Does more target language use by the teacher encourage more target language use by the students?

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Estetisk-Filosofiska Fakulteten

Therése Frohm

Does more target language use by the teacher encourage more target

language use by the students?

Engelska C-uppsats

Datum/Termin: 09-05-25/VT-09 Handledare: Michael Wherrity Examinator: Moira Linnarud

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Abstract

Titel: Does more target language use by the teacher encourage more target language use by the students?

Författare: Frohm, Therése

Engelska C, 2009

Antal sidor: 26

Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate how the target language is used in the foreign language classroom and how different teachers combine the target language and the first language in their teaching. The study was conducted in three different Swedish schools at different levels: one at the intermediate level;

one at the secondary level; and two at the upper secondary level. The teachers were observed during class and interviewed. In addition to this, the students answered a questionnaire about their own and their teacher’s use of the target language.

The results showed that the teachers used the target language as the most common language in their teaching, although the first language was also used.

The intermediate teacher used the first language when she did not have enough language herself, when she explained grammar or went through important information. The secondary teacher used the first language when she explained grammar as well as the upper secondary teacher, who also used the first language when she had important information. The results showed that the teacher’s choice of language in the classroom had an impact on the students since more teacher target language use encouraged more student target language use in the classroom, and that it is important to start the lesson in the target language to encourage more target language use by the students. Both the teachers and the students thought that the target language was important during language teaching.

Nyckelord: Second language teaching, Second language acquisition, Second language use

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Table of contents

1. Introduction ... 1

2. Background ... 1

2.1 Teaching methods ... 2

2.2 L2 teaching ... 3

2.3 Motivating the students to use the target language ... 4

2.4 When does the use of mother tongue occur?... 5

2.5 What impact has the first language use on the L2 learning?... 6

3. Methods ... 7

3.1 Interviews with teachers ... 7

3.2 Classroom observations ... 7

3.3 Questionnaire... 8

4. Results and analysis... 8

4.1 Interviews with teachers ... 8

4.1.1 Interview with teacher 1 ... 8

4.2 Classroom observations ... 10

4.2.1 Observation of teacher 1... 10

4.2.2 Observation of teacher 2 ... 11

4.2.3 Observation of teacher 3 ... 11

4.3 Student questionnaires ... 12

4.3.1 Sixth grade questionnaire ... 12

4.3.2 Eighth grade questionnaire………..……… 13

4.3.3 Upper secondary school questionnaire, students in the first year……….…… 13

4.3.4 Upper secondary school questionnaire, students in the second year... 13

5. Discussion ... 14

6. Conclusion... 17

References…………..…………. 18

Appendix 1 – Teacher questionnaire……….. 19

Appendix 2 – Student questionnaire……….. 21

Appendix 3 – Teacher questionnaire in Swedish……… 23

Appendix 4 – Student questionnaire in Swedish……… 25

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1. Introduction and aim

A language teacher has the task of teaching the students to become L2 (second language) users which means that the students have to learn to speak, listen, read and write in the L2. But what does it mean to become a second language user? Is it the same as being able to speak like a native speaker? According to Vivian Cook (2008:171) a L2 user will never be mistaken for a native speaker since the L2 never will be the native language regardless of how long or how well one speaks the L2. In this paper, I will examine how different language teachers at different levels use the L2 (second language), in this case English, in their teaching. Do they use the L2 throughout the lessons or do they also use the L1, in this case Swedish? If they use the L1, when do they use it and why do they choose to use it during a L2 class? This will be investigated through interviews with different teachers and by classroom observations. A questionnaire will also be used as a means to learn how students think about L2 use and their opinion about the use of the L1 in L2 teaching. Sometimes it seems as if teachers have preconceived ideas of how students would react to the idea of lessons given only in the L2. The reason I have chosen to write about the L2 use is because I am studying to become a language teacher and have thoughts concerning the usage of the L2. I like the idea of using the L2 throughout the class, regardless of whether I am teaching grammar or introducing something new. For that reason I am interested in teachers’ opinions about the use of the L2. Another reason is that little research has been conducted on how much the L2 is used in the L2 classrooms (Duff & Polio, 1990). I think it is important to examine the pros and cons of this issue.

The aim of this essay is to discuss arguments for and against the use of the L2 in class. Perhaps this study may help future L2 teachers in their teaching. My hypothesis is that teachers choose to use the L1 during grammar lessons and when giving explanations where the students’ knowledge of the L2 is limited. I also believe that the use of the L1 is a means of simplifying the communication between teacher and students and that the more teacher L2 use in the classroom encourages more students L2 use.

2. Background

When we learn our native language, we are usually surrounded by it. Even if there is no agreement as to how we learn languages, we know that this language environment will contribute to our acquiring the native language. The ideal would be to have L2 learners acquire the L2 in the same way as children acquire their first language, without using another

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language (Cook, 2008:181). Accordingly, they would not have any other language to fall back on. Obviously, this is not a feasible scenario since all the L2 learners have learnt a first language and furthermore, they all usually have the same first language in common.

Both L1 (first language) learners and L2 learners need exposure to the language to learn it (Macaro, 1997). However, there are great differences between the conditions of exposure to the L1 and the L2, which means that the exposure to the L2 is usually limited to the L2 classrooms (Duff & Polio, 1990:154, Ericsson & Jacobsson 2004:54). Therefore the use of the L2 in the classroom becomes even more important since this could well be the only time students are exposed to it. Even if the use of English continues to increase in Sweden, students’ opportunity to use the L2 will still, probably, be mostly limited to the classroom.

