Generating socio-emotional learning in children and adolescents living in vulnerable conditions:

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Generating socio-emotional learning in children and

adolescents living in vulnerable conditions:

Perceptions of practices

Master’s Degree Thesis

Author: Carolina Camacho Supervisor: Cecilia Kjellgren

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Abstract

Many children and adolescents that live under vulnerable social conditions in Latin America and Colombia do not have access to quality programmes that focus on psychosocial education based on socio-emotional learning.

Research evidence on practices used by programme facilitators is still

underdeveloped in the region. This study explores facilitators’ perceptions of practices that are considered to generate socio-emotional learning in children and adolescents who participate in related programmes in Bogot

á

-Colombia.

The main objective of this exploratory, non-experimental research study is to provide an account of existing methodologies and practices as perceived by facilitators belonging to the fields of social work, education, and

psychology. An interview guide was designed to invite respondents to share their views and experiences of socio-emotional learning. Then, content analysis procedures were used to find out the relevant themes and categories shared by the respondents, and thereby identify the critical factors related to the stated research problem. Respondents were invited to answer a

predetermined sequence of questions following an interview guide. This process resulted in two main themes: (1) Conditions that contribute to socio- emotional learning and (2) Factors considered relevant for programme operation. Emerging categories explore the following topics: further observation of needs among children; social, emotional and pedagogical skills among facilitators; parents’ current situation with parenting and social and emotional skills; ways to plan and implement activities or interventions;

examples of key partnerships; and ways to follow up the impact of practices on children. In this study, respondents’ shared experiences show that socio- emotional learning is key to resilience processes. With the enacted legislation and some design and management of programmes to promote mental

wellbeing through social and emotional education, continued research from

psychosocial and education fields is needed to assess the impact of

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programme practices in schools, families, and communities. Research is also needed on how to revise social and emotional learning approaches

implemented in school settings for use by participants in other contexts with increased levels of aggressiveness and violence. These aspects must be considered in regard to a family’s or a community’s willingness to learn and adopt socio-emotional skills.

Key words

Socio-emotional Learning, Vulnerable childhood and adolescence, Mental Health, Program Implementation, Resilience, Protective factors, Facilitators Education, Psychosocial Education.

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Resumen

Muchos niños, niñas y adolescentes que viven en condiciones sociales vulnerables en América Latina y Colombia no tienen acceso a programas de calidad que se enfoquen en la educación psicosocial basada en el aprendizaje socioemocional. La evidencia acerca de la investigación sobre las prácticas utilizadas por los facilitadores en programas relacionados aún está poco desarrollada en la región. Este estudio explora las percepciones de

facilitadores sobre prácticas que se consideran generadoras de aprendizaje socioemocional en niñas, niños y adolescentes que participan en programas relacionados en Bogotá-Colombia. El objetivo principal de esta investigación exploratoria, no experimental, es dar cuenta de las metodologías y prácticas existentes tal como las perciben los facilitadores pertenecientes a los campos del trabajo social, la educación y la psicología. Se diseñó una guía de

entrevistas para invitar a los participantes a compartir sus puntos de vista y experiencias sobre el aprendizaje socioemocional. Luego, se utilizaron procedimientos de análisis de contenido para derivar temas y categorías relevantes compartidos por los encuestados, y así identificar factores críticos relacionados con el problema de investigación planteado. Se invitó a los encuestados a responder una secuencia predeterminada de preguntas siguiendo una guía de entrevista. Este proceso resultó en dos temas

principales: (1) Condiciones que contribuyen al aprendizaje socioemocional y (2) Factores considerados relevantes para la operación del programa. Las categorías emergentes exploran los siguientes temas: mayor observación de las necesidades de los niños; habilidades sociales, emocionales y

pedagógicas entre los facilitadores; la situación actual de los padres en

relación a la crianza y sus habilidades sociales y emocionales; formas de

planificar e implementar actividades o intervenciones; ejemplos de

asociaciones clave; y formas de hacer un seguimiento del impacto de las

prácticas en los niños. En este estudio, las experiencias compartidas de los

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participantes muestran que el aprendizaje socioemocional es clave para los procesos de resiliencia. Con la legislación promulgada y algunas iniciativas de diseño y administración de programas para promover el bienestar mental a través de la educación social y emocional, se hace necesaria el desarrollo de una investigación continua desde los campos psicosociales y educativos para evaluar el impacto de las prácticas de programas en las escuelas, las familias y las comunidades. También se requiere investigación sobre cómo evaluar los enfoques de aprendizaje social y emocional implementados en entornos escolares para revisar el uso las habilidades aprendidas en otros contextos con mayores niveles de agresividad y violencia. Estos aspectos deben considerarse en relación con la disposición de una familia o una comunidad para aprender y adoptar habilidades socioemocionales.

Palabras Clave

Aprendizaje socioemocional, Niñez y adolescencia vulnerable, Salud mental, Implementación de programas, Resiliencia, Factores protectores, Educación de facilitadores, Educación psicosocial.

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Acknowledgments

I want to thank all the children and adolescents and let them know: We see you.

Thanks to Lukas Nossa Camacho for inspiring my work and to my inner child for keeping me going in this quest. This work would not have been possible without the help and academic guidance from Cecilia Kjellgren; thank you for your insights, patience and unconditional support. I want to say thank you to the willing

facilitators who without hesitation contributed with their valuable experiences and perceptions. Thanks also to the participating organisations for opening your doors and allowing me to learn from you. I wish to express my gratitude and appreciation for my husband Javier Nossa Marquez, whose support and encouragement has been invaluable. I also wish to show my gratitude to the Social Work Department at Linnaeus University for allowing me to experience this personal and academic growth. Finally, I want to thank Susan Canali for proofreading the manuscript and contributing with valuable suggestions and criticisms.

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1 Introduction

Mental health during childhood is an area of national and international interest, since the recent increase in the incidence of mental health difficulties raises concerns about the current conditions under which children and adolescents develop. Worldwide, epidemiological data suggested a prevalence of mental health problems in children and adolescents, with some of them requiring health services (Tamayo Martínez et al., 2016). In Colombia, the National Survey on Mental Health of 2015 (Ministry of Health, 2015) officially identified mental health problems among children aged 7 to 15.

