e c h a n i c a l i n d u s t r i e s . MEIDA l i a i s e s , h o w e v e r , c l o - s e l y w i t h V i w a n d a .

A p a r t f r o m t h e s e m i n i s t r i e s w i t h a f u n c t i o n a l r e s p o n s i - b i l i t y i n t h e s e c t o r , t h e M i n i s t r y o f P l a n n i n g a n d Eco- n o m i c D e v e l o p m e n t i s o v e r - a l l r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p l a n n i n g o f new i n d u s t r i e s . The M i n i s t r y o f F i n a n c e a l s o h a s a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e , b o t h i n E i n a n c i n g g o v e r n m e n t a c t i v i - t i e s , a s w e l l a s i n s u p e r v i s i n g a l l p a r a s t a t a l s

( t h r o u g h t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r f o r P u b l i c I n v e s t m e n t s ) . Under t h e M i n i s t r y o f F i n a n c e , t h e Bank o f T a n z a n i a h a s a c r u c i a l r o l e when i t c o m e s t o d e t e r m i n i n g how t o u s e f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e . The Bank o f T a n z a n i a p r o v i d e s t h e s e c r e t a r i a t f o r t h e F o r e i g n E x c h a n g e A l l o c a t i o n C o m m i t t e e . G i v e n t h e p r e s e n t s h o r t a g e o f f o r e i g n e x - c h a n g e , t h i s c o m t n i t t e e , i n w h i c h c o n c e r n e d m i n i s t r i e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d , i s v i r t u a l l y d e c i d i n g w h a t i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t y i s t o b e a l l o w e d i n t h e c o u n t r y . Donor p r e f e - r e n c e s w i l l o f c o u r s e i n f l u e n c e t h o s e d e c i s i o n s b y t h e C o m m i t t e e w h i c h c o n c e r n t h e u s e o f i m p o r t s u p p o r t f u n d s .

R e g i o n a l a u t h o r i t i e s ( w h i c h a r e u n d e r t h e PMO) a l s o h a v e a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n p l a n n i n g , s u p e r v i s i n g a n d c o o r d i n a t i n g a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e s u b - s e c t o r .

The r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t i o n s b e l o n g t o s e v e r a l m i n i s t r i e s ; CAMARTEC r e p o r t s t o V i w a n d a , U y o l e A g r i c u l t u r a l C o l l e g e t o K i l i m o a n d t h e F a c u l t y o f A g r i c u l t u r e t o t h e

M i n i s t r y o f E d u c a t i o n ,

T h e r e a r e a l s o a number o f o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s w i t h l e s s d i r e c t i m p a c t i n t h e s u b - s e c t o r , e . g . , TIRDO ( T a n z a n i a

I n d u s t r i a l R e s e a r c h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t O r g a n i s a t i o n ) , TEMDO ( T a n z a n i a E n g i n e e r i n g a n d M a n u c a c t u r i n g D e s i g n O r g a n i s a t i o n ) , TBS ( T a n z a n i a ~ u r e a u o f S t a n d a r d s , w h i c h h a s f a c i l i t i e s f o r m a t e r i a l s t e s t i n g , among o t h e r

t h i n g s ) a n d TISCO ( T a n z a n i a I n d u s t r i a l S t u d i e s a n d Con- s u l t i n g O r g a n i s a t i o n w h i c h i s a c o m t n e r c i a l l y o p e r a t i n g c o n s u l t i n g company) a l l u n d e r V i w a n d a , TAR0 ( T a n z a n i a A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s e a r a c h O r g a n i s a t i o n ) a n d TALIRO ( T a n - z a n i a L i v e s t o c k R e s e r a c h O r g a n i s a t i o n ) u n d e r K i l i m o . Most o f t h e r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r 2 a n d i n P h i l l i p s a n d Z a c h a r i a h ( 1 9 8 0 ) . W e h a v e r e s t r i c t e d o u r a n a l y s i s t o t h o s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s w h i c h w e b e l i e v e h a v e a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e t o p l a y .

O b v i o u s l y , s u c h a l a r g e number o f i n s t i t u t i o n s may c r e a t e c o n f u s i o n a n d d u p l i c a t e e f f o r t s . F o r t h i s p u r - p o s e some c o - o r d i n a t i n g i n i t i a t i v e s a r e t a k e n .