2.1 Teaching methods

In this section, I will discuss various approaches to L2 teaching since there are different opinions concerning how languages are learnt. From a behaviouristic perspective, language is learnt through repetition where the learner hears and repeats language patterns. Since the learning occurs through repetition, errors should be corrected to prevent them from becoming fossilized (Tholin, 1992:10). This behaviouristic view is not shared by Corder (1981:10). He does not think that one learns language through repetition, but rather, through one’s own assumptions about the language. He claims that learners form their own hypotheses about the language and try them out in order to confirm them. If these hypotheses do not correspond to the actual rule, they can be revised. In this case teacher correction is not crucial for learners’

further understanding of the language, since they will be corrected by the learners themselves.

Krashen’s (1991:409) comprehension hypothesis, also called the input hypothesis, states that learners acquire language by understanding messages and that comprehensible input is necessary, and the affective filter has to be low. Moreover, according to Krashen (1991), the input (i) must contain material that the learner has not yet acquired, but is ready to acquire (i+1). A learner needs to be ‘open’ for the input. He/she must have a low affective filter, which means that the learner needs to be secure and comfortable in the group to be able to take in the input. If this is not the case, the learner will not be able to take in and acquire the input.

The audio-lingual method was a method widely used in the 1950’s and 60’s and is still used today. The audio-lingual method is based on the structuralist view of language, accordingly, a language is a system consisting of different elements such as phonological units (phonemes), grammatical units (phrases, clauses, and sentences), grammatical

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operations (adding, shifting, joining or transforming elements) and lexical items (function words and structure words) (Orwig, 1999) and learning a language means that one has to master these elements and be able to form sentences correctly with different grammatical rules (Song & Andrews 2009). Moreover, the audio-lingual method assumes, like the behaviourists, that language is learnt through repetition and that errors should be corrected to prevent them from becoming fossilized. Another assumption is that in order to maximize language skills, the L2 should be presented orally first and only later in written form. The objectives of the audio-lingual method are for the learner to acquire accurate pronunciation and grammar, to have the ability to respond quickly and accurately in speech situations and to have sufficient knowledge of vocabulary to use with grammar patterns. Most commonly used activities within the audio-lingual method are dialogues and drills (Orwig, 1999).

Another approach to teaching languages is the communicative approach. This method, developed in Britain in the 1960’s, was partly in response to Chomsky’s criticism of structural theories of language. The basic assumption here is that language is a tool for communication. The semantic and communicative roles of language are more emphasized than the grammatical correctness, though this is also included. The objective of the communicative approach is for the learner to develop communicative skills (Orwig, 1999).

2.2 L2 teaching

According to Tholin’s students, the most important goal in L2 teaching is that the students learn to speak (Tholin, 1992:47). To be able to speak a language, one has to use it. A common belief in language teaching is that one’s competence in the L2 is achieved in a rich L2 environment provided by the teacher. The learners have to hear and be exposed to the language to learn it. Therefore the teacher should use the L2 not only to give instructions and to drill grammar, but in all communication, including when the teacher disciplines the students (Duff & Polio, 1990:154).

The opportunities to learn the L2 will most certainly increase in classrooms where the teacher uses the L2 most of the time, and the understanding of the L2 is facilitated by using body language, translations of occasional words or expressions, rephrases, or pictures and drawings on the blackboard (Ericsson & Jacobsson 2004:53). Using the L2 continuously should result in the increased use of the L2 by the students as well. When students find that there are different ways of explaining words or expressions without using the L1, L2 use may be further facilitated.

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There are different types of language use in the L2 classroom, since teachers and students use the L2 in a “make-believe world” (Macaro, 1997:95). The L2 classroom is an instructional setting and differs from other settings where languages can be taught in a non- instructional manner, like in an English speaking country (Lightbown & Spada, 2006). In a L2 classroom, L2 use is not always a means to genuine communication; it is more a means of creating an environment where the L2 is used in a make-believe world. McTear (in Ellis, 1994:577) identifies four types of language use: 1) Mechanical. No exchange of meaning is involved and the language is only used to learn specific rules or phrases in mechanical drills, not as a means for genuine communication. The answer is already stated and the only reason for asking the question is to practice a particular language area, as for example, when practicing how to introduce oneself: My name is.., I am ... years old; 2) Meaningful. The main focus is still on the form, but some new information from the speaker is given; 3) Pseudo- communicative. The focus is both on form and meaning, but is not as natural and spontaneous as real communication; 4) Real communication. This consists of spontaneous speech like opinions, jokes, classroom management. Real communication is rare in the L2 classroom since the classroom setting is not a genuine one, but Tholin (1992:48) thinks that the communication between teacher and students becomes more meaningful if the teacher asks questions he/she is genuinely interested in. This way the teacher can prepare the students for using the L2 outside the classroom where they must be able to hear the question, translate the meaning into something comprehensible and then produce an answer.

2.3 Motivating the students to use the target language

One important reason for teachers to use the L2 in the classroom is to encourage them to use the L2 even when they are talking among themselves. In a classroom where the teacher uses the L2 throughout, the lesson will result in more L2 use for the students (Ericsson &

Jacobsson 2004:53). Another reason is to maximize the amount of time the students hear the L2. Even though spoken English is available through the media, the classroom may be the only opportunity for students to use the language for themselves. A miracle medicine to make the students start to talk English to each other in groups does not exist (Tholin 1992:132).

