Learning organisations and the training of staff in management positions
A critical analysis of MSF Sweden and IFRC/the Swedish Red Cross
Author: Maria Hammargren Date: May, 2021
Supervisor: Dr. Lars Löfquist, Uppsala University
Department of Theology, Uppsala University Master thesis 15 credits
This thesis is submitted for obtaining the Master’s Degree in Humanitarian Action and Conflict. By submitting the thesis, the author certifies that the text is from her hand, does
Abstract
To be a humanitarian aid worker [HAW] in the field entails working in a demanding environment, and in this milieu, interpersonal conflicts [IC] sometimes arise which may risk the entire project. The ones responsible for dealing with ICs, should they occur, are HAWs in management positions employed by various humanitarian organisations [HO].
However, the hypothesis presented in this thesis is that HAWs are not always provided with the training necessary. This thesis aims to critically analyse how HO prepare and train HAWs, specifically in IC management, and whether two significant HOs, Médecins Sans Frontières [MSF] and the International Federation of the Red Cross [IFRC], can be described as learning organisations [LO] according to Senge’s (1990) five disciplines.
Through qualitative content analysis, involving interviews and literature reviews, the author seeks to identify training gaps, how MSF and IFRC can become LOs, and how these organisations would benefit from becoming LOs.
According to interview participants, the author found that more training would be beneficial, both for themselves and for MSF and IFRC, since many ICs go unmanaged.
Furthermore, it was identified that MSF and IFRC had taken a few steps in a direction that could lead to them becoming LOs. However, more can be done, and through Senge’s disciplines, MSF and IFRC would benefit from more involved HAWs, improved wellbeing of HAWs, and possibly lower staff turnover.
In conclusion, the hypothesis of this thesis was proven to some extent. HAWs do receive training; however, more training can be provided. The wellbeing of HAWs is also a vital problem that HOs have to consider to lower retention rates, encourage their HAWs to stay employed, and further encourage learning within the organisations.
Key words: Interpersonal conflict, learning organisations, Senge, Médecins sans Frontières, MSF, International Federation of the Red Cross, IFRC
Acknowledgments
A strange year filled with ambiguity and insecurities concerning my studies and what the world and the humanitarian field will look like once we see the end of the pandemic.
I could never have managed this without my partner, Jonathan. Thank you for all the encouragement and support.
Thank you to my family, who continue to support me in all my different endeavours and ideas.
I will be forever grateful to my five interviewees. Thank you for your time, your experiences, and your insights. Without you, this thesis would never have come together.
I also want to thank my fellow students. We found ways to support each other even though we never met. Hopefully, we will meet in the future!
A special thank you to Zoe Karlsson and Beatriz Bousquet.
Last but certainly not least, thank you to my supervisor Dr. Lars Löfquist. I was fortunate to have you as my supervisor, and I hope I made you proud in the end.
Abbreviations
HA Humanitarian action HAP Humanitarian aid project HAW Humanitarian aid worker HO Humanitarian organisations
ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross IFRC International Federation of the Red Cross IC Interpersonal conflict
IMPACT International Mobilisations and Preparation for Action LO Learning organisations
MSF Médecins Sans Frontières NS National societies
OCA Operational Centre Amsterdam OCG Operational Centre Geneva PPD Preparation Primary Departure SRC Swedish Red Cross
Table of Contents
Abstract ... i
Acknowledgments ... ii
Abbreviations ... iii
Chapter 1: Introduction ... 1
1.1. Research objective and questions ... 1
1.1.1. Research questions ... 2
1.2. Rationale for research and relevance to humanitarian action ... 2
1.3. Previous research ... 2
1.4. Research limitations ... 3
1.5. Thesis outline ... 4
Chapter 2: Methodology and research design ... 5
2.1. Methodology ... 5
2.2. Ethical considerations ... 6
2.3. Analysis method of collected data ... 6
2.4. Validity, reliability, and transferability ... 6
Chapter 3: Background ... 8
3.1. MSF ... 8
3.2. IFRC/SRC ... 9
Chapter 4: Key concepts ... 11
4.1. Learning organisations ... 11
4.2. Interpersonal conflict ... 15
Figure 1: A general framework ... 16
Chapter 5: Findings ... 19
5.1. Staff wellbeing ... 19
5.2. Staff turnover ... 21
5.3. Powerplay ... 23
5.4. Relevance of formal training ... 25
5.5. Importance of networking ... 27
Chapter 6: Discussion ... 29
6.1. MSF and IFRC/SRC as learning organisations ... 29
6.2. Interpersonal conflict management in MSF and IFRC/SRC ... 31
Chapter 7: Conclusion and recommendations ... 32
7.3. Future research ... 34
Bibliography ... 35
Appendices ... 40
Appendix 1 – Interview questions ... 40
Appendix 2 – Participant information ... 42
Chapter 1: Introduction
Since 1863, when the International Committee of the Red Cross [ICRC] was founded based on the idea of Henry Dunant, the once simple concept of bringing relief and aid to the civilian population in conflict areas has become increasingly more complicated.
Today, emergency interventions and humanitarian organisations [HO] have to work within an international framework and are all too often politically influenced (Katz et al., 2012). Humanitarian aid workers [HAWs] often work in an unstable environment, often with many responsibilities, and to feel prepared for different scenarios is essential. One may not only be in a context of conflict, but one might also need to handle conflicts that arise within the team. Since many HAWs find themselves unprepared for what is to come, this can negatively affect the individuals, the team, and the project as a whole (Bjerneld et al., 2004). Therefore, the training should be ever evolving, and the involvement of HAWs previously employed for humanitarian aid projects [HAPs] should be obvious.
However, it can be discussed whether this is happening or not, and this thesis will attempt to shine light on this issue and, if possible, provide recommendations for the future.
1.1. Research objective and questions
The overall aim of this thesis is to research and describe how Médecins Sans Frontières [MSF] and the International Federation of the Red Cross [IFRC]/Swedish Red Cross [SRC] prepare and train HAWs in management positions (hereinafter, only HAW) to handle different interpersonal conflict [IC] situations within the team in the field; how HAWs perceive their experiences during deployment; and whether the participants interviewed for this thesis personally found the preparations and the support to be satisfactory or if they would have preferred additional training and support. The aim is also to analyse whether MSF and IFRC/SRC can be seen as learning organisations [LO], a concept built upon a philosophy where individuals are encouraged to develop themselves continuously, and collective goals are essential (Senge, 1990, p.8). The two concepts, LO and IC, will be developed in Chapter 4. The hypothesis of this thesis is that if the training provided by MSF and IFRC/SRC do not include specific IC training, this may lead to HAWs being ill-equipped to manage ICs. This might lead to further conflicts causing the HAPs to suffer and the team to fail to fulfil their mandates. Furthermore, it may lead to increased stress and mental health issues amongst HAWs, contributing to the
1.1.1. Research questions
• What kind of training, specifically in ICs, do MSF and IFRC/SRC provide their HAWs with before they are given the responsibility to independently manage a HAP?