W e h a v e m e n t i o n e d t h e N a t i o n a l A l l o c a t i o n C o m m i t t e e , i n w h i c h PMO, V i w a n d a , K i l i m o a n d t h e M i n i s t r y o f T r a d e

( t h r o u g h B I T ) a r e r e p r e s e n t e d . T h i s c o m m i t t e e C O - o r d i - n a t e s a n d a l l o c a t e s d i s t r i b u t i o n v o l u m e s . I t i s , how- e v e r , n o t t h e t a s k o f t h i s c o m m i t t e e t o c o - o r d i n a t e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s e t - u p , t h i s i s h a n d l e d a t C a b i n e t l e v e l . T h e r e i s a l s o a t e c h n i c a l c o m m i t t e e c h a i r e d b y t h e M i n i s t e r f o r I n d u s t r i e s , w h i c h d e c i d e s o n how t o a l l o - c a t e p r o d u c t i o n t o v a r i o u s u n i t s .

S m a l l - s c a l e i n d u s t r y m a t t e r s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n a s e p a r a - t e c o m m i t t e e i n w h i c h V i w a n d a , SIDO, TRDB a n d NBC p a r - t i c i p a t e .

I n r e s e a r c h a n d d e s i g n m a t t e r s t h e r e i s a p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f i n s t i t u t i o n s , w h i c h i s d i f f i c u l t t o u n d e r s t a n d . T h i s d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o h a v e y i e l d e d a n y b e n e f i t s t o t h e s u b - s e c t o r . The v a r i o u s r e s e a r c h o r g a n i s a t i o n s s h o u l d k e e p t h e m s e l v e s b e t t e r i n f o r m e d a b o u t t h e work o f t h e o t h e r s .

CHAPTERONE

TYPES OF FARM IMPLEMENTS USED IN TANZANIA

1.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n

Manual c u l t i v a t i o n methods h a v e b e e n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p r a c t i c e i n T a n z a n i a a n d some 8 5 % o f t h e c o u n t r y ' s c u l - t i v a t e d a c r e a g e i s e s t i m a t e d by t h e M i n i s t r y o f A g r i - c u l t u r e ( K i l i m o ) t o b e c u l t i v a t e d w i t h hand t o o l s on s m a l l h o l d i n g s below 2 h e c t a r e s ( 5 a c r e s ) .

T h e r e i s a f a i r l y w i d e r a n g e o f hand t o o l t y p e s used i n T a n z a n i a and marked a r e a - s p e c i f i c i t y i n t h e u s e of d i f f e r e n t t y p e s . T h i s d i v e r s i t y i s r e l a t e d t o a number of f a c t o r s , i n c l u d i n g c u l t u r a l p r e f e r e n c e s , t h e n e e d

f o r c r o p - s p e c i f i c t o o l s , t h e n a t u r e o f s o i l c o n d i t i o n s and f a r m i n g s y s t e m s , a n d t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o r s h o r t a g e o v e r t i m e i n d i f f e r e n t a r e a s o f t h e r a n g e o f l o c a l l y and i m p o r t e d f a c t o r y - m a d e t o o l s , on t h e o n e h a n d , a n d i n d i g e n o u s b l a c k s m i t h - m a d e t o o l s on t h e o t h e r .

The p r i n c i p a l f a r m implement u s e d i n T a n z a n i a i s t h e h o e . However, t h e s t u d y team was s o o n t o b e c o n f r o n t e d w i t h t h e f i n d i n g , t h a t a h o e i s n o t j u s t a h o e . Q u i t e a p a r t from t h e numerous v a r i a t i o n s i n m a t e r i a l , s h a p e , c u r v a t u r e , q u a l i t y , s i z e and w e i g h t o f d i f f e r e n t h o e s

-

b e t h e y f a c t o r y - m a d e l o c a l o r i m p o r t e d o n e s , o r b e t h e y i n d i g e n o u s b l a c k s m i t h - m a d e o n e s

-

a b a s i c d i s t i n c t i o n i s made b e t w e e n t h e Round Eyed (R/E) hoe a n d t h e t a n g e d h o e s .