There are elements that can facilitate L2 use for the students in the classroom environment. The environment in the classroom and the class composition are determining factors. If the students feel secure in the group and know that they will not be judged, even if they make mistakes or pronounce incorrectly, it is easier for the teacher to motivate them to use the L2 (Ericsson & Jacobsson 2004:53).

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According to Tholin (1992:132) a teacher that manages to get the students to use the L2 at the beginning of the class may make it easier for the students to continue using the L2 during the whole class. The first minutes are ‘crucial’ and it is in those first minutes when the teacher has to inspire the students to use the L2. Furthermore, the teacher has to be consistent in his/her own use of the L2 in order to motivate the students to also use it. Cook (2008:181) observes that the teacher’s language in the classroom is the primary model and if the teacher uses the first language, it may make it even more difficult for the students to use the L2. This has been confirmed in a study by Zilm (in Tornberg 2005:45) who reported that teachers’ use of the L2 correlated positively with increased student use.

At the same time, teachers must ask themselves what kind of L2 use they are expecting. Often, when students are working in groups there is constant communication between them (Tholin 1992:48). If this communication is mostly performed in the L2, whether the subjects are relevant or not, the students will have used the L2 and produced genuine communication.

2.4 When does the use of L1 occur?

In a study conducted by Franklin (in Cook, 2008:181) 90 per cent of the teachers interviewed thought that teaching in the L2 was important. However, based on my own experience, the use of the first language does occur during L2 teaching. Teachers sometimes prefer to use the students’ first language to explain and organize a task in order to facilitate the understanding of the information. By doing this, however, they deprive the students of valuable input in the L2 (Duff & Polio, 1990:154). Traditionally, teachers that have used the grammar-translation academic style have always received bad press since they have used L1 in their teaching. That is the reason why teachers that are using the other methods (section 2.1) have insisted that the less the first language is used in the classroom, the better the teaching (Cook, 2008:180).

Macaro (1997) has observed several language teachers and has done studies on when and why teachers tend to use the first language. Macaro (1997:77) found four reasons that most commonly led to use of the first language. Firstly, it was used to explain grammar.

Franklin (in Cook 2008:182) found that teaching grammar was conducted in the first language by 80 per cent of teachers in her study. Explaining grammar in a L2 requires that both teachers and students know the grammatical terms. Two teachers in a study conducted by Duff & Polio (1990:163) said that they did not feel comfortable using the L2 when teaching grammar since the students did not always know the grammatical term in the L2. If the students do not know the terms, the learning process will not take place. Tholin (1992:133)

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has a simple solution which is to translate the grammatical terms on the blackboard in order to avoid the L1 use during the grammar classes. Secondly, the L1 was frequently used when disciplining students. Tholin (1992:133) however, believes that teachers can manage to discipline students in the L2. Even though the students do not understand everything that is said, Tholin (1992) considers that students understand the message when the teacher is truly upset. Thirdly, the first language was used when giving instructions. To give instructions in the second language was seen as something that could be done, but with difficulty (Macaro 1997:77). Moreover, trying to explain a complicated task in the L2 may consume the entire lesson. Consequently, the students might not have time to actually do the exercises (Macaro 1997:83). In a structure-based instructional setting, teachers often use the first language or simplify the L2 to ensure comprehension by the students (Lightbown & Spada 2006:112).

Lastly, the first language was used when teaching the culture of the country.

2.5 What impact has first language use on L2 learning?

Even though most teachers agree that the first language should be avoided during L2 teaching, Cook (2008:171) reminds us that L2 learners are not the same as native speakers. Teachers in the L2 classrooms are teaching the students to become L2 users; not first language users. If teachers want students to become efficient L2 users, instead of imitations of native speakers, textbooks should include examples of successful L2 users for students to identify with.

Letting the students identify with L2 users may help them feel comfortable while speaking English.

Krashen’s comprehension hypothesis (section 2.1) does not forbid first language use in the L2 classroom, but it provides guidelines. The first language can be used as a means for providing quick explanations and to make the L2 input more comprehensible. Krashen (2006:9) explains that teachers misuse the first language when they provide so much information in it that there is no reason to continue a discussion in the L2. In this case the language use interferes with L2 teaching and L2 acquisition. Furthermore, when the teacher is using the L2 but provides too many short explanations and translations in the L1, the first language will interfere with the message in the L2 and make it more difficult to understand.

Nevertheless, in discussions in the L2 classroom quick translations of word might be necessary and might also make the entire discussion more comprehensible, especially for students who are having difficulties understanding the context of the discussion (Krashen 2006:9).

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3. Methods

My investigation was carried out in three different schools and included students from four levels: the sixth grade (11-12 years old), the eighth grade (14-15 years old) and two levels in the upper secondary school; the first (16 years old) and the second (17 years old). The reason why I chose two different levels at the upper secondary school was because the same teacher teaches both groups, and I wanted to investigate if she changed her L2 use depending on the group. Teacher 1 is an intermediate level teacher and teaches the sixth grade. Her 20 students are between 11-12 years old. Teacher 2 is a teacher in the secondary school and teaches students in the eighth grade. This group consisted of 21 students between the ages of 14 and 15. Teacher 3 teaches two different groups at two different levels in the upper secondary school. The first group consisted of 20 students between the ages of 16 and 17 who were in the first year. The other group consisted of 22 students between the ages of 17 and 18 who were in the second year. In total, approximately 80 students (four different groups) and three teachers participated in my study and all of them have the same L1 in common. All three schools are situated in a middle-sized town in central Sweden. For my study I have used teacher interviews, classroom observations and student questionnaires. Since this is a qualitative, not a quantitative study, I have used more than one method for collecting data in order to get more reliable results.