• In what way do HAWs in the field receive support from MSF and IFRC/SRC when handling ICs?
• How are the experiences of HAWs returning from the field assessed?
• In what way, and to what extent, are HAWs experiences considered when developing training sessions for future HAWs going to a HAP?
• How can the training be continuously developed when the staff turnover is so high?
• In what way can the work of IC management be improved within MSF and IFRC/SRC?
1.2. Rationale for research and relevance to humanitarian action
Through guest lecturers visiting throughout the Master of Humanitarian Action and Conflict, the author discovered a potential gap in the training and support provided to HAWs by MSF and IFRC/SRC. During research, an additional gap was discovered regarding the development of HOs and HAWs, and the author saw it necessary to address this further (Bjerneld et al., 2004; Bjerneld, 2009; Wijnmaalen, Heyse and Voordijk, 2016). The individuals deployed to help people should feel as prepared as possible and that MSF and IFRC/SRC support them as these individuals support others. To be a HAW in a HAP means a lot of responsibility, and if not ready, HAWs may suffer as well as the HOs. It is relevant and necessary to address these issues as MSF and IFRC/SRC are amongst the HOs working on the frontline. If they fail their own HAWs by not providing training, support, and encouraging development, how can it be expected that HAWs perform at their best, build trust with said HOs, and fulfil the mandates, conducts, and follow the principles?
1.3. Previous research
Recent years have seen increasing challenges and complexities in coordinating HAPs for HOs. This results in HAWs often working in more complicated contexts, making it
team-building skills. Unfortunately, not all HAWs are prepared for the field, and some HOs have unrealistic expectations, although the HOs sometimes are the reason for the lack of training and support. Consequently, this results in high staff turnover in some situations (Bjerneld, 2009; Dubey et al., 2016; Jachens, Houdmont and Thomas, 2018).
The popularity around the concept of LO peaked during the 1990s with books and articles being written, namely Senge’s The Fifth Discipline (Senge, 1990; Dumaine, 1994; Pedler and Burgoyne, 2017; Hansen, Jensen and Nguyen, 2020). LO was initially related to the private and corporate sector; however, awareness has increased amongst HOs and NGOs since they face new challenges with growing competition and less funding. NGOs and HOs now have to prove that they make good use of funds and continue development (Britton, 1998; Vathis, 2017).
Today an example of successful LOs can be Google and SAS. It does not matter if it is a for-profit or non-profit organisation; as long as they do not stay the same and continue learning and developing, they are successful (Sarder, 2016). LOs have an advantage in rapidly changing environments since they can respond to change with speed and effectiveness, suggesting that it would be valuable for HOs to become LOs (Smith and Young, 2009). Furthermore, LOs are more likely to retain employees and attract new ones when employees feel listened to and invested in. If no opportunities for continuous development exist, the risk is higher that employees leave (Sarder, 2016).
IC, the second concept, and its management can have implications on LO. Fisher and Ury (1981) argue that negotiation skills are essential as managers spend approximately one- fifth of their time managing different conflicts. Knowing how to handle conflicts effectively are beneficial for both individuals and organisations. Rahim (2001) discusses what management style is most useful for organisations. Problem solving can be argued to lead to the greatest satisfaction and result in increased organisational commitment.
1.4. Research limitations
As this thesis is written with limitations on time and word count, it focuses solely on two HOs, MSF and IFRC/SRC, and the training of HAWs. Furthermore, MSF did not provide
However, the interviews partly filled that information gap. The low number of interviewees and them being only Swedish individuals means that the conclusions drawn from this data are not representative of MSF and IFRC as a whole. Further limitations are that not all participants are active as of today. Although there are limitations, this thesis will hopefully provide an insight into the importance of training and the need for well-functioning HOs since they are key players in the survival of many around the world.
1.5. Thesis outline
This thesis is divided into seven chapters, not including the bibliography and appendices.
The first chapter, the introduction, presents the objectives of the thesis, relevance to humanitarian action [HA], limitations to the research, and previous research done in the field. The second chapter explains the methodology for the research and for the analysis.
In the third chapter, the history of MSF and IFRC/SRC and the training provided to HAWs, is briefly outlined. The fourth chapter looks at key concepts used for this thesis, LO, and IC. The fifth chapter presents the findings from the interviews, which will be the basis for the analysis provided in the following sixth chapter. The seventh and final chapter of the thesis is the conclusion. Based on findings from the research and the analysis, some recommendations are provided, and this chapter also includes suggestions for future research.
Chapter 2: Methodology and research design
The methodological decisions made throughout writing this thesis regarding the collection and analysis of data are outlined in this chapter. It begins with explaining the design of the research and the data collected, followed by the analysis method and the validity, reliability, and transferability of the data.
2.1. Methodology
This thesis is written with a qualitative research approach using primary data collected through individual interviews with HAWs employed, or previously employed, by MSF and IFRC/SRC, and secondary sources and data (Kumar, 2011, p.139). The approach was chosen as it is flexible, and using the interviewees' perspectives rather than very structured yes/no questions, lead to new insights and important ideas (Merriam and Tisdell, 2015).
Five individuals were contacted with a request via email for an interview at the beginning of the research. Three had the possibility and were willing to participate. A few weeks later, two additional interviewees agreed to participate. All five interviewees, hereinafter participants, are contacts established through the master's programme and the author's supervisor. The interviews, approximately 1 to 1,5 hour long, were conducted via Zoom, an e-meeting service, as a consequence of Covid-19.