The t a n g e d hoe h a s a s p i k e p r o t r u d i n g s t r a i g h t up from t h e u p p e r e d g e o f t h e h o e b l a d e . Some s k i l l and t i m e i s r e q u i r e d f o r f i t t i n g t h i s t y p e o f hoe t o a h a n d l e which i s s h a p e d t h i c k e r a t t h e l o w e r f i t t i n g e n d . The t a n g h a s t o b e h e a t e d and b u r n e d t h r o u g h t h e h a n d l e , some- t i m e s made e a s i e r by d r i l l i n g a h o l e i f a d r i l l i s

a v a i l a b l e . T h e t a n g e d h o e w a s t h e o r i g i n a l t y p e o f h o e u s e d a l l o v e r t h e c o u n t r y b e c a u s e r u r a l b l a c k s m i t h s o n l y p o s s e s s e d t o o l s a n d s k i l l s f o r p r o d u c i n g t a n g e d h o e s . 1 The a d v a n t a g e o f t h e t a n g e d h o e i s t h a t t h e a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e h o e b l a d e a n d h a n d l e c a n b e s e t t o s u i t i n d i v i d u a l p r e f e r e n c e s . T h i s a n g l e t e n d s t o be s h a r p e r o r less t h a n 9 0 d e g r e e s . The l a r g e t a n g e d h o e t e n d s t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h u p l a n d f a r m i n g i n t h e h i l l y a r e a s o f t h e S o u t h e r n H i g h l a n d s .

The Round-Eyed (R/E) h o e h a s a f o r g e d e y e t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e h a n d l e i s f i t t e d , s e t a t r i g h t - a n g l e s t o t h e

b l a d e . The h o e i s f o r g e d i n o n e p i e c e b u t i n some new d e s i g n s w h i c h a r e n o t y e t u s e d i n T a n z a n i a t h e e y e i s w e l d e d t o t h e b l a d e . T h r o u g h g r o w i n g i m p o r t s d u r i n g a n d a f t e r t h e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d t h e R/E h o e h a s s t e a d i l y b e e n r e p l a c i n g t h e t a n g e d h o e i n m o s t r e g i o n s o f T a n z a n i a , i n some r e g i o n s ( w i t h f l a t t o p o g r a p h y ) b y p r e f e r e n c e , i n o t h e r s b y i n s u f f i c i e n t s u p p l i e s o f t h e p r e f e r r e d t a n g e d h o e . The l a r g e 3 l b R/E h o e i s now b y f a r t h e m o s t common f a r m i m p l e m e n t u s e d i n T a n z a n i a .

On t h e w h o l e t h e t o o l s commonly a v a i l a b l e t o t h e h o u s e - h o l d d o n o t d e t e r m i n e t h e c r o p s g r o w n , w h e r e a s t h e c u l - t i v a t i o n o f c e r t a i n c r o p s o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f p a r t i - c u l a r f a r m i n g s y s t e m s o f t e n t e n d s t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c e r t a i n s p e c i a l i z e d i m p l e m e n t s o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t o o l i n v e n t o r i e s . T h u s , small s p e c i a l i z e d w e e d i n g h o e s a r e o f t e n f o u n d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h r i c e a n d f i n g e r m i l l e t g r o w i n g o r i n a r e a s w i t h i n t e n s i v e , d e n s e m i x e d c r o p p - i n g p a t t e r n s . The c o f f e e - b a n a n a h i g h l a n d f a r m i n g

s y s t e m s t e n d t o h a v e t o o l i n v e n t o r i e s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a v a r i e t y o f s p e c i a l i z e d t o o l s . Upland f a r m i n g s y s t e m s i n t h e h i l l y a r e a s o f t h e S o u t h e r n H i g h l a n d s t e n d t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e u s e o f t a n g e d h o e s . A g a i n , a r e a s w i t h a w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d b l a c k s m i t h t r a d i t i o n , o r e x p o r t c r o p a r e a s w h i c h h a v e b e e n f a v o u r e d w i t h i n p u t c r e d i t , t e n d t o h a v e a v a r i e d h o u s e h o l d t o o l i n v e n t o r y .

1 . URT/Min o f C u l t u r e & Youth ( 1 9 7 6 ) : Jembe n i m a l i . Kuza u f u n d i w a j a d i , e n d e l e z a n c h i y e t u . T a n z a n i a P u b l i s h i n g House, Dar es S a l a a m .