3.1 Interviews with teachers

Since I wanted to investigate what opinions different teachers at different levels had about the L2 use I wanted to interview teachers. I also thought it would be easier to meet people for interviews than to just send a questionnaire to them since it is easier to have a discussion this way and to add more questions if necessary. The questions for the teachers were the same, regardless of what level they taught, and are attached as an appendix (see appendix 1). I have taken some questions from an essay written by Ingela Bolander (2008).

3.2 Classroom observations

Sometimes it may be difficult to be truly aware of when and why one uses the L2 or the first language during classes and that is the reason why I also chose to observe the teachers when teaching. For this I asked the teachers to give a lesson containing as many areas as possible (grammar, group work, instructions) in order to be able to observe when they were using the L2 and when they chose to use the first language. One lesson for each of the four groups was

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observed. During my investigation, I took notes instead of recording the lessons, since the aim was to observe when the teacher used the L2 and when she used the L1. Notes were also easier since recording needs permission from parents.

3.3 Questionnaire

When the classroom observation was completed the students were asked to complete a questionnaire containing eight questions about their language use in the classroom, their teacher’s language use and their opinions about L2 use in the classroom. The reason for the questionnaire was to hear students’ opinion about the L2 use during lessons, and to obtain more information about the teacher’s use of it (since the teacher might be aware of her L2 use when I observe her). The questionnaire is attached as an appendix (see appendix 2). Here I have also used some questions from Ingela Bolander (2008).

4. Results and analysis

This section contains the results of my investigation from the four different groups.

4.1 Interviews with the teachers

Here I will present the results from the interviews with three different teachers. The aim is not to compare different teachers, but rather, to discuss and investigate what opinions different teachers have about L2 use. I have chosen to discuss the teachers in separate sections for clarity.

4.1.1 Interview with teacher 1

Teacher 1 explained that she uses mostly English during her lessons. Even though she is not specialized in teaching English and she has not had experience at using English in any other country than Sweden, she wants her students to hear as much English as possible during her lessons. Teacher 1 sees it as her task to give the students encouragement and enough self- confidence to use the L2 themselves, regardless if errors sometimes occur. She argues that the students will learn grammar and rules in the secondary school, and that she does not want to inhibit them, but rather, make them feel comfortable in using the L2. Moreover, she has been told by teachers at the secondary school that students are afraid to use the L2, often because they are inhibited by all the grammar in the intermediate level.

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Teacher 1 uses the L1 during grammar explanations and when she explains difficult tasks or when she goes through exams or homework. The reason she gave for using the L1 to explain grammar was that she did not know the grammatical terms in the L2. She uses the L1 for difficult explanations and instructions regarding exams and homework to be sure that all the students understand the information.

She thinks that although students want to use as much English as possible during the lessons, they want to have the option of using the L1 in situations when they cannot make themselves understood in the L2. She also thinks that students want their teacher to use the L2 as much as possible to make the lesson more authentic and to expose them to the language as much as possible.

Teacher 2 tries to use as much English as possible and always starts her lessons in the L2 to inspire the students to use the L2 as well as expose them to it.

She uses the L1 when she explains grammar and has always received good grammar results from the students by doing this. She wants all the students to have the same opportunity to learn grammar, regardless of their level. She also believes that it is easier for the students to stay focused during grammar lessons if they hear it in their L1.

Teacher 2 believes that students want to use the L2 more during their lessons but become frustrated that they do not have sufficient vocabulary or cannot pronounce correctly.

Then it becomes easier for them to use the L1 and this affects the whole class. She also thinks that students want to hear the L2 as much as possible during the lesson, even though students often complain at first that they do not understand her when she uses the L2. If she is consistent in her use and simplifies her language, the students will get used to hearing the L2 and appreciate to hear it. She thinks that the students prefer grammar explanations as well as important information about exams in their L1 in order to be sure that they understand everything. Teacher 2 wants her students in the eighth grade to acquire enough grammar to be able to use the L2 correctly, and, at the same time, feel secure when using it.

Teacher 3 explained during the interview that she uses mostly English during her lessons but switches to the L1 when she has grammar introductions. The reason for this is to make sure that all the students understand the grammar. Moreover, she explained that she was told at the university when she studied in the teacher-training program that grammar is impossible to

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explain in the L2. Another reason for using the L1 during grammar introductions is because some grammar teaching methods require both languages to be comprehensible. For example, when she has inductive grammar lessons, the lesson and introduction starts in English and then some explanations at the end occur in Swedish. Her L2 use also differs depending on the level of the students. For example, when she teaches students in the third year (not observed in my study) all parts of the lesson are in the L2, even the grammar introductions. Some groups become more motivated by hearing the L2 than others, and this is something she takes into account when she uses the L2.

Teacher 3 thinks that her students want to use Swedish in situations where they cannot make themselves understood in the L2 and that they want to have their lessons in the L2 as much as possible. She believes that the students want her to use the L1 when she explains grammar, when she introduces tasks, and when she goes through exams and important information. Her aim with her teaching is to expose the students to as much L2 as possible, and to encourage them to use it.

4.2 Classroom observations

In addition to the interviews with the teachers I also observed the same teachers when they taught their classes. Since it may sometimes be difficult for a teacher to be aware of precisely when s/he uses the L2, I wanted to observe and compare the interviews with the observations.

I observed each teacher during one class, except Teacher 3 who had two lessons, one with each of the two different groups. I will present the observations in separate sections as above.