The interviews included questions based on an interview guide (Appendix 1) written before the interviews. This thesis involves components of grounded theory since the interview guide evolved as a result of gained knowledge from primary and secondary sources (Bryant, 2017, pp.90-91). The interviews were semi-structured, providing the author with the flexibility to further investigate interesting discussions. In some instances, the interviews included different questions since the informants had different experiences, and the conversation changed focus due to this. However, all questions were based on the same topics (Kumar, 2011, pp.144, 162; Bryman, 2015, p.468). The interview began with questions about basic facts such as employing organisation, number of missions, year of employment, and countries where they had worked. Following were questions regarding their roles and responsibilities, the preparation before leaving for the field, if they had received any specific training concerning conflict management, and how they had handled different situations. Furthermore, the interviews covered questions whether the participants
that they lacked any knowledge, and whether or not evaluations were done after missions and how the result was used to develop future training. Finally, the participants were asked if they had thoughts on how MSF and IFRC/SRC can improve preparing HAWs before going to a HAP. Notes were taken during the interviews as well as recordings. The notes and recordings were transcribed verbatim and used for analysis. MSF and IFRC were chosen as the HOs to focus on since both organisations are significant HOs working in the field, possibly resulting in other smaller organisations following their lead regarding training and implementing structures.
2.2. Ethical considerations
Regarding informed consent, all participants in this thesis received written information about the interview and the thesis topic via email correspondence and verbally during the interviews (Merriam and Tisdell, 2015). The participants were informed about the aim of this thesis; that participation was voluntary; and that they could choose to withdraw their consent at any time. All participants were asked at the end of their interview if they preferred to be anonymous. Since most wished to be anonymous, personal details other than organisation, positions, years active, and number of missions were excluded in the thesis to protect them and their integrity.
2.3. Analysis method of collected data
A content analysis was adopted to explore and analyse the literature on training, material from MSF and IFRC/SRC, and the interviews. The interview material was analysed by identifying patterns and relationships of keywords, and their use by the participants, resulting in categories. Patterns identified was compared to concepts, themes, and theoretical assumptions. Furthermore, the conclusions will be drawn on empirical findings and how they relate to theoretical assumptions (Ibid).
2.4. Validity, reliability, and transferability
During the compilation of this thesis, research questions, interview questions, and the overall aim have continuously been reviewed and updated as part of the process to reach a result that can hopefully provide beneficial conclusions. A continuous update has been done to validate, as far as possible, the findings. Through peer-reviewed scientific articles of LO and IC, a high degree of reliability is arguably secured. The individuals selected
for the conducted interviews were approached since they are, or have been, employed by MSF or IFRC/SRC. However, since the interviews cannot represent the whole field, the data must be triangulated with material from said organisations and other secondary sources. Nor can the results be transferred to a significant international level since the findings depend on similarities to Swedish individuals and Sweden. The author of this thesis has manually analysed the data collected through interviews, meaning that the author categorised and analysed the answers.
Chapter 3: Background
The third chapter will look at MSF and IFRC/SRC and the training provided by them.
There are two sections, one section focusing on MSF and one section focusing on IFRC/SRC. Each section will briefly lay out the history and look at part of the training provided by them today.
3.1. MSF
MSF was founded in Paris in 1971. A group of doctors and journalists chose to establish a HO aiming to deliver emergency medicine rapidly, effectively, and completely impartial. In 1980, after years of partially fractured missions with unsupported staff, a transformation began towards a more professional organisation. MSF is strongly connected with témoignage – speaking out, since it has been one of the prominent organisations doing just that (MSF, no date).
MSF Operational Centre Amsterdam [OCA] state in their learning and development programme (2016, p.3) that the one primarily responsible for development is the individual him/herself. However, MSF OCA continues to state that focus will increasingly be towards coaching and mentoring to improve knowledge, behaviour, and skills. Furthermore, they add that the individuals working in headquarters and the field will have an increased responsibility to support and develop national staff. The aim of MSF as a modern, knowledge-based organisation requires MSF staff to work together with others to succeed. It also requires networking where staff can contribute with their experiences and draw from others through collaboration, feedback, sharing resources, innovations, and advice. Therefore, the focus will shift towards continuous learning, where individuals are given tools from where they can move onwards with their learning (Ibid). One course offered to MSF HAWs that they should participate in before, or just after, their first mission is the Preparation Primary Departure [PPD] involving MSF’s principles and values, basic people management skills, témoignage, and how to stay safe, secure, and with limited stress in the field (Ibid, p.9).
Additional training is available, however, clarity on what training is mandatory and what is voluntary is lacking. Career opportunities are also unclear, as was identified by MSF Operational Centre Geneva [OCG] (Ocg, 2015, p.3). MSF OCG identified an unclear
career path as a primary reason for high retention rates amongst staff since the lack of career perspectives and advancement has made it less interesting to work with MSF.
3.2. IFRC/SRC
The idea of the Red Cross came from Henry Dunant in 1859 when he faced the atrocities after the battle of Solferino, Italy. Dunant realised the need for national relief societies, and in 1863 the Red Cross was formed, which later became the ICRC. The IFRC was founded in 1919 after the need for closer cooperation between Red Cross societies was identified. There were five founding member societies: France, Britain, Italy, the United States, and Japan; today, there are 190 recognised national societies [NS] (History, no date). One of these NS is the SRC, founded in 1865. SRC has a noteworthy international presence and has contributed mainly to IFRC coordinated missions (Swedish Red Cross, 2019, p.5).
Before a HAW is deployed with the IFRC/SRC, there are several mandatory e-learning courses that the person is required to complete. The courses include, e.g., Stay Safe, Code of Conduct, Principles and Rules for Red Cross and Red Crescent Humanitarian Assistance. The IFRC/SRC also has the ambition to provide ‘International Mobilisations and Preparation for Action’ [IMPACT] training to prepare HAW for the field, improve their understanding of principles, mandates, and organisational culture. However, since seats per training are limited and the training only is offered twice per year (for SRC), there is no guarantee that one will receive the training before deployment, or at all (Ibid., p.9; Svenska Röda Korset, 2021).
Additionally, before deployment, one must attend a briefing to receive information about the objective of the mission, the risks and potential challenges. Another precondition is psychosocial support, where it is required to attend a meeting with a psychologist before and after the mission (Swedish Red Cross, 2019, p.10). Furthermore, psychosocial support is offered during the missions if the need exists. Upon return from a mission, one should share experiences through an ‘End of Mission Report’ and debriefing. Challenges, the mission as a whole, and experiences are the focus (Ibid, 2019, p.19).
The SRC’s ambition is to be a LO, meaning that it wishes for continuous learning and increased collective competence stretching over the organisation. Through an encouraging culture where reflection, ideas, and visions are allowed to flourish; leaders show the way; where individuals are believed to have the capacity to change and affect their future; where learning is a continuous and active process that can benefit from cooperation with others and through others experiences; and methods for learning are various, SRC looks to develop not only the individuals working within the organisation but also the organisation as a whole (Svenska Röda Korset, 2021a; Staff development - IFRC, no date)
Chapter 4: Key concepts
The key concepts chosen for this thesis are LO and IC. A significant reason for LO to be one of the two key concepts is because it is a widely recognised concept in organisational management (Örtenblad, 2013; Bui, 2020). The author's hypothesis is that it is a theory that could benefit HOs, resulting in lower retention rates, and HAPs being performed more effectively, for example. ICs were chosen as the second concept since the author identified a gap in the conducted interviews in training provided to HAWs before deployment.