I n some a r e a s , l i k e L i n d i a n d Mtwara, t h e r e i s

a p p a r e n t l y a s t r o n g c u l t u r a l p r e f e r e n c e f o r s m a l l - s i z e d s h o r t - h a n d l e d h o e s . T h e s e a r e a s h a v e a w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d b l a c k s m i t h t r a d i t i o n a n d may a l s o h a v e r e t a i n e d t h e u s e o f s m a l l b l a c k s m i t h - m a d e h o e s d u e t o p o o r communica- t i o n s , a l o w l e v e l o f c o m m e r c i a l i z a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e , a n d l o w o r i r r e g u l a r s u p p l i e s o f i m p o r t e d o r f a c t o r y - made l a r g e h o e s .

D e s p i t e t h e d i v e r s i t y o f t o o l s u s e d i n d i f f e r e n t a r e a s , some g e n e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n s c a n b e made w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e m o s t b a s i c h a n d t o o l i n v e n t o r y f o r t h e a v e r a g e r u r a l h o u s e h o l d i n T a n z a n i a . A h o u s e h o l d w o u l d t e n d t o p o s s e s s a b o u t t w o l a r g e d i g g i n g h o e s , a n a x e ( i n d i - g e n o u s - o r f a c t o r y - m a d e ) a n d o n e o r t w o m a t c h e t s ( f a c - t o r y - m a d e ) o r b i l l - h o o k s ( i n d i g e n o u s ) . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e h o u s e h o l d would p o s s e s s a t l e a s t a c o u p l e o f small- s i z e d w e e d i n g h o e s , e i t h e r made by b l a c k s m i t h s o r more o f t e n worn down h o e s o f o r i g i n a l l y l a r g e r s i z e , u s e d e s p e c i a l l y b y women a n d c h i l d r e n . H a r v e s t i n g k n i v e s

( i n d i g e n o u s ) o r s i c k l e s a r e g e n e r a l l y n o t common, p a r t - l y b e c a u s e b i l l - h o o k s o r i n d i g e n o u s k n i v e s a r e u s e d i n - s t e a d , p a r t l y b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e b e e n " p h a s e d o u t " i n t h o s e a r e a s w h e r e t h e y a r e n e e d e d , d u e t o l a c k o f s u p p l y ( e . g . I r i n g a )

.

T h e r e i s a l a c k o f g e n e r a l e v i d e n c e a n d c o u n t r y - w i d e s u r v e y s t o s u p p o r t t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s w i t h t h e e x c e p - t i o n o f t w o s o u r c e s w h i c h o n l y r e c o r d e d h o e s , m a t c h e t s a n d a x e s . A r u r a l h o u s e h o l d s u r v e y made i n 1969 r e c o r d - e d a n a v e r a g e f i g u r e o f 3 . 1 h o e s p e r r u r a l h o u s e h o l d . 1 The A g r i c u l t u r a l C e n s u s o f 1971/72 ( V o l . I ) p r o v i d e d t h e f o l l o w i n g f i g u r e s .

1 . L i v i n g s t o n e , I . ( 1 9 7 0 ) : " R e s u l t s o f a R u r a l S u r v e y ; The O w n e r s h i p o f D u r a b l e Goods i n T a n z a n i a R u r a l H o u s e h o l d s a n d Some I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r R u r a l

I n d u s t r y " , ERB P a p e r 7 0 . 1 , Univ o f DSM, q u o t e d i n M c l l e r , J . ( 1 9 7 7 ) : P r o m o t i o n o f R u r a l I m p l e m e n t M a n u f a c t u r e i n T a n z a n i a . U N I D O , V i e n n a .

T a b l e 1 . 1 . B a s i c R u r a l H o u s e h o l d T o o l I n v e n t o r y

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S o u r c e : The A g r i c u l t u r a l C e n s u s 1 9 7 1 / 7 2 , V o l . I : P e a s a n t F a r m i n g .