4.2.1 Observation of teacher 1

Teacher 1 started her lesson in the L2 and explained why I was there and the plan for the day’s lesson. She used the L2 when she talked about the previous week’s assignment and had a discussion with the students about it. She asked questions in the L2 and every student that answered her used the L2 as well. When one part of the task reminded the teacher of something, she started to talk about this in the L2, but switched into the L1 when it became too complicated. She explained afterwards that in such cases she tries to use the L2 as much as possible, but sometimes her lack of knowledge of the L2 prevents her from using it.

Another reason for switching to the L1 was that it speeded up the communication of important information. When she started to use the L1, the students used it as well when they wanted to reflect on something she had said or if they had had a similar experience. When she switched back into the L2, the students did the same.

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After the introduction and the discussion the students worked with the puppets for their puppet theatre. The discussions between the students were in the L1 when they talked about the theatre or had opinions about it. They used the L2 when they practiced their theatre and helped each other with the pronunciation.

Teacher 2 started her lesson in the L1 when she did the attendance check. She switched to the L2 and introduced me and I explained why I was there. She continued to use the L2 as soon as the “lesson” started. She used the L2 to talk about the day’s assignment and to introduce the grammar she had planned for the day. She and the students talked about the assignment that contained the new grammar, and the majority of the students tried to use the L2. When the teacher started to explain the grammar, by using difficult expressions and explanations, she switched back to the L1. She commented on this afterwards and explained that many of the students find it difficult to understand grammar explanations in the L2 and she wants every student to have the same opportunity to understand. Afterwards some of the students worked with their books and the others worked with a travel-assignment. The discussions between the students were in the L1, except when the teacher asked them to use the L2. The language switched again when the students had trouble finding words in the L2. The students asked their teacher mostly in the L1 but questions in the L2 did occur. Whatever the case, the teacher answered in the L2. After the introduction and grammar explanation, the teacher spoke entirely in the L2.

Teacher 3 had two different classes at two different levels. The first class was in the second year. The teacher started the lesson in the L2 and asked the students about their weekend.

Then she let me introduce myself. She continued to present the oral task in the L2 and, even though the questions from the students were in the L1, she answered them in the L2. The students did the oral task in the L2 but all other communication between them was in the L1, except questions concerning the task. This task was conducted in small groups. Several students arrived late to class and the teacher explained the task in the L2 to them. When the students had finished the task, the teacher explained the differences between formal and informal language to prepare them for the national test in English. Teacher 3 used the L2 when she introduced and explained the differences. When a student did not understand a

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word, she asked the other students to explain it in the L2 to the class. The entire lesson was performed in the L2 by the teacher, and the majority of the class tried to use it as well.

The second class, in which the students were one or two years younger than those in the first class, was in the first year. The teacher started her lesson in the L2. When the students asked questions in the L1, they received answers in the L2. The communication between students during the introduction was in the L1. The first task was to “Retell your article” in small groups. The teacher reminded the students that this was an oral task and asked them to use the L2. Group 1 started to retell their articles in the L2 and when they could not find a particular word, they asked each other in the L1. Communication about other subjects than the task was in the L1. The students switched back to the L2 when the teacher commented on this. One student in group 2 started speaking in the L2 with the teacher, but when he did not find the word he wanted, he continued the discussion in the L1. Group 3 asked the teacher questions in the L1 and continued the discussion in the L1 even after the teacher asked them to use the L2. The teacher used the L2 throughout the lesson, and all the groups used mostly the L1. They switched to the L2 when the teacher asked them to use it, except group 3, which used the L1 during the entire lesson.

4.3 Student questionnaires

I also used a questionnaire because I wanted to hear student opinions about the L2 use in the classroom; what they thought about using the L2; and their opinions about their teacher’s use of it. In addition the questionnaire enabled me to obtain more information about the teacher’s use of the L2.

4.3.1 Sixth grade questionnaire

16 students (65 %) said that they used mostly the L2 during the lessons, but this could not be confirmed from the observation which showed me that the majority of the students used the L1. To the question concerning which language the teacher preferred them to use during the lesson, 11 students (55 %) answered that she prefers L2 use during the lesson, but that the L1 could be used as a complement. 13 students (65 %) were satisfied with how they used both Swedish and English during classes, although 7 students (35 %) wanted their teacher to encourage them more to use the L2 during lessons. All the students thought that L2 use was important during the lesson, but that grammar, information about exams and clarifications should be conducted in the L1. 2 students (10 %) had the opinion that hearing everything in the L2 could be difficult.

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4.3.2 Eighth grade questionnaire

The questionnaires for the eighth grade showed me that the majority of the students (70 %) mostly used the L1 during their lessons. The students were agreed that their teacher wanted them to use as much L2 as possible. To the question what they thought about their language use in the classroom, 12 students (55 %) answered that they liked to use both languages during the lessons, 5 students (25 %) wanted more encouragement from the teacher to use the L2, and 4 students (20 %) wanted to use more L1 during the lessons. The students agreed that their teacher only used the L2 during their lessons, even though I noticed that she used the L1 to check attendance and during grammar introductions. This was also confirmed in the next answers where the students said that the teacher used the L1 when she explained grammar.

Perhaps they did not fully understand how to interpret the question about the teacher’s language use. 13 students (60 %) thought that it was important that the teacher use the L2 during the lessons. The same number of students thought that it was important to hear as much L2 as possible, even though 5 students (25 %) wanted more L1 use from the teacher.

4.3.3 Upper secondary school questionnaire, students in the first year.

12 students (60 %) in the first year answered that they mostly used the L1 during the lessons.