Studies on human development have concluded that childhood is the most

fundamental evolutionary stage of the life cycle (Ternera, 2014). During this period, fundamental life experiences shape the personality of individuals, and therefore, this is the time socio-emotional skills start to be learned and developed. Today, we know that interpersonal behaviour starts to be learned during earlier processes of social interactions in life (Monjas, 2000). In addition, at this early stage disruptive behaviours and forms of social interaction are also learned from the children’s immediate environment. Chaux (2002) states how limitations in social and emotional development generate various risks, including maladaptation, dropping out of school, poor performance, violent behaviour and other school difficulties.

Vulnerable living conditions impact the development of resilient behaviours needed to navigate challenging life situations; therefore, multiple organisations provide support with programmes that include practices to promote socio-emotional learning in children and adolescents.

Socio-emotional Learning has become a model to promote mental wellbeing and improve academic performance mainly in schools. The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL), an experienced research organisation in the field, provides an account of multiple studies on the effects of social and emotional education in students (Bridgeland et al., 2013). Researchers and

international authorities claim that this education has a positive impact on students’

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mental health and the development of skills for social progress and wellbeing (OCED, 2015; Payton et al., 2000).

To contribute to the follow-up of methodologies and practices that promote socio- emotional learning for children in vulnerable conditions, this thesis proposal aims to study facilitators’ perceptions of the formulation and implementation of educational programmes for development of these skills. Although there are different

programmes that generate the development of social and emotional skills, research initiatives are still required that focus on relevant factors, strategies and conditions that actually have an impact on the development of such skills in children and adolescents.

1.1. The choice of the field of study

This is an exploratory, non-experimental research study with the main objective to provide an account of existing methodologies and practices as perceived by facilitators belonging to the fields of social work, education, and psychology. An interview guide was designed to invite respondents to share their views and experiences of socio-emotional learning. Then, content analysis procedures were used to find out the relevant themes and categories shared by respondents, and thereby identify the related factors that answer the problem stated in this research.

As mentioned in previous paragraphs, vulnerable conditions increase the risk for a child to model unhealthy behaviours and reduce the ways to cope with daily situations during their lives. The field of socio-emotional learning was chosen because of evidence of its impact on children’s and adolescents’ mental wellbeing and the improvement process of their social relations (Milicic et al., 2014). Social problems and mental illness have led to the deterioration of people’s wellbeing.

There is a majority of children and adolescents in countries such as Colombia, who still live under difficult circumstances. Poverty, violence, lack of financial support and access to basic services are among the major challenges in vulnerable

populations. Despite that general living standards of the country have improved in recent decades, many families still live in environments that continue to have

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negative effects on mental wellbeing. It has been demonstrated that dysfunctional families that behave violently (physical and psychological violence) increase the risks that their children develop mental health problems (Quenza, 2012). Due to the urgency of the mental health problems, international organisations have created initiatives that attend to situations related to children’s and adolescents’ mental wellbeing.

Important international organisations, such as UNESCO and the OECD, among others, have conducted studies and have reached conclusive agreements about the importance of generating cultures that recognise the formation of mental wellbeing through social and emotional education as a pillar for human and economic

development (Forum, 2015). Regarding the Latin American and Caribbean case, there is limited research underpinning the exploration of factors influencing the practices promoting socio-emotional learning from the perspectives of social work and education research. However, some results suggest that working on the development of socio-emotional skills has effects on the functionality of children and adolescents who participate in such programmes (Merrell & Gueldner, 2010).

It is well-known that psychosocial support and education for children and adolescents is usually a joint effort that combines contributions from educators, social workers, psychiatrists and/or psychologists, and, in some cases, occupational or neurological therapists. As will be seen in this paper, in recent decades, socio- emotional learning has been promoted in schools and communities by the joint work of different actors and organisations. This present research project is intended to gain knowledge of the experience of the actors, who intervene as facilitators or educators, and their perceptions of the practices they implement in relation to socio- emotional learning.

Respondents who participated in this study stressed the importance of professionals from the fields of social work, education and psychology in the implementation of programme activities. This research suggests the need for more studies that deepen how children’s and adolescents’ mental wellbeing is influenced by practices to educate them in social and emotional skills. It is also an invitation from the social

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work field to promote academic research practices that may have an impact on children’s wellbeing legislation and the progress of programme practices.

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2 Definition of the research problem and questions

Current social dynamics related to rapid structural and cultural transformations have had an impact on the way the mental health and wellbeing of childhood and

adolescence are understood and addressed. Rapid implementation program trends emerge in tackling family and social challenges, this contemporary dynamic increases the risk of producing hasty actions and interventions to protect childhood and adolescence mental health; these impulsive efforts could perpetuate the vicious cycles where effective protection and wellbeing promotion for this population have been neglected. In this respect, Chen et al., 2001 (Evans et al., 2003) state that

“rapid social change can cause psychological destabilisation and spread tensions capable of producing outbreaks of violence in individuals, social groups and nations”. Then, there would be the reinforcement of the increase of different forms of violence and neglect toward children and adolescents during times of crisis and social upheaval. Therefore, initiatives to promote socio-emotional learning, as other related programs, require implementation research questions aiming to revise practices that may contribute to the body of knowledge on actual factors and issues that impact vulnerable children’s and adolescents’ wellbeing. Thus, facing the mental wellbeing of childhood and adolescence with well-structured actions should be considered a top priority, requiring international and national engagement from strategic sectors of intervention in education and public health.

Child and adolescent mental health issues are considered neglected in global public health, and this lack of attention has serious implications for young people’s health throughout their lifespans. Socio-emotional learning programs have been considered as a way to improve social and psychological health in schools, and in some cases families and communities (Merrell & Gueldner, 2010; Payton et al., 2000).

However, despite the robust growth of this trend, little is known about actual practices leading to improved mental wellbeing regarding the diverse challenges faced by vulnerable children and adolescents related to social inequality and inequity. Then, more studies on program implementation and assessment of

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practices and factors that have an impact on children’s and adolescents’ wellbeing in Latin America and the Caribbean are still needed.

This research project aims to study facilitators’ perceptions of implementation practices that are intended to promote social and emotional learning in children belonging to vulnerable populations who participate in NGO programmes working with related objectives in Bogotá-Cundinamarca. This exploration is intended to increase the understanding of actual practices implemented at facilitators’

organisations. These organisations have an important role working hand in hand with schools in related complementary or after-school education services in communities. The facilitators participating in this research are educators, social workers, psychologists and a psychiatrist who agreed to contribute with their experiences on the implementation of practices related to socio-emotional learning.