The s o - c a l l e d R e g i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t D i r e c t o r ( R D D ) s u r - v e y , made i n 1976 b y t h e S t u d y C o m m i t t e e o n Farm I m p l e - m e n t R e q u i r e m e n t s , l e s t i m a t e d t h e number o f b a s i c h a n d t o o l s p e r r u r a l f a m i l y t o b e 1 . 8 h o e s , 0 . 8 m a t c h e t s a n d 0 . 6 a x e s . T h e s e f i g u r e s a r e t o o l o w a n d u n r e l i a b l e , s i n c e t h e d a t a w e r e c o l l e c t e d b y s e n d i n g q u e s t i o n n a i r e s t o R e g i o n a l D i r e c t o r a t e s f o r c o m p l e t i o n a n d w e r e n o t c o l l e c t e d t h r o u g h a n a c t u a l r u r a l h o u s e h o l d s u r v e y . On t h e w h o l e , t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l C e n s u s f i g u r e s s u p p o r t o u r f i n d i n g s o n t h e b a s i c i n v e n t o r y o f t o o l s i n a c t u a l u s e , b a s e d o n s p o t - c h e c k r e c o r d i n g o f h o u s e h o l d t o o l i n v e n t o r i e s i n s e l e c t e d r e g i o n s .

I n a r e a s w h e r e o x - c u l t i v a t i o n i s common, t h e m a i n

i m p l e m e n t s u s e d a r e t h e s i n g l e - f u r r o w m o u l d b o a r d p l o u g h a n d l o c a l l y made s l e d g e s .

K i l i m o e s t i m a t e s t h a t t e n p e r c e n t o f T a n z a n i a ' s c u l t i - v a t e d a c r e a g e i s p l o u g h e d u s i n g o x e n , b a s e d on a n

a n n u a l l y p l o u g h e d a c r e a g e o f 10 a c r e s p e r p l o u g h . Our s t u d y f o u n d t h a t t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f p l o u g h s was v i r - t u a l l y u p t o c a p a c i t y , g i v i n g some 15- 20 a c r e s p l o u g h e d t w i c e . T h u s , t h e t o t a l a c r e a g e r a t e p e r p l o u g h w a s 20- 2 5 a c r e s i n a l l p l a c e s v i s i t e d . I t c a n t h u s b e a s s u m e d t h a t some 15- 20 p e r c e n t o f t h e c o u n t r y ' s c u l t i v a t e d

1 . R i p o t i y a k a m a t i y a u c h u n g u z i w a m a h i t a j i y a z a n a z a k i l i m o , J a n . 1 5 t h , 1 9 7 6 . Dar e s S a l a a m

a c r e a g e i s p l o u g h e d by oxen u s i n g a b o u t 1 8 0 , 0 0 0 p l o u g h s ; a n d t h i s p e r c e n t a g e i s i n c r e a s i n g f a i r l y r a p i d l y a t p r e s e n t t h r o u g h i n c r e a s e d s u p p l y o f t h e p l o u g h s from t h e Ubungo Farm Implements f a c t o r y (UFI ) and t h r o u g h more i n t e n s i v e u s e o f p l o u g h s .

O x - c a r t s a r e s t i l l o n l y p o s s e s s e d b y a f e w w e a l t h i e r h o u s e h o l d s b u t t h e r a t e o f a d o p t i o n h a s i n c r e a s e d

r a p i d l y s i n c e v i l l a g i z a t i o n , a n d t h e r e i s now a h i g h unmet demand f o r g o o d - q u a l i t y c a r t s .

D e s p i t e l i m i t e d s t o c k s o f i m p o r t e d h a r r o w s , c u l t i v a t o r s a n d r i d g e s a t c e n t r a l RTC s t o r e s o v e r r e c e n t y e a r s , t h e i r u s e i s r e s t r i c t e d t o v e r y few h o u s e h o l d s . How- e v e r , where s u c h i m p l e m e n t s h a v e b e e n made a v a i l a b l e t o f a r m e r s a n d p r o p e r l y d e m o n s t r a t e d ( I r i n g a , S h i n y a n g a ) , f a r m e r s h a v e s t a r t e d u s i n g them. T h e r e i s v i r t u a l l y no u s e o f animal- drawn p l a n t e r s and i r r i g a t i o n - r e l a t e d o x - e q u i p m e n t , a n d i n f a c t no s u c h e q u i p m e n t i s a v a i l a b - l e . A t t e m p t s h a v e r e c e n t l y b e e n made t o i n t r o d u c e a n i - mal- drawn s u g a r - c a n e c r u s h e r s a n d o i l p r e s s e r s . A more d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f o x - c u l t i v a t i o n a n d animal- drawn e q u i p m e n t i s p r o v i d e d b e l o w .