4.1. Learning organisations
LO, a concept used within many sectors and organisations (Ibid., p.496). The concept is built upon a philosophy where people in organisations continuously develop and expand their capacity to reach the desired results. A person’s will to think in a new and expansive way is nurtured and encouraged, collective goals are something to strive towards, and when LO are successful, people discover how to learn as one (Senge, 1990, p.8; Bui and Baruch, 2012). Furthermore, a LO can be characterised by its ability to recognise a need for change, provide learning opportunities to its members continuously, and explicitly use learning to reach goals. In a LO, the individual and organisational performance are linked, and dialogue and inquiries are encouraged, creating safe spaces for individuals to share very openly and take risks. A LO embraces creative tensions and uses these as an energy source working towards renewal (Britton, 2002). Although LO often is a concept for business success used in combination with businesses that profit, a LO also has significant non-profit advantages (Hansen, Jensen and Nguyen, 2020).
One of the pioneers of LO, Senge, provides a recipe for organisations to decrease bureaucracy and to create an organisational environment that is more flexible and less hierarchical (Dumaine, 1994; Hsu and Lamb, 2020, p.32). In his book, The Fifth Discipline. The art of practice of the learning organisation, Senge (1990) presents five disciplines: personal mastery; mental models; team learning; shared vision; and system thinking, which will be further described below. These concepts on their own were not new when Senge decided to write about them; however, by connecting them, Senge managed to create a new powerful combined concept (Cors, 2003, p.4). Important to
one another, the organisation will fail, but together, the organisation can gain so much (Senge, 1990, p131, 158).
The first of the five disciplines is personal mastery. Individuals who have reached a high level of personal mastery have learned to continuously reflect and realise what matters the most. Parts of the discipline involve developing and clarifying one’s visions and energies and viewing reality through an objective lens. It is an essential part of a LO and provides a basis for shared visions and systems thinking to evolve from (Ibid., pp.10-11, 191). The quest for personal mastery always has to be voluntary. If forced, it will most likely backfire, and both the individual and the organisation will suffer. To encourage personal mastery, leaders can foster an environment where it is safe to speak about personal visions and question different aspects of the organisation and its processes (Ibid., p.157). Fear may exist that as individuals grow and learn personal mastery, they will threaten the established order of the organisation, and this fear is reasonable (Ibid., p.131).
However, for an organisation to invest in the wellbeing of its staff and personal growth is to invest in themselves. For example, only seeking personal mastery outside of work, which is such a big part of one’s life, would limit an individual’s opportunities to become happy and feel complete (Ibid., p.128). Senge (1990, p.130) mentions an example where a person who has worked for a company for a longer time and has been promoted to manage a department. When this person started, s/he was insecure and did not see all the opportunities ahead, now s/he feels comfortable with responsibility, and other people listen to that person. The person’s aspirations are not limited to work, but the commitment stretches over other aspects of that person’s life.
The second discipline is mental models, which can be described as a discipline where an individual reflects on and examines personal beliefs. Mental models are generalisations, assumptions, and other influences on one’s understandings of the world and one’s actions in different situations. These are deeply rooted, and often, individuals are not aware of them and their behavioural effects. To work with mental models, the mirror has to be turned inward, and one has to scrutinise generalisations and assumptions. Through this exposure and reflection, one can become open to development and possibly change (Ibid., p.11, 160). Two skills are essential when working with mental models. Reflection, which means slowing down our thoughts and becoming aware of our personal formation of models work, and inquiry. Inquiry involves having conversations where we share our
views and learn more about our own and other’s assumptions (Senge, 2014, p.247).
Where organisations and individuals face problems concerning mental models are not whether the models are right or wrong, but when they are tacit. If awareness does not exist, how can development and change occur, and how does one know that effective learning is not hindered by old mental models (Senge, 1990, pp.159-161). Mental models are a great place to start working towards building a LO as it becomes quite clear quite fast that changes are made since they are spoken of. Nonetheless, it is also one of the most challenging disciplines to work with since it may surface many unconscious responses, and one might realise what one has done to others (Senge, 2014, p.257).
Team learning is the third of Senge’s five disciplines. This discipline begins with two concepts, dialogue and discussion. The concept of ‘dialogue’ involves a team’s capacity to discard assumptions and reach a level where they can genuinely think together. It further includes the ability to recognise patterns in team interactions that may undermine learning. The concept of ‘discussion,’ on the other hand, includes personal views which are presented as well as defended to find the ultimate way to decide the next step (Rebelo, Lourenço and Dimas, 2020, p.43). Team learning is fundamental since it is the team and not individuals that move the organisation forward; if the team cannot learn, neither can the organisation (Senge, 1990, p.12). Through the alignment and development of team learning, shared visions can be created, and results can be reached. Team learning also builds upon personal mastery since teams are made of individuals. However, individual learning does not necessarily lead to team learning or a LO. Individuals learn new things constantly, but if that can be transformed into team learning, a team can encourage other teams to learn, hence establish a standard within the organisation where learning is positive and encouraged (Ibid., p.220). To further develop team learning, which is a constant process, regular practice is required. Regular practice may imply rehearsing, testing and reflection, and experimentation. It can be compared to learning a language which can only be fully learned through use (Rebelo, Lourenço and Dimas, 2020, p.44).
Shared vision, the creation of a collective vision to work towards, is the fourth discipline.
An organisation that has managed to create a genuine shared vision often includes individuals who learn and excel not because someone has told them to do so but because they see its benefits and want to. Unfortunately, ‘shared visions’ often revolve around a
will most likely not be reached (Senge, 1990, pp.11-12, 191). In its most simple form, a shared vision should be the answer to one question, “What do we want to create?” and reflect not only the groups’ common goal but each individual’s vision (Ibid., p.191).
Senge (1990, p.216) argues that the discipline of a shared vision has to be practiced together with systems thinking to reach it and understand if it was effective or not. As mentioned above, the vision provides a specific picture of what is wished to be created.
On the other hand, systems thinking provides an opportunity to reveal what the organisation has and how it was created. Senge continues to state that risks may exist for an individual who voices their concerns regarding the organisations ability to achieve aims and goals. This person might be labelled as a person who is not on board and who is a problem to the organisation moving forward (Ibid.).