2.1 Aims

The aims of the study:

1. To identify facilitators’ practices that contribute to socio-emotional learning for children and adolescents living in vulnerable conditions.

2. To identify implementation factors for programme operation in the delivery of socio-emotional learning.

The identification of practices and implementation factors mentioned refer mainly to sequences of actions intended to promote social and emotional learning among children and adolescents in vulnerable conditions.

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2.2 Research questions

This research is intended to answer the following questions regarding promoting mental health through socio-emotional learning in children from 6 years old to young adolescents up to age 15, who participate in NGO programmes that provide services for children and adolescents in vulnerable conditions in Bogotá-

Cundinamarca:

• What factors are considered to characterise practices and methodologies that generate socio-emotional learning?

• What is the perception of facilitators who work with children and adolescents about the importance of socio-emotional learning?

• What impact is described, according to facilitators, of socio-emotional learning on children and adolescents?

• Which operational and delivery factors are considered relevant to educate in social and emotional skills?

These research questions allow to create an understanding on how practices to promote socio-emotional learning are currently viewed by participants in the particular contexts where they perform their intervention. Then, with this study it is intended to provide a general exploration to identify some practices implemented and determine the presence of implementation program factors that promote social and emotional learning among children and adolescents in vulnerable conditions.

Factors and issues studied through facilitators perceptions refer to sequences of actions that participants they may perceive as relevant in their practice. As experts suggest program implementation success is determined by detailed planned actions (Vedung 2017; Fixsen et al. 2005). As it will be described in the following lines, there is lack of evidence about specific actions and intervention programs that may lead to an actual impact of socio-emotional learning on vulnerable children’s and adolescents’ mental wellbeing. Therefore, these questions are of great importance

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because they contribute to the implementation research and dialogues in the social work and education fields. Then, this research constitutes a small contribution to initiatives that intend to study associated questions.

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3 Background

“Mental health in the global context has been the orphan child of global health, and children’s mental health has been the orphan child of global mental health. The real scale of the crisis is that we know so little about mental health problems in children in the global context and that the overwhelming majority of children who are already experiencing mental health problems receive neither the recognition, nor do they receive any form of intervention that we know can transform their lives”. Dr. Vikram Patel (2019)

This section highlights some relevant facts about children’s and adolescents’ mental health and socio-emotional learning as a way to promote their wellbeing. Firstly, international views on mental health will be presented. Then, main issues on this topic in Latin America and Colombia are explored. The final part in this section highlights some examples and initiatives that outline the role of socio-emotional learning in the promotion of mental wellbeing in the region.

3.1 Globally

Data reports that global mental health issues have generated alarm and calls for action. The World Health Organization estimates that more than 800,000 people committed suicide in 2012. Suicide is the second leading cause of death in youth aged 15 to 29 (WHO, 2014). According to UNICEF, mental health problems start during childhood at 14 years old, and more than 20% of adolescents worldwide suffer mental health difficulties (UNICEF, 2019a); (UNICEF, 2019b); (WHO, 2019). Data from the report Global accelerated action for the health of adolescents (AA-HA!): Guidance to support country implementation (2017), confirms specific causes of adolescents’ deaths. It is stated that “suicide and accidental death from self-harm were the third cause of adolescent mortality in 2015. Self-harm largely occurs among older adolescents, and globally it is the second leading cause of death for older girls”. These data lead experts to alter the factors that may trigger these outcomes.

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Dr. Flavia Bustreo from the World Health Organization asserts that “for years, the unique health issues associated with adolescence have been little understood or, in some cases, ignored” (WHO, 2017). Later, in 2019, the global health expert Vikram Patel, interviewed by the UNICEF delegate Sara Crown, states that children’s mental health has been ‘the orphan child of global mental health’. He asserts that

“we know so little about mental health problems in children in the global context and (...) the overwhelming majority of children who are already experiencing mental health problems receive neither the recognition, nor do they receive any form of intervention that we know can transform their lives” (Patel, 2019). Despite well- meaning initiatives and campaigns, the issue is still overlooked, as the WHO director Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus said, “Too few children have access to programmes that teach them how to manage difficult emotions (...) very few children with mental health conditions have access to the services they need”

(UNICEF, 2019c).

Research also suggests that “programmes aimed at mitigating childhood trauma and reducing violence against children constitute an important, under-recognised contribution to reducing the mental health gap globally (...) therefore, developing integrated mental health services for children within primary care is a high priority for global mental health” (Lu et al., 2018). Globally, between 10 and 15 out of 100 children and adolescents develop mental health problems due to difficult life experiences associated with the environments where they have lived, and the risks increase in vulnerable contexts. Among the risk factors are alcohol and psychoactive substances consumption, school desertion, criminal behaviour, child neglect,

maltreatment, and physical, emotional and sexual abuse that have roots in their early life experiences. In the Latin American and Caribbean region, these facts are also alarming challenges that have been confronted with the recent enactment of legislation that prioritises the protection of children and adolescents.

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3.2 Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC)

While there are many factors that significantly affect mental wellbeing during childhood and adolescence, the issue in Latin America and the Caribbean has also been overlooked. In low-income countries, there are specific risk factors to consider that have a significant impact on children’s and adolescents’ mental health. In this region, limited financial support affects the design and delivery of proper support and services to promote the development of skills and tools for facing mental problems arising from living in vulnerable conditions. A recent study shows that development assistance and access to mental health services for children and adolescents in vulnerable conditions is neglected in low-income countries. In this regard, Lu et al. (2018) assert that “most children and young people in developing countries (...) do not have access to mental health care. Lack of financial

commitment is amongst the major barriers for improving access to mental health interventions. Least resourced regions and countries in the world rely heavily on development assistance, typically from high-income countries or foundations, to support their health sector” (Lu et al., 2018). Availability and allocation of resources have an important impact on the quality of interventions to promote mental health.

The access and availability of these services play a fundamental role, since they are the only way children and adolescents have access to support to cope with their living challenges, socio-emotional problems and the proper development of resilience to thrive in their realities.