7 students (35 %) answered that they used the same amount of L2 as L1 and 1 student (5 %) said that he/she mostly used the L2. 16 students (80 %) said that their teacher wanted them to use the L2 as much as possible during lesson. 4 students (20 %) answered that this was preferable, but that the L1 should be allowed as a complement. 12 students (60 %) said that they were satisfied as to how and when they used English and Swedish during the lessons, although 8 students (40 %) wanted more encouragement from the teacher to use the L2. This is interesting since I found that the teacher encouraged the students to use the L2 every time she heard them talk in the L1 during my observation. The students agreed that their teacher used mostly the L2 during her lessons, but that the L1 did occur when she explained grammar and informed them about important information. 15 students (75 %) thought that L2 use was important in the L2 classroom and they were satisfied with the amount of time the teacher used the L2 during lessons. At the same time 15 students (75 %) wanted grammar explanations in the L1.

4.3.4 Upper secondary school questionnaire, students in the second year.

13 students (60 %) in the second year answered that they mostly used the L2 during the lessons, but that the L1 did occur at times. 6 students (25 %) answered that they used the same

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amount of L2 as L1 during the lessons and the rest, 3 students (15 %), said that they used mostly Swedish, sometimes English during the lessons. 19 students (85 %) agreed that their teacher wanted them to use as much L2 as possible while 3 students (15 %) said that although the teacher wanted them to use the L2, the L1 use was allowed. 14 students (65 %) liked that they could use both English and Swedish during the lessons, although 8 students (35 %) wanted more encouragement from the teacher to use the L2. This I found interesting since during my observation, the teacher asked the students to use the L2 every time she heard them use the L1 in the classroom. Despite this, some students continued to use the L1 when she was out of hearing range. All the students were agreed that the teacher used mostly the L2 during lessons, but that she uses the L1 when she explains grammar and when she gives information about exams or other important information she does not want students to miss. According to the questionnaires, the students were satisfied with the L1 use in these situations. 18 students (80 %) had the opinion that L2 was important in the classroom even though a few, 4 students (20 %), were of the opinion that it could be difficult to understand everything when the teacher used the L2 all the time.

5. Discussion

The aim of this essay has been to discuss the pros and cons of L2 use during L2 classes. I have always liked the idea of having lessons entirely in the L2, but after reading Cook (1998) I have come to the conclusion that L1 support can be used as a means of simplifying the learning of a L2 and does not have to signify bad language teaching. Even though Cook (1998) has shown me another side of L1 use in the L2 classroom, I still am of the opinion that the L2 should be the most commonly used language. Tholin (1992) supports this view when he claims that the L2 can be used throughout the classes, sometimes with help of body language or translations on the blackboard.

My investigation supported my hypothesis that the L1 would normally be used during grammar introductions and when giving difficult explanations. My hypothesis that teachers use the L1 as a means of simplifying the communication between teacher and students was also supported by Teachers 1 and 2, although Teacher 3 used the L2 during her entire lessons. When her students needed word explanations, she used the students as help.

Since all the students had the same L1, the L1 could be used as a tool to improve the understanding of the L2. Even though Teacher 1 only had limited experience in English,

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she was convinced that hearing the L2 was important and necessary for the students’ further understanding of it. Her goal with her teaching was to encourage the students to use the L2 even though errors could occur, and to convey the message that errors did not matter as long as the students tried. She used the L1 when she explained grammar since she did not have sufficient vocabulary in the L2. The students in the sixth grade were influenced by Teacher 1 and tried to use the L2 as long as she used it, but changed to the L1 when she did. None of the students continued the conversation or the discussion in the L2 when Teacher 1 switched to the L1, which could mean that her language was the primary model as Cook (2008) mentioned in his study (2008:181).

I agree with Tholin (1998) that it is important to use the L2 during the first minutes to encourage the students to use it since Teacher 2, although she tried to use the L2 as much as possible, spent her first minutes speaking in Swedish, which resulted in fewer students who tried to use the L2 during the lesson, even when she started to use it. I did not observe as much interaction in the L2 between the students in the secondary school, as I observed in the sixth grade, except when the teacher asked them to use it. This is in line with Cook’s (2008) view that the teacher’s language influences the students.

I did not observe any L1 use by Teacher 3 during her two lessons. She used the L2 even when she introduced and explained the differences between formal and informal language. When a student did not understand a word, she asked the other students to explain it in the L2 to the class. In this way, she never encouraged the students to use the L1. Rather, she simply showed them ways of explaining word meanings in the L2. Teacher 3 said that she used the L1 during her teaching, but I did not observe this during her lessons. When the students asked her questions, they received the answer in the L2. Communication between the students was both in the L2 and the L1 at the upper secondary school. The first-year students said that they mostly used the L1 during their lessons and the students in the second year said that they mostly used the L2, but that the L1 did occur sometimes. This shows me that the teacher’s use of the L2 in the classroom is not sufficient; it is also necessary for the students to start to use the L2 by themselves.

I did not ask the teachers what teaching method they used, but during my observation it became clear to me that all the teachers used the communicative approach. The most important thing for all of them seemed to be for the students to be able to communicate in the L2 regardless of whether or not errors occurred. During their teaching, they all used real communication with the students. They asked them genuine questions they wanted answers to

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and had discussions in the L2. Despite the real communication method being rare in the L2 classroom, I found three different teachers at different levels using it.