1.2 Description of Common Factory-Made Hand Implements Used in Tanzania

T a b l e 1 . 2 l i s t s t h e most common t y p e s o f f a c t o r y - m a d e f a r m i m p l e m e n t s ( i m p o r t e d o r d o m e s t i c a l l y m a n u f a c t u r e d by UFI) u s e d i n T a n z a n i a a t p r e s e n t . The i m p l e m e n t s a r e l i s t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t y p e , w e i g h t / s i z e , m a n u f a c t u r e r , c o u n t r y o f o r i g i n a n d r e c e n t r e t a i l p r i c e s ( e x . RTC).

The t a b l e shows t h a t UFI

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which i s t h e s o l e i m p o r t e r a n d u n t i l l a t e 1 9 8 2 t h e s o l e m a n u f a c t u r e r o f s i m p l e f a r m i m p l e m e n t s

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o n l y p r o d u c e s 3 , 2 1/2 a n d 2 l b s R/E h o e s i n a d d i t i o n t o o x - p l o u g h s , p l o u g h s h a r e s a n d g r a s s s l a s h e r s . A l l o t h e r i m p l e m e n t s a r e i m p o r t e d from t h e U . K . , C h i n a a n d I n d i a .

C o n s i g n m e n t s o f R / E h o e s , o x - p l o u g h s , c u l t i v a t o r s and r i d g e r s h a v e a l s o b e e n i m p o r t e d f r o m Zambia a n d

Zimbabwe. The 30,000 h o e s o r d e r e d from Zambia ( N o r t h - l a n d E n g i n e e r i n g / N d o l a ) were p r e s s - p l a t e welded h o e s of p o o r q u a l i t y . Of t h e s e , 6 , 0 0 0 h o e s s e n t t o RTC's c o u l d

n o t b e s o l d a n d UFI i n 1983 r e m a i n e d w i t h a s t o c k o f 2 4 , 0 0 0 h o e s which t h e y were n o t p r e p a r e d t o s e l l i n t h e m a r k e t d u e t o t h e i r poor q u a l i t y . Only 500 p l o u g h s had b e e n r e c e i v e d a n d d i s t r i b u t e d by December 1983.

Maximum r e t a i l p r i c e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e o f i m p o r t e d t o o l s , were r a i s e d d r a s t i c a l l y on 29 August 1 9 8 3 , an i n - c r e a s e w e l l a b o v e t h e o f f i c i a l r a t e o f i n f l a t i o n , which was a b o u t 35 p e r c e n t d u r i n g t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s .

A d e s c r i p t i o n as w e l l a s i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f t h e m o s t common o f t h e a b o v e l i s t o f f a c t o r y - m a d e f a r m imple- m e n t s i s g i v e n b e l o w ( i n d i g e n o u s - o r b l a c k s m i t h - m a d e t o o l s a r e d e a l t w i t h i n C h a p t e r 4 ) . The d e s c r i p t i o n i n - c l u d e s b r i e f t e c h n i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n on p r o d u c t i o n t e c h - n i q u e s u s e d , m a t e r i a l a n d q u a l i t y o f i m p l e m e n t s , where t h e y a r e u s e d i n T a n z a n i a a n d f o r what t a s k s , consumer a n d c u l t u r a l p r e f e r e n c e s , a n d p a r a l l e l m a r k e t p r i c e s where t h i s a p p l i e s . The u s a g e p a t t e r n o f f a r m i m p l e - m e n t s , w i t h r e s p e c t t o how v a r i a t i o n s i n t o o l s u s e and h o u s e h o l d t o o l i n v e n t o r i e s a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e n a t u r e o f f a r m i n g s y s t e m s , h o u s e h o l d l a b o u r f o r c e c o m p o s i t i o n , s u p p l y o f b l a c k s m i t h - m a d e t o o l s , e t c . , h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d i n o r i g i n a l r e p o r t t o S I D A a n d w i l l n o t b e i n c l u d e d i n t h i s r e s e a r c h r e p o r t .