Very often in LAC countries, young people must face an environment that puts their physical and emotional wellbeing at risk, as many of them live in poverty, work in the street, have early pregnancies and are exposed to violence inside and outside their homes. In the region, persistent difficult living conditions and violence perpetuate individual and social ways of living that affect the progress of families and society. The regional health conditions, healthcare and education are not always adequate. The PAHO (Panamerican Health Organization) and WHO action plan (2014) outlined that “violence against women, which affects one out of every three women, gives rise to multiple health consequences, ranging from depression to death, including suicide. This creates violence against children and intergenerational

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cycles of violence against women and girls, leading to the same unhealthy results.

Physical punishment of children is frequent in many parts of Latin America and the Caribbean” (PAHO, 2014). Additionally, evaluations of mental health systems in the region showed that despite the magnitude of the burden of mental disorders, the responsiveness of health services is still limited (Rodriguez, 2014).

Due to the multiplicity of nations in the region, there are various approaches to build upon child and adolescent mental health policies, research, and training. Experts emphasise that countries such as Chile, Brazil, Argentina and Costa Rica have developed models to offer primary care, strong advocacy programmes and state training programmes; the region in general has shown a strong understanding and utilisation of a rights-based framework for services (Polanczyk et al., 2015).

However, LAC countries face sharp challenges regarding the mental health of children and adolescents compared to other regions in the world (ibid). Low education and socioeconomic status are still common in most LAC countries, thus integral mental wellbeing will be improved with important political and social changes. This long-range perspective reveals the scarcity of proper intervention and education programmes and services, since there is little attention to children’s and adolescents’ mental health in the region (Berger et al., 2016).

In Latin America and the Caribbean, there are still factors that affect the design and delivery of proper formative services to promote mental health in children.

Professionals face weak political reforms, low allocations of health budgets, weak or absent protection of human rights for people with mental disorders, and a costly, inadequate, slow investment from a mental hospital model to a community model (Kohn et al., 2018). Other factors added to these challenges are eradicating detrimental social beliefs such as “the problem will resolve on its own or that the individual can solve the problem himself, stigma, lack of mental health literacy, financial burdens, lack of trust in the healthcare system, and the belief that treatment is not helpful” (ibid). In the LAC region, there are multiple ways to approach mental wellbeing among children and adolescents. Below are described the present related issues of the Colombian case.

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3.3 Colombia

In Colombia, according to the Attorney General’s report (2018), rates of intrafamily, sexual and interpersonal violence are still alarming, and the precariousness of the mental health of a significant number of the population is a priority (Lozada, 2019).

From the normalisation of violence through television series, video games, daily news, and everyday family and community customs, children and adolescents are bombarded by highly violent forms of social interaction, which validate doing harm toward others. Research on children’s mental health in low-income countries

“estimates that six-in-ten children worldwide, ages 2–14, experience regular physical punishment, and about seven-in-ten children experience psychological aggression; there is also a lack of research about childhood sexual abuse…” (Lu et al., 2018). These findings led to the conclusion that persons exposed to childhood sexual abuse have much higher rates of depression, anxiety, and suicidal behaviour, and the consequences of child maltreatment often persist into adulthood, including long-term changes in brain structure, mental and physical health problems,

engagement in risky behaviours, problems with social functioning, and reduced life expectancy (Lu et al., 2018). In Colombia, there is evidence of purposeful

legislative actions to collect data on the current state of mental health in the country, with experts’ recommendations on procedures to provide planned actions.

The National Mental Health Survey conducted in 2015 is the fourth official survey and the only one to include children from the ages of seven to eleven for the first time (Ministry of Health, 2015). Data from the survey showed that most recurrent mental difficulties in children between ages seven and eleven are related to attention deficit, separation anxiety, social phobia, and difficulty communicating with others;

depression predominates in adolescents from 12 to 17 years old. The study suggests that the most frequent mental disorders among adolescents are anxiety and

depression (Boletín, Grupo Gestión Integrada para la Salud Mental, 2018). Among the critical results reported, suicide ideation and intentionally self-inflicted injuries are alarming indicators that raise the most preoccupation. Those children and adolescents who are at most risk to develop mental health problems are those who are exposed to any kind of violence, inequality, traumatic experiences, or who live

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with adverse family conditions or parents with psychoactive substance addiction, or who carry genetic vulnerability.

Due to these social circumstances, during previous decades important legislative procedures have been conducted. In 2018, the Integral National Mental Policy based on Law 1616/2013, in line with the PAHO Plan of Action on Mental Health, shows comprehensive research reports and formulation of measures to ensure that mental wellbeing is promoted in the country. All areas of the enacted policy have an impact on issues related to childhood and adolescence by acknowledging them as a priority.

They strategically include sectoral, intersectoral, social and community actions that guarantee the full exercise of mental health as an integral part of the right to health of the Colombian population with healthcare being the primary focus (Ministerio de Salud Law 4886, 2018). These issues are also outlined in the National Childhood and Adolescence Policy 2018-2030, where children and adolescents are considered as subjects of law and wellbeing.

Moving forward with the measures to face challenges reported in the National Mental Health Survey, experts suggested strategic actions that should characterise interventions regarding the promotion of mental health in the country (2015). It is concluded that interventions to support mental wellbeing should be defined under permanent, effective operational settings that involve all actors in the promotion of mental health practices, psychosocial resources, emotional and ethical growth of individuals and groups, and a strong convergence between mental health and human rights. In order to prevent and change the dynamics of exclusion, experts

emphasised the promotion and consolidation of interpersonal bonds by emphasising self-care and collective care. In regard to preventing violence and treating effects of violence, interventions should address not just victims, but also victimizers,

enabling the dynamics to unveil the normalisation and social acceptance of inequality, exploitation and discrimination. Lastly, experts suggested practices of visualising and analysing “everyday situations underlying authentic complexities, to overcome partial visions and prejudices that prevent a genuine approach to

realities”. Significant progress has been made with expert analysis of the data obtained; largely due to this survey, actors among the health and education sectors work with guidelines to design and manage their programmes.

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Summarising, global, regional and national progress have been seen through the enactment of legislation tackling mental health challenges. Action plans, measures and expert recommendations are part of the way mental wellbeing strategies show progress. However, persistent inequity and inequality are also shown in the low education and social status populations experiencing social problems that have an impact on families and therefore, children and adolescents. The next section describes how socio-emotional learning programmes have been implemented as a strategy to support the development of mental wellbeing in students and the school community.