All of these teachers tried to encourage their students to use the L2 during the lessons, mostly by using it themselves but also by reminding them to use it. When the teachers heard the L1 during the lessons, they simply asked the students to use the L2 instead.

Still, many students at all levels wanted their teacher to encourage them more. Perhaps reminders are not the best way to encourage the students, because they do not realize that their teachers are trying to encourage them every time they ask them to use the L2. Another reason could be that the students want to use the L2 but do not really know how to. Moreover, it may feel uncomfortable and silly since all the students have the same L1.

The results from the questionnaires from the students support my belief that students want to hear as much L2 as possible during their lessons. At the same time I do think that it takes time for the students to appreciate the teacher’s L2 use, as Teacher 2 said in her interview. Students might think it is difficult at the beginning to hear most of the information in the L2 but when they get used to it, they learn to appreciate it.

I argue that as much L2 as possible is necessary during language teaching, but that the L1 can be used as a tool to simplify the learning of the L2. I am not saying that the L1 should be the language mostly used during the lesson, but rather that it should not be seen, when used correctly, as something that interferes with L2 learning. However, I do think that too much L1 during the L2 teaching can have a negative effect on teaching the L2 and I agree with Krashen (2006) that teachers can overuse it. Instead of being a means to simplify the teaching of the L2, it can become a liability and interfere with the L2 acquisition.

My investigation and observations have convinced me that the more L2 use by the teacher in the classroom, the more L2 use by the students. Teacher 1’s lesson was almost entirely in the L2 and the students tried to use it as much as possible. Teacher 3’s students in the second year tried to use the L2 during her lesson and indicated on the questionnaires that this was the most commonly used language by the majority of them. L2 use makes the lesson more authentic. Moreover, grammar is not everything; one has to be exposed to the language as well and be able to use it to learn it. Since Teacher 2 started her lesson in the L1 she did not receive as much L2 use by the students as Teachers 1 and 3.

To sum up, my hypothesis was supported by my investigation that L1 support is used to teach grammar to simplify the communication between teachers and students. My results also suggest that the more the L2 is spoken in the classroom by the teacher, the more the students are encouraged to use it. Finally, L1 support should not be seen

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as something that necessarily interferes with the L2 teaching when it is used correctly; instead it be seen as a means of simplifying and facilitating L2 teaching.

6. Conclusion

My conclusion is that the teachers I observed want to use the L2 during the lesson as much as possible and that they are convinced that the more L2 use the better the teaching. It seems to be difficult to encourage the students to use the L2 during the lesson, even though they say that they want to use it. My observation showed me that there was more L2 use by the students in classes where the teacher started her lesson in it and used it frequently. Teachers 1 and 2 used the L1 during grammar instructions, but for different reasons; Teacher 1 did not have sufficient vocabulary to teach grammar in the L2, and Teacher 2 was convinced that more students would understand the grammar and stay focused if the information was conveyed in their L1. My conclusion is that the more L2 use by the teacher will motivate the students to use it and that the L1, when used correctly, can be used as a means of simplifying the learning of the L2.

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References

Bolander, I. 2008. Code-switching in the classroom-A sign of deficiency or a part of the learning process. Karlstad: Karlstad University Press.

Ellis, R. 1999. The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Ericsson, R & Jacobsson, A. 2004. Språk för livet. Falköping: Liber AB.

Krashen, S. 1991. “The input hypothesis: An update”. In Linguistics and language pedagogy:

the state of the art. (ed.) James E. Alatis. Georgetown: Georgetown University Press.

Krashen, S. 2006. Is first language use in the foreign language classroom good or bad? It depends. The international journal of foreign language teaching. 2 (1, 9).

[online] Available at

http://www.tprstories.com/ijflt/IJFLTWinter06.pdf (accessed April 14, 2009)

Lightbown, P & Spada, N. 2006. How languages are learned. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Macaro, E. 1997. Target language, collaborative learning and autonomy. Clevedon:

Multilingual Matters.

Orwig, J. Carol. 2003. Ways to approach language learning. [online] Available at

http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/LANGUAGELEARNING/WaysToApproachLanguageLear ning/contents.htm (accessed April 30, 2009)

Song, Y & Andrews S. 2009. The L1 in L2 learning-Teachers’ beliefs and practices. Munich:

Lincom GmbH.

Tholin, J. 1992. Att lära sig för att lära – engelska: Om elevplanerad undervisning.

Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell.

Tornberg, U. 2005. Språkdidaktik. Kristianstad: Kristianstads Boktryckeri AB.

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Appendix 1 – Teacher questionnaire

1. What language do you use during Your English lessons?

o Only Swedish

o Mostly Swedish, sometimes English o The same amount of Swedish as of English o Mostly English, sometimes Swedish o Only English

2. If you use both English and Swedish during Your lessons, when do You use Swedish?

o When explaining grammar

o When introducing today’s exercise o When explaining exams/homework o When You want silence in the classroom

o When You explain something incomprehensible to the students o Another situation:

____________________________________________________________________________

3. Why do you choose to use Swedish at these times?

____________________________________________________________________________

4. How important do you think it is to use English during the lesson? Why?

____________________________________________________________________________

5. According to you, what is the most important goal of the English lessons?

o That the students can use the language correctly o That the students have confident to use the language o That the students are exposed to the language

6. What opinion do you think the students have about the language use?

o They want to use more Swedish

o They want to use Swedish when they cannot make themselves understood in English o They want to use more English

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7. How do you think students want their lessons?

o They want their teacher to use more Swedish o They want certain explanations in Swedish

o They want their teacher to use English, but to use Swedish during introductions (For example grammar introductions, explanations of exams and homework)

o They want their teacher to use only English to make the lesson more authentic o They want their teacher to use English at first, but use Swedish to make the

information clearer

THANK YOU FOR YOUR PARTICIPATION!