The fifth and final discipline, system thinking, is by Senge (1990, p.10) compared to a rainstorm. One can never truly understand the whole system that a rainstorm is by contemplating each part, but only if one looks at the rainstorm as a whole. This, of course, applies to businesses and organisations as they are systems as well. They are built on several parts and layers. An individual who is part of a system can find it very difficult to see all the different layers, change parts and processes effectively, and how one’s actions affect other individuals and the organisation (Bjerneld, 2009). When the concept and practice of systems thinking is fully institutionalised, it results in the individuals involved in the organisation telling themselves a new and different story. If the story is credible, the collective understanding of the organisation changes, and soon after, operations will follow (Senge, 2014, p.101). Systems thinking integrates all the other disciplines and fuses them into one comprehensible body, connecting theory and practice. All five disciplines have to develop together and not as separate parts to reach a level of success as a LO (Senge, 1990, p.13).
To summarise the five disciplines, individuals have to be open to new ways of thinking [mental models], discover how to be more open with others [personal mastery], understand the mechanisms and processes of the organisation they work for [systems thinking], to create a plan that everyone in the organisation or project can agree on [shared vision], and then how to work together to achieve the shared vision [team learning]. To be a LO, the organisation is not the only one responsible, but the individuals active have to take part through their own personal change as well (Cors, 2003, p.4; Senge, 1990).
One thing that may be detrimental for individuals to reach personal mastery and for the organisation to move towards becoming a LO according to Senge’s (1990) five disciplines, are conflicts. This is why the second concept is ICs since its management is a vital element for individuals wanting to be a part of an organisation aiming to become a learning one.
4.2. Interpersonal conflict
Conflicts frequently occur in all types of organisations, affecting the organisation as a whole and the individuals, directly and indirectly, involved in the situation. The construct of conflict has been researched for more than 70 years, referring to different forms or contexts where conflict take place, to various components that are involved, and of course to different physical contexts (Barki and Hartwick, 2008, p.217; Mikkelsen and Clegg, 2019; Putnam and Poole,1987; Wall and Callister, 1995). Despite the many years of research, a clear definition of conflict, accepted by the majority, has not been identified.
Consequently, a clear definition of the concept of IC has not yet been identified, and that is where it is necessary to begin.
Just as conflicts are a complex construct, so are ICs. Therefore, different definitions and visions of it are inevitable. However, a clear definition and how to measure it is required for future research and organisations so that when situations occur, it is possible to discover it before it has consequences for all parties (Barki and Hartwick, 2008, p.240).
According to some (Fink, 1968; Wall and Callister, 1995), ICs is a dynamic process occurring between groups and individuals who are interdependent and where specific sets of conditions exist, e.g., a history of conflicts or diversity. Barki and Hartwick (2008, p.234) argue that because situations of conflict occur over time, parties involved in the conflict experience disagreement, negative emotion, and they engage in interference.
They continue to conceptualise the construct of IC and point out the importance of acknowledging that it is a construct that involves the presence of disagreements, negative emotions, and interference simultaneously.
Barki and Hartwick (2008) define IC as “a dynamic process that occurs between
disagreements and interference with the attainment of their goals” (p.234). They continue to note that the occurrence and intensity is identified from an individual perspective. The individual does not only perceive the occurring disagreement and feel the negative emotions, but s/he also perceives that the conflicting party is interfering. To summarise, an individual’s perceptions of negative emotion, disagreement, and interference form the lens through which the individual look at the IC.
During an individual’s time at an organisation, s/he performs a wide range of tasks. S/he will also encounter several issues. Disagreements, interfering behaviour, and negative emotions can vary between the tasks and issues (Ibid., p.236). Most individuals inquired if they enjoy conflicts or not, say no. This might be because the management of conflicts is usually not that good simply because one does not know how to manage it (Fisher- Yoshida, 2005). By identifying the targets of disagreements, interfering behaviour, and negative emotion, the type or nature of the IC can be specified, and a plan of action with a successful result can be developed (Barki and Hartwick, 2008, p.236). All conflicts have causes and a core process that reaches a result or an effect, and these results and effects return to affect the causes, which are shown in Figure 1 (Wall and Callister, 1995, p.516).
Figure 1: A general framework
Within this framework, the predecessors affect the level of IC as well as the different management styles. When individuals face ICs, depending on how they perceive the level of conflict, they choose amongst management styles and, as such, affect the different outcomes (Barki and Hartwick, 2001).
The management styles identified in Figure 1 above are problem solving, compromising, asserting, accommodating, and avoiding. Every conflict situation should be considered independently, and a conflict management style chosen appropriately depending on the context and variables of the situation. To be considered appropriate for a situation, a conflict management style should lead to a solution (Rahim, 2002, p.218). Problem solving, also called the integrating or collaborative style, provides an opportunity for both parties to get what they want and minimize negative feelings. Parties attempt to find a solution satisfying both parties’ concerns through collaboration, and this is especially important when outcome and long-term relationship are important (Ibid.). Compromising can be beneficial when the outcome is not imperative, and time is of the essence. The aim is to find a mutually acceptable agreement that partly satisfies the parties since a party may have to give a little to reach a decision (Ibid., p.220; Benoliel, 2017). Thirdly, the asserting style, also called the competing or dominating, where a party is only interested in its own concerns. This style can be used when the relationship to the other party does not matter, but the outcome is most important. It does not contribute to good relationships within an organisation (Rahim, 2002, p.220; Benoliel, 2017). Accommodating is the opposite of the asserting style. If a party does not care about the outcome, this style can be used since it involves self-sacrifice to satisfy the other party. It may be beneficial if one wishes to build a relationship with the other party (Rahim, 2002, pp.218-220). The final management style is avoiding. This style is used when a party chooses to avoid conflict altogether. This style is inappropriate if used by one party responsible for making decisions or if immediate action is necessary (Ibid.).
As previously mentioned, Barki and Hartwick (2008) conceptualised the construct of IC viewing it as the concurrent presence of all the properties, i.e., disagreement, negative emotion, and interfering behaviour. However, if negative emotions and interfering
Hartwick, 2004; Mikkelsen and Clegg, 2019). Although this suggests that IC can lead to positive outcomes, it is important to recognise that this is most likely to happen when there is a situation of pure disagreement. If negative emotion and interfering behaviour are part of the situation, it is more difficult to reach a positive outcome as they influence individuals (Barki and Hartwick, 2008, p.237).