3.4 International and national examples of socio-emotional learning to promote mental wellbeing.

In recent years, socio-emotional learning has captured the attention of the academic world, public policy, and the school context. Programmes and policies like

Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS) and Caring School Community (CSC) in the United States; Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning (SEAL) in England; Kids Matter in Australia; Socio-Emotional Learning and Well-Being (BASE) in Chile; and the Regional Table for Technique Cooperation on Transversal and Socioemotional Skills (MESACTS) are some examples of the efforts that various countries and regions are making in terms of socio-emotional learning (Berger et al., 2011; Huerta, 2016; Humphrey, 2013).

The first recent international research initiative on socio-emotional learning

integrating various countries led by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), is a study under progress that will provide an assessment on social and emotional skills of school-aged children (OECD, 2017). Inspired by CASEL’s Big Five, the personality taxonomy consists of five basic dimensions of personality traits: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability and openness to experience. This taxonomy is in line with other psychosocial perspectives on temperament, social learning theory, positive psychology, grit and the existing CASEL frameworks for social and emotional learning core

competencies (Bridgeland et al. 2013; John et al. 1999). The OECD has intended to

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collect data about the conditions and practices that foster or hinder the development of these skills. This initiative is based on the report “Skills for Social Progress: The Power of Social and Emotional Skills” (OECD, 2015b). CASEL’s five-factor structure for personality has been extensively researched and validated in empirical studies leading to the OECD acceptance of the model to be applied cross-culturally for children and adults (John et al., 1999; Kankaraš, 2017; Soto & John, 2017) As in highly developed nations with increasing rates of violence and intolerance, mental health has become one of the main concerns of educators, social workers, psychologists, legislators and researchers. Tragic events, such as the school shootings that occurred in American schools during the 1990s, immediately caught the attention of professional bodies, who began doubling efforts on crisis prevention and intervention, mental and behavioural health, and especially, risk assessments and prevention of school violence (Merrell, KW, & Gueldner, BA, 2010, p. 4).

Likewise, UNESCO and the OECD, as well as other international organisations, have directed studies and concluded agreements that have led to the planning, execution and evaluation of programmes that promote a culture that recognises education on social and emotional skills as a pillar for human and economic development (Forum, 2015).

Education for mental wellbeing in schools has an impact with proven infrastructures to promote the development of mental health skills. Studies have shown that

implemented programmes lead to “improved learning, better behaviour, lower involvement in the criminal justice system, fewer costs to public services, higher earning potential, and resilience for professional and personal life also” (Catalano et al., 2002). Research also indicates that social and emotional education programmes contribute to reduced anxiety, suicide, substance abuse, depression and impulsive behaviour in children, while increasing pro-social behaviours, like kindness, personal awareness, and empathy (Fagan & Catalano, 2013; Taylor et al., 2017).

Nevertheless, fundamental critical views raise concerns about cultural and historical factors that seem to be overlooked. Societal structures still reproduce massive inequality and inequity that have been even more revealed during the current

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pandemic crisis. Socio-emotional learning critics have shown how contextual, historic, cultural, biological and psychological diversity aspects have not been addressed with more interest (Dena Simmons, 2020 ; Poehner & Brown, 2019).

Simmons (Simmons, 2019), agrees on socio-emotional learning attributes to prevent violence and creating meaningful self-agency changes; however, she underlines that addressing inequality and inequity issues when teaching social and emotional skills has been banned for teachers in relation to generating certain topics debates

“teachers feel ill-equipped and uncomfortable in addressing topics like poverty, gun violence, racism, sexism, homophobia, transphobia, and other forms of injustice that many students, particularly our most marginalized, experience daily.”. In this context, new legislation seems to prevent teachers from discussing with their students’ topics that have an important impact on their emotional development, basic needs and social relations.

On the other hand, Jagers et al. (2018) from CASEL, conclude that ethnic/racial challenges are still very present in the mainstream institutions and require to be faced by building communal values where “all youth should be cognizant of the cultural features and power dynamics of interactions and contexts that include peers and adults from diverse ethnic/racial and economic backgrounds”(Ibid.). Jagers et al. report that equity is still a challenge but it is being addressed by program initiatives and research by conceptualizing and creating practices on socio- emotional learning with a sense of community building and understanding.

Additionally, the current pandemic crisis has also called states and societies to focus on the digital nature of needs which also exposes inequities and inequalities. Deep levels of understanding of systemic challenges and rapid changes defeat

implementation programs and make actual vulnerable population needs more complex. Therefore, implementation research actions and research allow to generate authentic dialogues with communities and families to encompass detailed actions implemented by socio-emotional learning facilitators.

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Socio-emotional learning programmes in Latin America and the Caribbean related to mental health promotion in vulnerable contexts are difficult to identify. Most programme experiences in socio-emotional learning have taken place in the

education sector. Between 2018 and 2019, the UNESCO Education Sector launched an initiative to collect experiences to create a regional map on Socio-emotional Learning meaningful practices as a “reference and inspiration to design or improve strategies that favour comprehensive training in young people and adults”

(UNESCO, 2019). In Latin America, major programme initiatives in Socio- emotional education have been introduced in recent years. At the “High-Level Policy Forum: Skills for Social Progress” in Brazil, an important meeting in the region, it was acknowledged that “social and emotional skills are as important as cognitive skills with regards to children’s academic success, and as or even more important with regards to measures of wellbeing” (ESP Forum 2014 - OECD). In 2017, CASEL (The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning), reported initiatives and national models introduced in Brazil, Chile and Mexico that integrate collecting social-emotional data by creating multidisciplinary research networks, as well as district indicators on school climate including students’

perceptions and curricular models highlighting the personal and social development of students and the impact on academic performance (Kyllonen, 2017).

The “New Employment Opportunities for Youth” Programme (NEO), currently being implemented in Latin America, aims to close the gap between the skills of the most vulnerable youth and the demand for qualified personnel by companies, improving youth employment opportunities. Since 2016, the Regional Cooperation Table on Transversal and Socio-emotional Competences (MESACTS) has been in operation (Huerta, 2016; Mena and Puga 2019). Governmental entities from the countries of Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, Mexico and Argentina participate in this commission, which provides technical assistance to deepen theoretical approaches, review the scope of the policy and recognise different strategies and programmes in this area. It addresses mainly populations in vulnerable conditions (González, 2018).