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Appendix 2 – Student questionnaire

1. The language I use during English lessons is:

o Only Swedish

o Mostly Swedish, sometimes English o The same amount English as Swedish o Mostly English, sometimes Swedish o Only English

2. What opinion has your teacher about the language use?

o The teacher thinks we should use only English

o The teacher thinks we should use mostly English, but it is OK to use Swedish o It is OK to use Swedish

3. What do you think about the language use in the classroom?

o The teacher should encourage us to use English more o The teacher should allow us to use Swedish more o It fine as it is today

4. During the English lessons my teacher uses:

o Only Swedish

o Mostly Swedish, but sometimes English o Same amount English as Swedish o Mostly English, but sometimes Swedish o Only English

5. If your teacher uses both English and Swedish during lessons, when does he/she use Swedish?

o When he/she explains grammar

o When he/she explains today´s assignment o When he/she explains exams/homework

o When he/she explains something we do not understand in English o When he/she wants us to be quiet

o Another situation:

_____________________________________________________________________

6. If your teacher uses a lot of English during the lessons, what is Your opinion about this?

o It is very good since it is important to hear the language o It is good but it can be difficult as well

o It is not so good since You do not understand everything o It would be better if he/she used more Swedish

o Another opinion:

_____________________________________________________________________

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7. When would you like Your teacher to use Swedish during the lesson?

o When he/she explains grammar

o When he/she introduces today’s assignment o When he/she explains exams/homework

o When he/she explains something that is incomprehensible to us o I do not want my teacher to use Swedish during class

8. Do you have any other opinions about language use or language choice in the classroom?

____________________________________________________________________________

THANK YOU FOR YOUR PARTICIPATION!

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Appendix 3 – Teacher questionnaire in Swedish

1. Vilket språk använder Du under engelsklektionerna?

o Bara svenska

o Mest svenska, ibland engelska o Lika mycket engelska som svenska o Bara engelska

2. Om Du använder både svenska och engelska under lektionerna, när väljer DU att använda svenska?

o När Du förklarar grammatik o När Du går igenom dagens uppgift

o När Du förklarar någonting eleverna inte förstår o Annat tillfälle, ange vilket/vilka:

___________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________

3. Varför väljer Du att använda svenska vid dessa tillfällen?

___________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________

4. Hur viktigt tycker Du att det är att använda engelska under lektionen? Varför?

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________

5. Vad är viktigast för dig med engelskundervisningen?

o Att eleverna kan använda språket korrekt o Att eleverna vågar använda språket o Att eleverna hör språket

6. Hur tror Du eleverna ser på språkanvändandet?

o De vill använda svenska mer

o De vill använda svenska när de inte kan göra sig förstådda på engelska o De vill använda mer engelska

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7. Hur tror Du eleverna vill ha engelskundervisningen?

o De vill att läraren använder mer svenska

o De vill att vissa saker ska bli förklarat på svenska

o De vill arr läraren använder engelska, men svenska under genomgångar (Tex.

Grammatik, prov, nya uppgifter).

o De vill att läraren använder bara engelska så att det blir mer autentiskt

o Att läraren först använder sig av engelska, men förtydligar på svenska om det behövs

Tack för din medverkan!

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Appendix 4 – Student questionnaire in Swedish

1. Under engelsklektionerna använder jag:

O Bara svenska

O Mest svenska, ibland engelska O Lika mycket svenska som engelska O Mest engelska, ibland svenska

O Bara engelska

2. Vad tycker läraren om språkvalet?

O Tycker att vi ska använda bara engelska

O Vi ska helst använda engelska, men det är OK att använda svenska O Det är helt OK att använda svenska

3. Vad tycker du om språkanvändandet i klassrummet?

O Vi borde uppmanas att prata mer engelska O Vi borde få prata svenska oftare

O Det är bra som det är

4. Under engelsklektionerna använder min lärare:

O Bara svenska

O Mest svenska, ibland engelska O Lika mycket svenska som engelska O Mest engelska, ibland svenska

O Bara engelska

5. Om din lärare använder både svenska och engelska under lektionerna, när använder han/hon svenska? (Välj ett eller flera alternativ)

O När han/hon förklarar grammatik O När han/hon ger dagens uppgifter O När han/hon går igenom läxan

O När han/hon förklarar någonting vi inte förstår O När han/hon vill få ordning i klassrummet O Annat tillfälle, ange vilket/vilka:

__________________________________________________________________________________

________

6. Om din lärare använder mycket engelska under lektionen, vad tycker du om det?

O Det är mycket bra eftersom det är viktigt att höra språket.

O Det är bra men det kan vara lite jobbigt också.

O Det är mindre bra eftersom man inte förstår allt.

O Det skulle vara bättre med mer svenska i undervisningen.

O Annan åsikt:

__________________________________________________________________________________

_________________

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7. När skulle du vilja att din lärare använde sig av svenska under lektionen?

O När han/hon undervisar grammatik?

O När han/hon ger dagens uppgift?

O När han/hon går igenom läxor eller prov?

O När han/hon förklarar något vi inte förstår på engelska?

O Jag vill helst inte att läraren ska använda sig av svenska under lektionen.

8. Har du några övriga synpunkter på språkval eller språkanvändandet i klassrummet?

__________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________

Tack för din medverkan!