Chapter 5: Findings
The interviews conducted for this thesis amounted to a number of findings presented in this chapter. The findings were, through content analysis, divided into five different categories: staff wellbeing, staff turnover; powerplay; relevance of formal training; and the importance of networking. The five categories have been chosen as a majority of the participants consistently mentioned them. Each category is explicitly defined for this thesis and from the author's point of view. This chapter relies entirely on the interviews, and information about each participant can be found in Appendix 2.
5.1. Staff wellbeing
A theme mentioned in most of the interviews was the wellbeing of HAWs and many suffering from mental health issues. This category is chosen because the wellbeing of an individual, psychologically and physically, affects both one’s performance in the field and others. IC situations that possibly would not have risen do so due to, e.g., stress, fatigue, and lack of patience. MSF and IFRC/SRC offer support to HAWs through debriefings and sessions with a psychologist upon arrival back home, but in some cases, more is needed. Participant 3 provides an example where a phone call could have made difference.
“It was a particular incident that happened that caused people to be a little worried about everyone who has been abroad. I thought [MSF] should call everyone who has been out in the field and say that: yes, we understand that this has been very difficult, we are here. The response was that we have the psychologist for that. You should not feel alone in this. You do not have to be a psychologist to say that. I think it could have been handled better.”
Furthermore, support is not exclusively needed when one comes back home but sometimes support in the field is necessary. Participant 5 mentions that support depends a lot on the person who is your contact person and supervisor.
“If you are lucky, you have a good relationship with your senior advisor, but sometimes you have a senior advisor who is not interested in supporting you with
soft skills, such as conflict management. If you are out of luck, the role as a team leader can be very lonely.”
IC are common, and they might not be anything significant. Still, an IC or an inability to work with another person can cause many problems for the team leader and the HO.
“When you leave for a mission and arrive in the field, you want to do as much as possible. If the individuals before you could not work together, it may affect your work as well, which can lead to you feeling bad since you cannot do as much as you would have wanted. It adds unnecessary stress” (Participant 4)
Throughout all the interviews, it became evident that working in the humanitarian sector is straining and being put into a position that you are not ready for adds to that strain.
Sometimes individuals need more than just the debriefing and the session with a psychologist. The HOs does offer support if you ask for it. However, sometimes you are not able to ask for it. Of course, all missions and all individuals are different. Some missions are less straining, but those known to be very heavy should receive more attention.
Participant 2 speaks of an experience where s/he got a lot more responsibility than expected and felt a lot of pressure.
“In my second [mission], I was like, oh wow, I have a lot of responsibility. I am 27, I have been a nurse for two years, and I am now a hospital director. I am not sure that this is ok. I never really felt like I was competent enough, and I was not. I just thought, well, I guess this is how it is, but the more I worked, the more I realised that it is not ok from many different perspectives. From a mental health perspective, what you do to your staff, from a duty of care to your staff.”
Being a manager involves a lot of different tasks. One may be to send someone home if necessary. Participant 1 explains that when someone is sent home, you as a manager receive practical support on how to give notice and when to do it. Although this advice can help you to know that this is the right decision, you are still the one who has to handle
straining and difficult. Participant 1 continues to state that a culture shift is necessary. The organisation and managers, in general, have to become more open about the difficulties happening in the field and create a safe space for HAWs to speak up. Not only about significant issues or situations but also about the small things that keep nagging at you and cause you a lot of stress.
Participants 4 and 5 speak of an organisation, which, even though it has taken steps forward in offering formal debriefing sessions, still has some way to go. In earlier missions, debriefing and psychology sessions were voluntary. Now you have mandatory sessions. However, Participant 5 talk about a reality where more structure and effort should exist.
“The organisation like to combine the debrief session including both those who have arrived back home and those who are about to leave. This might be good from an information-sharing point of view, but if you have had a difficult time in the field and are tired, it might not be the best.”
5.2. Staff turnover
According to Wijnmaalen, Heyse, and Voordijk (2016, pp. 48-49), staff turnover can generally be defined “as the separation of an employee from an organisation.” When the organisation does not plan this separation, it is unwanted turnover, and it is an increasing problem throughout the humanitarian sector. Oxfam and other large NGOs suffer from up to 60% of turnover rates per year, causing organisations to struggle to contain institutional knowledge and overall health amongst staff.
According to several of the participants, a significant reason for high staff turnover is that inexperienced staff are forced to work in positions with many responsibilities, and often not prepared.
“You are being pushed into management positions before you are ready. Mostly because there are not enough experienced people that continue. The retention rates are not good enough” (Participant 2)
HOs struggle continuously with the dilemma and the balance of:
“An almost constant shortage of staff and especially of competent personnel who have done several assignments. So, is it more important that people have time to take courses, or is it more important to fill the position and keep the project going?
How does the team feel without a manager for three months if you wait for this person with little experience to take the course? Furthermore, you have to include it in the cost calculation because since you do not have a binding contract, there is a risk that these people you train may find another job while they are waiting for an assignment” (Participant 3)
“But it is often that, the needs are so great and from an HR perspective, at least historically, it has been that we need someone there, it does not matter who, it does not have to be the right person, we just need somebody to fill that position”
(Participant 2)
This forces HOs to rely heavily on people’s previous experiences. However, as many are not ready to have positions with a lot of responsibility, it creates unnecessary ICs and stress for that individual and those who work with them.
Nonetheless, things are changing according to the participants. MSF is working actively with mentors, before and during the time of your deployment, to ensure you have received some training, and you feel prepared for the role. Of course, not everyone is fit to be a leader, which causes others to leave the organisation. One of the reasons for newly employed staff to leave is because they are disappointed with their manager and the managers' way to lead. However, it is essential to remember that
“Even the best manager can be a terrible manager as a consequence of burnout because you have no patience, etc. So, there are a lot of factors playing in that you have to take into consideration” (Participant 2)
IFRC/SRC does not have a mentor programme similar to the one MSF has developed to the participants' knowledge. Participants 4 and 5 agree that it should be considered and
What MSF seems to lack though, is the ability sometimes to get rid of staff who do a terrible job. MSF seems to some extent to be afraid to put a stop to bad managers who cause others to leave the organisation. This is also made possible by the layout of the organisation. Even if an individual receives terrible reviews in one operational centre [OC] (MSF has five), you can leave and move to the next one without them taking part in your HR file since it is confidential.
“There is no humanitarian sector blacklist of people that should not be working in the field” (Participant 2)
This applies to IFRC/SRC to some degree as well. Sometimes IFRC/SRC deploys HAWs to the field, which they should not, which lays the ground for ICs and can also damage IFRC/SRCs credibility.