Among the government initiatives in Colombia, policies on citizenship education have included socio-emotional skills. The Colombian Ministry of Education in

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alliance with the private sector has created the Alliance for Socio-emotional Training in Colombia. This initiative aims at promoting training in socio-emotional learning for teachers and students through innovative programmes to be

implemented in schools. The ministry has also made available materials for teachers to include socio-emotional learning in their lessons (Ministry of Education, visited April 25).

Some of these initiatives are derived from the need of labour markets that acknowledge the role socio-emotional skills play in economic and social growth.

Social-emotional skills or social affective development are quite old practices; due to economists like James Heckman, the terms socio-emotional skills or soft skills have gained popularity. During the decades 2000 to 2020, major developments changed the view about social and emotional skills that have been associated for years with education in values and ethics and even moral development. However, the vigorous socio-emotional learning movement comes with strong research in the field of education and growing studies in the psychosocial field.

Despite the strength and vigour of the socio-emotional movement, an economic vision on these skills does not mean program operators will acknowledge

vulnerability as multidimensional and diverse. In a country like Colombia, diversity rules in many aspects of everyday life and makes vulnerability more challenging to be understood and intervene. Afro-communities, indigenous cultures and people with disabilities are still underrepresented in the mainstream institutions (schools) in our society. Moreover, differential intervention approaches are still at a symbolic stage present in our National Constitution 1991, where differentiated citizenships with emancipatory and transformational potential are still in need for actions to be validated (Garzón and Mosquera, 2020). Therefore, this research is also an invitation to reflect in a multidimensional way how socio-emotional learning is historically, culturally and socially situated considering vulnerable contexts.

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4 Theoretical Frame of Reference

This section presents the three theoretical frameworks that support the analysis of data in this research. Firstly, the socio-ecological model aids in the understanding of children and adolescents as being immersed in systems that affect their development and experiences. Secondly, the concept and theory of resilience sheds light on the risks and protective factors that are built through the development of socio- emotional skills and the children’s learning experiences. Further, the development of coping strategies is an important aspect for the children to deal with their realities and how professional practices may have an impact on learning these abilities.

4.1 Socio-ecological Model by Bronfenbrenner

It is well understood that in order to generate adequate and contextualised practices, it is necessary to observe and characterise the environment where children and adolescents are immersed. As professionals (social workers, therapists, teachers, volunteers), we require constant awareness of how different environments and factors influence the people we work with. The Socio-ecological Model by Bronfenbrenner (1979) provides important insights on human development and sheds light on children’s and adolescent’s wellbeing and mental health. This theory embraces the conception of humans in an ecological environment as a set of seriated structures at different levels, where each of those levels contains the other. These levels are called ecological systems.

Bronfenbrenner’s basic postulate is that natural environments are the main source of influence on human behaviour, whereby isolated observation of individuals offers little of children’s reality. This led the author to consider human development as a progressive accommodation between an active human being and his immediate changing environments. This process, however, is also influenced by the relationships established between these environments and by larger contexts in which these environments are included (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).

Bronnfenbrenner (1979, 2000) determined that the microsystem is the level where the child or adolescent is at the center. It includes the behaviours, roles and

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relationships in everyday contexts in which she/he spends her/his days. The microsystem is the place where the children/ adolescents interact with other people easily and closely, as in the home, the school, and with friends. The mesosystem refers to interrelationships of two or more environments in which the

child/adolescent actively participates, such as family, school and community (after- school activities, church). Therefore, a mesosystem is considered a system of microsystems, and it increases in size when the child or adolescent enters a new environment. The exosystem refers to environments that include events that have an impact on what is happening in the environment encompassing the child or

adolescent, or that influence what happens in that environment (other people or external relations). The macrosystem is the plane where all corresponding events in the micro, meso and exosystems exist or could exist. In this plane, factors of influence are linked to the characteristics of the culture and historical-social moment.

I refer to the image below of the Bronfenbrenner model (Figure 1) to show the distribution of each system. The microsystem is the most immediate level at which the individual develops; this is usually the family. The mesosystem comprises the interrelationships of two or more environments in which the developing person actively participates; broader contexts are integrated into the exosystem that do not include the person as an active subject; and finally, the macrosystem is shaped by the culture and subculture in which the person and all the individuals in that person’s society operate.

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Figure 1. Socio-ecological Model. (Stanger, 2011)

Each of the systems mentioned includes the means of relation, such as family, friends, work / school, hospital, therapy, associations, etc. These must be broken down into a multitude of variables and factors that interact and influence the child and adolescent, namely, interaction, decisions and actions in the family (micro- level), community (meso-level), government and social structures (exo-level) and global structures, global health organisation, global economy (macro-level). Some interactions appearing in these levels impact personal, attitudinal and behavioural characteristics of the person involved in the different environments, mostly those appearing at micro and meso-levels. Interactions generated at those levels determine the way a child develops daily and will have a decisive impact on the manner in which children adapt and develop skills to navigate different challenges during life.

The socio-ecological model has become widely used in promoting health and wellbeing. It offers a broad perspective for researchers and facilitators working with children and adolescents. Vulnerable conditions are complex and difficult to

understand and address adequately. Bronfenbrenner’s approach constitutes a comprehensive tool that has allowed us to comprehend children’s and adolescent’s

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realities (Ashiabi and O’Neal, 2015). Therefore, improving educative and wellbeing interventions in vulnerable populations should target multiple levels, settings and kinds of intervention. Regarding vulnerability and the development of resilient behaviour, experts have coined the term of socio-ecological resilience (Ungar, 2011b). In the following sections, I provide key theoretical ideas for understanding the concept of socio-ecological resilience, socio-emotional learning, and the expert considerations regarding risk factors and their perspectives on protective factors.

4.2 Resilience

The constructs of socio-ecological resilience and socio-emotional learning are multidimensional; both have various components and variables that may determine the wellbeing of children and adolescents in vulnerable contexts. On one hand, resilience is a concept describing the ability to recover from trauma and to withstand adverse situations without collapsing. On the other hand, socio-emotional learning consists of emotional, cognitive and behavioural variables that foster healthy development throughout one’s lifecycle (Durlak, 2015; Osher et al., 2016;

Weissberg et al., 2015). Under vulnerable conditions, the development of resilient behaviour is determined by socio-emotional skills an individual learns in the environment where she/he interacts. In this sense, it is fundamental to consider how the field boundaries surrounding pedagogy, psychology and social work fade when talking about children’s and adolescents’ vulnerability.

4.2.1 Children’s and Adolescent’s Vulnerability

Concept experts who have studied vulnerability in young people underscore that vulnerability in children refers to not having certain basic rights fulfilled (Arora et al., 2015). This definition is drawn around three main “aspects of dependence”:

Material (money, food, clothing, shelter, healthcare and education), Emotional

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(care, love, support, space to grieve and containment of emotions), and Social (absence of a supportive peer group, of role models to follow, or of guidance in difficult situations, and risks in the immediate environment). A study by Arora et al.

(2015) also stresses the definition of vulnerability by the World Bank as “the group of children that experience negative outcomes, such as the loss of their education, morbidity, and malnutrition, at higher rates than do their peers”. Additionally, they refer to extremely vulnerable children as those who live in the street, children in the worst forms of child labour, children affected by armed conflict, children affected by HIV/AIDS, children living with disability, and orphans. Vulnerability is a blend of very complex phenomena, and it is characterised depending on social and historical conditions of subjects and populations.

During the pandemic crisis of 2020, vulnerability and risk factors for children and adolescents increased. As stated by UNICEF (2019) and experts (Goldberg, 2020), the pandemic quickly changed the context in which children live, health and psychosocial professionals face a massive challenge.

“Measures such as school closures and restrictions on movements disrupt children’s routine and social support while also placing new stressors on parents and caregivers who may have to find new childcare options or forgo work. Stigma and discrimination related to COVID-19 may make children more vulnerable to violence and psychosocial distress. Disease control measures that do not consider the gender-specific needs and vulnerabilities of women and girls may also increase their protection risks and lead to negative coping mechanisms. Children and families who are already vulnerable due to socio-economic exclusion or those who live in overcrowded settings are particularly at risk” (UNICEF, 2019).

The term vulnerability is used in several fields in order to refer to the potential for poor outcomes, risk or danger. Children living in vulnerable conditions have little or no chance to learn socio-emotional appropriate tools to develop resilient behaviours.

As the socio-ecological model proposes, children live at various levels and circumstances in the systems that exert influence directly or indirectly on them.

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What characterises these systems is that they maintain important interconnections with each other. Family, friends, economic conditions, support actors, hospitals, organisations, etc., can introduce facilitating or disruptive elements in the lives of children, which can even affect the course of their experiences or trauma. This means that vulnerability must be understood as a complex condition with multiple intricate variables. Contemporary childhood and youth are confronted

indiscriminately with a number of critical issues and decisions without the education or practice of critical social, emotional, and cognitive skills. Solutions lie within the combined efforts of the entire protective network or community: children and families, schools and institutions, business and industry.

4.2.2 Concept of Resilience

Studies on vulnerable populations show that resilience is a blend of behaviours that children and families use to cope with and navigate through their life adversities. As quoted by Thompson (2012), experts define the term as a dynamic, developmental process reflecting evidence of positive adaptation despite significant life adversity;

resilience is considered a phenomenon that manifests in an individual who functions competently despite experiencing significant adversity. A more recent analysis refers broadly to resilience as “the study of capabilities, processes, or outcomes denoted by desirable adaptations in the context of risk or adversities associated with dysfunction or adjustment problems” (Masten, 2018). The latter theoretical analysis continues by saying that “resilience was inferred on the basis of two observable criteria: challenges (risks, stressors, or adversities) confronting a child or family and posing a significant threat to their wellbeing or function and positive adaptation (how well the person or family is doing by designated criteria), typically judged by indicators of good function or competence in the development of the person or family” (Masten, 2018).

Experts demonstrate that resilience has many conceptual variations and is a very mutable term. Socio-ecological and systems approaches have introduced ideas and built consensus around the concept of resilience (Masten, 2018; Ungar, 2011b).

Masten (2018) highlighted the following core ideas of a systems framework: “Many

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interacting systems at multiple levels shape the function and development of living systems, the capacity for adaptation of a system and its development are dynamic (always changing), because of interconnections and interactions inherent to living systems, change can spread across domains and levels of function systems are interdependent”. Therefore, there are external factors that influence a child’s resilient behaviour: family support, protection networks (schools, non-profit organisations, hospitals), support received from counsellors, educative facilitators, social workers, teachers or experts, etc. In other words, resilience can be considered an interactive process between the child, his/her family and his/her multiple

environments of participation. In this respect, in previous decades, experts emphasised that the ability of resistance and recovery of a subject (child or

adolescent) is importantly conditioned by other people and other influence systems, and it is not just a feature of the individual’s genetics or personality (Anthony &

Cohler, 1987; Place et al. 2002)

Within the socio-ecology of resilience approach (Ungar, 2011a), besides studying temperament and individual traits, research suggests that most positive outcomes result from facilitative environments that provide children and adolescents with the potential to do well.

4.2.2.1 Resilience factors

Resilience is measured by protective factors that an individual use when coping with difficult situations. In the case of vulnerability, resilience is manifested in situations of poverty, violence, and abuse where risk factors are present. Table 1 summarises a series of experts’ findings on frequent resilience factors from the perspective of the child and family systems (Masten, 2018). These resilience factors were identified in environments where the children function, which in turn offered the possibility of identifying protective factors that have effects on the development of resilient behaviours.

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Table 1. Comparison of Resilience Factors Frequently Identified by Scholars Studying Resilience from the Perspective of Child or Family Systems. Adapted from (Masten, 2018).

Individual Resilience Factors Family Resilience Factors Nurturing, sensitive caregiving (depending on

the age to receive and provide nurturing) Nurturing, protective care for vulnerable members

Attachment relationships, emotional security,

belonging Family cohesion, sense of belonging

Skilled parental management and discipline tailored to child

Maintaining boundaries, family integrity, family authority, rules Agency, motivation to adapt Active coping, mastery

Problem-solving, planning, executive function skills

Collaborative problem-solving, family flexibility

Self-regulation, emotion regulation

Co-regulation, balancing family demands, emotion-regulation

Hope, faith, optimism Hope, faith, optimism, positive outlook

Meaning-making, belief life has meaning

Coherence, family meaning-making, collective meaning, family purpose.