According to the participants, it is getting better, but change is slow, and as a result, more people leave when they could have had a career, and MSF and IFRC/SRC could have benefitted immensely from them.
5.3. Powerplay
According to Collins English Dictionary (Power play, n.d.), powerplay can be defined as
"a situation in which a person or organisation tries to get an advantage by showing that they are more powerful than another." This category includes different layers because the powerplay in organisations such as MSF and IFRC/SRC is not limited to interpersonal relationships. Different offices, countries, and roles use powerplay to stay in power, push individuals down, and gain more important roles in the organisation.
Participant 1 has, on several occasions, experienced powerplay in different forms during employment with MSF. It was particularly evident when s/he began to work with MSF.
Because of a strained relationship between Participant 1 and the manager, s/he did not always have the same possibility to speak up regarding issues at hand. It made work more complex, and at times the feeling of loneliness was strong as a project leader. Participant
“I had a problem with my manager who refused to sign the papers, so I could have a mentor, [nor did that person] give me a lot of support in my management.”
Participant 1 continues to give a picture of an organisation where you can choose to go above your manager, but it may cost you more than you want.
“[There is] quite a lot of nepotism within the organisation, so depending on who you know and who are your friends, [it] can sometimes work out well or work out badly, which is very unprofessional. Sometimes, for instance, I did not sidestep my manager because, at that point, I felt that my manager had more support from her manager than I had from her manager.”
An individual should feel safe to go above his/her manager, but since it is a deeply ingrained problem within the organisation, one should be careful. Although s/he does not like it, participant 1 mentions that
“I have been telling people to be careful with who you communicate with because it can be [detrimental], so I am reinforcing a culture that I do not support.”
In IFRC/SRC, Participant 5 states that one must get nominated or recommended to continue to higher positions and specific training. This can be ground to powerplay but is not something s/he has experienced with IFRC/SRC. This seems to apply to those who are not employed full-time since Participant 4 explains that one can apply to training.
Powerplay is not only part of the relationships between international staff but also between international and national staff. Participant 3 provides an example where the international staff had team meetings by themselves even though the national staff are constants in a project and have more knowledge and experience. S/he did not meet much resistance when s/he changed the meeting structures, but Participant 3 mentions that many times
“You want to have this role and power yourself as an expat, [to] be the one who
S/he continues to state that
“It is the attitude that needs to change with expats to make it better for the local staff.”
On a higher level in MSF, offices have different kinds of power. There are five OCs who have a higher role as they act as headquarters. Then there are 22 offices working more specifically on recruitment, communication, and fundraising. Depending on the number of field workers sent out and the amount of money collected, you might have a stronger voice in different matters. Powerplay is also visible in the highest governance body, where 17 out of 25 global members are from the global north. Although this has not been a conscious decision since MSF started and grew in Europe, this is causing a power imbalance, and many of the regional offices in the global north do not want to give away this power. Nonetheless, a movement has started, and change is planned. It is up to MSF to commit to this and see this change through.
5.4. Relevance of formal training
The author defines formal training as training provided by the organisation or a partner, which includes a set curriculum and an assigned trainer. The question attempted to answer in this category is whether or not the training is what is relevant to an individual’s performance or if it is more relevant to learn in the field, i.e., learning by doing.
In general, the participants agree that learning by doing plays a significant part in one’s development within the humanitarian field. Participant 3, for example, received in total six weeks of training throughout six active years, and s/he was head of mission at the last mission where s/he participated.
However, all participants agreed that training does help.
“I am starting to realise how much I actually learned from these different trainings.
If I look at the first time I worked as a manager and how I am as a manager now, I
mean some things come from experience and lessons learned, but it also comes quite a lot from different trainings” (Participant 1)
Participant 1 continues
“I think it is good that you have worked as a manager, that you have felt the heat, and then you do a training, and then you can get more from the training because you understand what it is all about.”
And this is something that all other participants agree with. Participant 2 states that
“The medical team leader I had [in this mission] before he got sick, he was the worst manager I had ever had in my life. So, even though it was one of the most challenging missions I had […] and I was unprepared, that experience prepared me for the future. I knew what not to do, and I made a lot of mistakes, but I became a lot better.”
The experiences from these challenging situations provide individuals with real-life situations to apply theories and tools. A way that could be optimal regarding formal training is to receive training during the missions to directly implement new tools and theories. Thus, they will both learn more themselves as well as being able to come back to training with further questions.
Being a manager is not easy, and not everyone understands the complexity of that role.
Even though one might receive training, one might not be suitable to be a manager.
“Being a manager is a job in itself, and many people do not understand that. You have your profession, and you can be very good at it and do very well, and then you are put in a leadership role, and you cannot do it. It is a completely different thing to be responsible and a manager. That role is difficult to prepare people for as well;
you need to train and train” (Participant 3)
Participant 5 agrees that everyone might not be suitable to be managers and adds,
“It is also that you are who you are. No matter how much training you receive, you probably will not change your behaviour.”
During the interview with Participant 1, self-reflection and how important it can be were discussed. However, not everyone knows how to self-reflect to benefit and develop from it, and this could be a gap where organisations need to put more effort. Especially, since
“[Self-reflection] leads to development, [and] you have better staff if they get the tools to self-reflect and think about how I could have done this differently”
(Participant 1)
Another gap in the training mentioned by most participants was the training in general, but vital, administrative parts, e.g., budget and report writing, but also about soft skills, e.g., conflict management and group dynamics.
5.5. Importance of networking
Based on the interviews, the importance of a good network became very clear. The definition of the importance of a good network is that MSF and IFRC/SRC cannot always support you according to your needs. Nor is one’s network at home (family, friends) the network you wish to connect with during and after deployment. Where the HOs lack in training and support, peers can step in, and you can speak about situations or missions.
Participant 1 mentions that
“I have a huge network within the organisation, which also means that I can discuss and talk to other people that have similar positions, and that has helped a lot, to be able to have someone that can give support and to say: yes, I know this kind of thing, this is how you can do it.”
And Participant 5 agrees
“It may not give concrete tools to use, but the emotional support and that you feel surrounded by others who understand is essential.”
Participant 4 provides another benefit of a good network. S/he mentions the lessened stress thanks to sometimes knowing some of the people you meet when arriving in the field.
As was mentioned earlier, many individuals are given positions with a lot of responsibility. At times, MSF and IFRC/SRC cannot support an individual to the extent needed because of time and cost constraints. This is where the network is essential, and often it can be easier to speak with your peers than asking the HOs for help. Furthermore, a good network also helps with personal debriefs since a lot that happened during a mission may surface later than the formal debriefs and psychology sessions.
MSF Sweden and SRC, amongst other offices, have begun to encourage networking through returner-days. These are days where those who have returned from the field meet and have an opportunity to talk to others, both in their profession and people from other professions. Often these meetings and this network can mean more than the opportunity to speak to a psychologist.
“It is not always that the psychologist or others understand any of what you are thinking about and then being able to talk to someone in the same profession can do a lot.” (Participant 3)
Chapter 6: Discussion
The discussion presented below is divided into two sections. The first section will discuss MSF and IFRC/SRC as LOs focusing on the five disciplines (Senge, 1990) presented in chapter 4. The second part of this chapter will look at IC management within MSF and IFRC/SRC and how they could benefit through implementing more training for HAWs in IC management.
6.1. MSF and IFRC/SRC as learning organisations
As described in previous chapters, both MSF and IFRC/SRC have begun implementing parts of Senge's five disciplines (1990). For example, MSF Sweden has partially succeeded in supporting its staff in personal mastery and team learning through a mentor programme. In contrast, IFRC/SRC and other parts of MSF still need to put more effort to fulfil their staff's needs.
Personal mastery
Although both MSF and IFRC/SRC provide continuous learning and development opportunities, it is not always made accessible. In IFRC/SRC, one may have to be nominated/recommended for training. If one is unfortunate to have a manager hindering this, personal mastery is impossible within IFRC/SRC. In MSF, the lack of accessibility is affected by the need to fill positions to the extent that often results in HAWs not receiving the training wished for.
Mental models
MSF and IFRC/SRC have become a lot better at supporting their staff. To develop in terms of personal mastery and mental models, more support is needed, and as discussed with participant 1, not only in the field but also in how to reflect upon what has happened.
Organisations should not force their staff to attend courses where one can learn to reflect or work with personal visions and mental models, but it should be encouraged to learn.
To work within the humanitarian field is straining, as was stated by all participants, and to receive support in finding work-life balance would probably be positively met.
Team learning
Forums for networking and learning are increasingly introduced within MSF and IFRC/SRC. However, more forums where constructive dialogue and discussion can be performed would be an improvement. Although both HOs would benefit from implementing it on more levels, MSF has this in part through their association.
Shared visions
HOs work in a constant crisis where they do not have time to train HAWs fully. Although MSF and IFRC/SRC state a shared vision, e.g., helping people in need, it is not shared with HAWs since they have not developed this vision. MSF and IFRC/SRC do not fully answer the question: what do we want to create? Nor are they working actively with workshops or training to involve HAWs in creating this shared vision.
Systems thinking
Systems thinking is complex with organisations divided like MSF and IFRC/SRC. Since each MSF OC and IFRC NS are their own, they might master systems thinking separately but not collectively on the global level. The rainstorm is not whole, but each raindrop looks at its own organisation. This is not entirely negative since the OCs and NSs can be seen as teams in the big picture. If a few teams successfully implement LO, they might encourage others to do the same, affecting the extensive system. When some successfully institutionalise systems thinking, the story will change, resulting in a new collective understanding of the organisations and operations that can begin to develop. An example where this would benefit HOs immensely is staff turnover. HOs have to collectively look at what can be done to lower retention rates.
One of the significant reasons for organisations not achieving to become LO is the high staff turnover. According to (Sarder, 2016), the constant change in staff stops the organisations from taking a step forward since shared visions, team learning, and systems thinking cannot be reached with new members constantly changing the team's dynamic.
IC, which will be discussed below, further complicates the process of becoming a LO.
6.2. Interpersonal conflict management in MSF and IFRC/SRC
What became apparent during the interviews was that all participants had experienced ICs of different kinds while being deployed. All participants also added that they did not always feel prepared to handle the ICs, but it has been a learning process with many mistakes that could have been avoided if more training had been offered. These mistakes may have been part of the causes of high staff turnover and the wellbeing of the staff to not always be at a reasonable level.
The five management styles presented in figure 1 and further described in chapter 4 show the importance of reflection and flexibility. If an individual does not know what priorities are highest and what could benefit the team and the organisation, it may be challenging to know what style to use. This is made more difficult if one does not know that there are different management styles. Flexibility is a keyword in the literature. MSF and IFRC/SRC need to improve their training and make it possible for their HAWs to be flexible and find the best solution for each situation and person. The five styles presented here are a good start since they touch upon most relationships and outcomes.
A central aspect of IC management relates to LO since conflicts make it increasingly difficult to reflect upon and be aware of other individuals' mental models and how they differ from our mental models. In ICs, negotiation should be considered a method to find a solution; however, if one is not aware of the other person's mental models, the solution will probably not be sustainable since all aspects have not been considered.
To further improve IC management, team learning can be used with elements such as rehearsing, testing and reflection, and experimentation. Several examples in the interviews indicate that training is provided in short periods instead of continuously and repeatedly. Thus, hindering personal mastery and team learning from occurring.
Chapter 7: Conclusion and recommendations
The thesis has aimed to critically analyse the training, specifically in IC, provided to project leaders before MSF and IFRC/SRC deployment. Additionally, it has also attempted to analyse whether said organisations work according to Senge's (1990) five disciplines of becoming an LO.
What kind of training, specifically in IC, do MSF and IFRC/SRC provide their HAWs with before they are given the responsibility to independently manage a HAP?
HAWs are not provided with a specific training in IC before deployment. The PPD and IMPACT training mentions conflict but does not go in-depth, nor does it specify that HAWs will be given the amount of responsibility they often are. Interviews showed that a majority would have felt more prepared with additional training.
In what way do HAWs in the field receive support from MSF and IFRC/SRC when handling ICs?
For MSF, HAWs now have mentors as well as the possibility to contact the manager above.
In IFRC/SRC it is not obvious that one will receive support, it depends extensively upon one’s manager and oneself.
How are the experiences of HAWs returning from the field assessed?
Formal de-briefs are usually conducted. However, more structure and sometimes more in- depth would probably be beneficial for HAWs and MSF and IFRC/SRC.
In what way, and to what extent, are HAWs experiences considered when developing training sessions for future HAWs going to a HAP?
The de-briefs involve several individuals and both MSF Sweden and SRC claims to take HAWs experiences into consideration in development. However, there is no clarity to what extent this is happening.
How can the training be continuously developed when the staff turnover is so high?
Since there is no clarity to whether HAWs experiences are taken into consideration, it is difficult to answer. Interviews indicated though that although experiences do not have direct