Positive views of the self or identity Positive views of family, family identity

Routines and rituals

Family routines and rituals, family role organisation

As mentioned in previous paragraphs, people around children and adolescents are actors and sources that impact an individual’s adaptations. It is the responsibility of these social actors to ensure the necessary resources so that the child and adolescent can fully develop. In this respect, Grotberg (1996) asserts that protective factors are influenced externally by provided support and resources, such as, trusting

relationships and role models, basic access to services (health, education, welfare and security services), psychosocial support, solid or structured rules and boundaries at home that include developing autonomy in a safe environment, school safety and

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stable environment, religious or organisations that promote spiritual growth (hope, faith, morality, trust), and internal, personal strengths, including a sense of being lovable.

The elements that constitute resilience factors have also been widely studied. Some experts agree that a high self-esteem and positive self-concept, an ability to self- reflect, the capacity to think critically and to perform actions independently, and skills to solve problems and social adaptability, etc., are fundamental resilience factors (Masten & Powell, 2003; Place et al., 2002). Grotberg (2006) proposes three sources of resilience: I am, which includes qualities related to the person’s internal strength; I can, which involves social capacities and interpersonal relationships; and I have, which builds on relationships, trust and perceived social support. Similarly, in regard to socio-emotional factors to promote resilient behaviours, experts also refer to key emotional and social aspects (Collins, 2007; Delgado et al., 2008;

Fredrickson et al., 2003). These studies conclude that resilient behaviours are built on positive emotions such as creativity, sense of humour, optimistic thinking, self- esteem, hope, positive expectations and confidence as coping strategies, and all these are based on cohesion, family or adaptability of the immediate environment, and open communication. These last considerations lead to the fundamental role of socio-emotional learning in relation to developing resilience in children and adolescents. The following lines introduce to in general views on concepts around socio-emotional learning.

4.3 Concept of socio-emotional learning

CASEL (Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning) has been a leading organisation for socio-emotional learning (SEL). Experts in this

organisation define socio-emotional learning as “the process through which children and adults acquire and effectively apply the knowledge, attitudes, and skills

necessary to understand and manage emotions, set and achieve positive goals, feel and show empathy for others, establish and maintain positive relationships, and make responsible decisions” (2015). Socio-emotional learning is described as an instance that increases the ability of children and adolescents to know each other, in

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order to be able to use that information for their own and others’ benefit in solving problems, by being flexible and creative. Socio-emotional learning teaches key skills that children and adolescents need to manage their emotions and relationships.

The concept of socio-emotional learning is linked to the concept of emotional intelligence developed by Mayer and Salovey (Mayer and Salovey, 1997; Salovey and Sluyter, 1997). The model has been introduced mainly in schools, generating attention and support for children and adolescents with risk behaviours. As Hoffman describes, “Since the early 1990s, social emotional learning (SEL) has emerged as a major thematic and programmatic emphasis in American education. Concerns over the vulnerability of children and youth to various social and psychological problems and the potential role of schools in ameliorating such risks have helped fuel the growing popularity of efforts to help youth become more socially and emotionally competent” (Hoffman, 2009).

In the fields of social work and wellbeing promotion, the term most often used to refer to SEL (socio-emotional learning) is socio-emotional or socio-affective development. The psychosocial and socio-emotional learning approaches are evidently interrelated; despite the fact that they are in different areas, there are methodological and theoretical convergences (Jones et al., 2015). It is generally known, however, that researchers in the social work field show major awareness of and expertise in children’s and adolescents’ experiences, contexts, abilities, and specific needs due to the profile of the profession and their vulnerability approach.

Social work interventions may report on the diversity of families and communities, challenges, culture, specific strengths and perspectives. In other words, a social worker has the profile and resources to examine more in depth the social, emotional and learning needs of a child or adolescent. Regarding vulnerability risk factors, one child may have a special need, developmental delay or disability, while another may experience stress in his or her home or community caused by violence, trauma, abuse, or neglect. Nowadays, academic actors in a school setting are transitioning to pay more attention to these factors with the help of psychosocial teams (social workers and counsellors) (Arratia, 2018; Merrell & Gueldner, 2010; Openshaw, 2012). The importance of tuning in and being aware of each child’s specific needs and where he or she is developmentally can help to adjust the protective network of

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care, environment, and daily activities. This may include managing the expectations about each child’s behaviour and learning, remaining sensitive to his or her

individual needs, and acquiring additional support if needed.

Research advances support the importance of the socio-emotional learning approach, since related practices have been linked to better academic learning outcomes and a better climate in schools (Boncu et al., 2017; Durlak et al., 2011;

Reicher, 2010). Socio-emotional learning is a recent term to name a cluster of practices that have been historically implemented to promote social and emotional development in psychosocial support fields. Nowadays, socio-emotional learning (SEL) is a term used in recent decades to refer to the process through which a person becomes skillful recognising and managing emotions and feelings, showing empathy towards others, making decisions that benefit his/her or others’ wellbeing, behaving ethically and responsibly, developing positive relationships, and avoiding negative behaviours (Elias et al., 1997).

Following the socio-ecological model, socio-emotional learning programs intend to have an impact on individuals in the micro and meso-levels. At the micro-level where the child and adolescent are at the centre, as mentioned previously, the core studied skills proposed by CASEL, consists of a personality taxonomy integrated by five basic dimensions of individual personality traits: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability and openness to experience. This taxonomy is in line with other psychosocial perspectives on temperament, social learning theory, positive psychology, grit and the existing CASEL frameworks for social and

emotional learning core competencies (Bridgeland et al. 2013; John et al. 1999). At the meso-level, schools play the role of intermediaries and may have an impact on the micro-level, whereby schools are then a key part in the ecological system where the child or the adolescent moves. The school is then understood as an environment with sufficient conditions to provide psychosocial support and socio-emotional learning. Research efforts today focus on the enhancement of support networks, aiming at the whole development of the child and adolescent. Durlak (1997) says that “relationships and emotional processes affect how and what we learn; schools and families must effectively address these aspects of the educational process for the benefit of all students” (Durlak, 2015).

Generating socio-emotional learning in children and adolescents living in vulnerable conditions: