The social media cocktail party
A qualitative study of how companies and organizations communicate online
Sarah Ryrhagen
Department of Media Studies Master Thesis 30 ECTS Media and Communication
Master Programme in Media and Communication (120 ECTS) Supervisor: Sven Ross
2017-05-23
Abstract
Due to the development of, and the opportunities that social media provides for different groups in society, companies and organizations are encouraged to be present on, and be a part of the new social media landscape. This research examines how five companies and five organizations use social media as a tool to create relationships with individuals, and what role social media plays in the daily communication work. The social media platforms discussed in this research companies and organizations can utilize not only to create an identity and work with branding, but also to apply two-way communication with individuals.
The research applies qualitative interviews with representatives from each company and organization. The main findings revealed surprisingly that there are not any significant differences between companies’ and organizations’ way of using social media, but that it differs more between different kinds of companies and organizations. Most companies and organizations use different social media platforms for different purposes or to reach different target groups. Facebook and Instagram are the two platforms that most companies and organizations from the research use. Facebook is generally used to share information and Instagram to inspire. Furthermore, social media provides different possibilities to reach out to people than more traditional ways of communication such as print advertising and newsletters. Hence, social media plays an important role in the work with communication in order to reach out to people and can have a decisive effect for companies and organizations.
The advantages of social media that the participating companies and organizations emphasized are that they get to have their own voice, they can themselves create interest and commitment, rather than using a PR-firm for example, and it enables two-way communication which in turn foster relationships with individuals. Finally, one of the biggest advantages highlighted is the fast communication that is enabled on social media platforms which keep the companies and organizations closer to the public.
Key words: social media, companies, organizations, relationships, two-way communication
Table of Content
1. Introduction... 1
1.1 Conceptual Explanation……… 2
1.2 Research Aim and Research Questions………...2
1.3 Disposition……… 4
2. Background………. 5
2.1 Definition of Social Media……….... 5
2.2 The New Communication Landscape……..………. 6
3. Previous Research………...8
3.1 Previous Research………... 8
3.2 Theoretical Framework……….……..….. 10
3.2.1 The Transformation of the Media Over Time………..….... 10
3.2.2 Strategic Communication………...………..… 12
3.2.3 Two-Way Communication………..………...… 13
3.2.4 Relation and Social Media Marketing………..… 15
3.2.5 Relationships Between Companies/organizations and individuals…..….... 17
4. Method and Material……….… 19
4.1 Method….……….… 19
4.1.1 Interviews.……….... 19
4.1.1.1 Thematic Analysis.……….……….. 21
4.1.2 Research Ethic Principals...……….……... 22
4.1.3 Reliability and Validity..……….. 22
4.2 Material……….... 23
4.2.1 Sampling.……….. 23
4.2.2 Companies and Organizations……….. 23
4.2.2.1 Companies..……….. 24
4.2.2.2 Organizations..………..25
5. Results and Analysis………... 28
5.1 Communication strategy: the company/organization’s external communication (channels, strategies, target groups etc.) ……….………28
5.2 Social Media: channels, field of application, views on, implementation, strengths, weaknesses etc……….………31
5.3 Relationships: two-way communication, criticism, to answer etc…………..…….. 35
5.4 The Future…..………... 40
6. Discussion and Conclusion………...42
6.1 Discussion... 42
6.2 Conclusion.……….…...48
6.3 Limitations and Further Research….……… 50
7. References………51
7.1 Literature..……….… 51
7.2 Online Sources.………. 54
7.3 Oral Sources, Interviews...……….... 55
8. Appendices………...…57
8.1 E-mail Sent to Companies and Organizations….……… 57
8.2 Interview Guide..………...……58
8.2 Table of Social Media Platforms Used....………...…...59
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1. Introduction
In this chapter, the reader is given a background to the subject of the thesis. Some terms used throughout the thesis are explained and the aim and research questions are presented. In conclusion, the chapter shortly argues for why the subject is relevant for the academic field of media and communication and some limitations of focus are presented. Lastly, a disposition of the thesis is presented.
With the rise of social media around 15 years ago, political discourse and public engagement has changed (Social Media Week, 2016). Since then social media has somewhat filled an obvious place in many people’s lives. Social media have gained a massive impact in short time and some even refer to social media as a new media revolution (Falkheimer & Heide, 2011:33). There also seems to be a constant discussion about social media’s claimed opportunities, and as companies and organizations have realised the possibilities of dialogue and relation with individuals from working with social media, it has become more and more popular for companies and organizations to become a part of the digital social world. Side by side as the world has become more connected the one-way communication model, at least partially, has been exchanged with two-way communication. Social media platforms continue to grow rapidly and they have become important factors that have reshaped the way companies and organizations engage with their customers (The Marketing Magazine 2016).
Internet and the explosion of social media have led to opportunities for companies and organizations to actually build relationships with customers (Sashi, 2012:253).
Social media hold the power of changing the media image from communication towards dialogue. Individual users as well as companies and organizations can now reach out to others without being held back by traditional gatekeepers or physical space (Karlsson, 2008:9). Social media therefore becomes a space where one can send a message, but also to ask for a message or collect opinions from others. The consumers of today use the Internet as an arena for information and communication (Svensk Handel 2014). Internet and social media is the place where the conversation never dies and people never sleep, and companies need to keep up with that. According to Internetstatistik.se (2014) more than half of all Swedish companies are present on social media and in large, a study by Cone (2008) shows that 93% of social media users believe that companies should have a social media presence,
2 while 85% think that companies should interact with them via social networking sites (Michaelidou, Siamagka, Christodoulides, 2011:1153).
Social media includes a range of different features that companies and organizations can make use of to engage with a wider public. These features include blogs, micro-blogs, social networking, photo and video sharing, online chat forums, online media monitoring and much more (Thackeray, Neiger, Hanson & McKenzie, 2008; Eyrich et al., 2008; Waters et al., 2011). The features provide new and different ways to reach out to the public and enable people to interact and have a conversation with companies and organizations today.
1.1 Conceptual Explanation
The study includes concepts such as individuals, customer/s, consumer/s, the public, companies and organizations. Individuals, customer/s, consumer/s and the public in this research refer to private persons who do not represent any company, organization or association, but only represent him or herself as an individual. Companies refer to businesses where the purpose of the coordination is to develop, produce and sell goods or services for a profit-driven outcome. Organizations refer to non-profit organizations.
1.2 Research Aim and Research Questions
The aim of this research is to identify companies’ and organizations’ approaches to social media, what role they fulfil in the daily communication work and to get an insight into how companies and organizations use social media as a tool to communicate with individuals, with the purpose of creating a relationship with them.
The research questions are
1. In which ways do companies and organizations approach different social media platforms to communicate with individuals?
2. Are there any differences between how companies and organizations use social media? If yes, in what way?
3. What role do social media play in order to reach out and interact with individuals?
4. What advantages does social media hold in comparison to more traditional ways of corporate and organizational communication?
3 More and more companies and organizations realise the importance and potential of social media presence and therefore more and more companies and organizations also become active users of it with company blogs, Twitter, LinkedIn, Facebook and even Instagram accounts.
Companies, organizations and individuals can now engage in a different and new kind of relationship where communication is more accessible. Traditional media such as television, film and radio are of course still very significant but the internet has changed the paradigm as (almost) everyone today have a mobile phone with internet access (QS Top Universities, 2011) which makes social media an easy, accessible and simple way of communicating. How this new form of communication through social media is developing and influencing all possible aspects of society is very interesting and up-to-date from a perspective of media science. As can be seen from the previous research presented below, companies and organizations are urged to engage more with individuals through social media. Research conducted also suggests different ways in which companies and organizations should use social media to avoid lagging behind as individuals become more powerful. However, there is a visible gap of research and knowledge about how companies and organizations have adapted to the new communication landscape where social media is an important communication tool and how they actually use it. This research seeks to focus on that gap in the research field of media and communication by targeting the knowledge about how companies and organizations work with social media in relation to meaning making, dialogue and relation building with customers, and what impact social media have on communication on a corporate level. However, the research is concerned with the companies’ and organizations’ self-experienced work with social media platforms and their experiences and thoughts about it.
Studies on social media is very significant in the media and communications field as it can contribute with a practical viewpoint of how different actors, such as companies and organizations, work with it to gain the knowledge and skills needed to understand all of its functions, but also from an analytical point of view to understand its significance and impact on society. Social media does not only have an impact on how individuals communicate with each other, but it also has the power to change how companies work with external communication. Therefore, it is relevant for the field of media research to put more emphasis on social media and different aspects of it. However, the focus of this thesis will lie on the companies’ and organizations’ experiences and work with social media, and not highlight
4 how individuals experience companies’ and organizations’ presence and communication on social media. The individuals’ perspective is in other words not focused on at all.
1.3 Disposition
After giving a short introduction to the subject of study and presenting the aim and research questions above, the thesis will continue with the second chapter, Background, that introduces the reader to the concepts of social media and the new communication landscape. Thereafter, the third chapter, Previous Research and Theory, provides an account of what research have previously been conducted concerning companies, organizations and social media. The theory section deals with theories such as the transformation over time, strategic communication, two-way communication, relation and social media marketing, and relationships between companies or organizations and individuals. In the fourth chapter, Method and Material, interviews and thematic analysis that have been used are introduced and the steps taken in the study presented. The participating companies and organizations are likewise presented. The fifth chapter, Results and Analysis, presents the results from the analysis of the interviews.
The sixth chapter, Discussion and Conclusion, provides a discussion of the results in relation to the theories from the theory section and ends with a short conclusion including limitations and suggestions for further research.
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2. Background
The background chapter introduces the reader to the concepts of social media and the new communication landscape.
2.1 Definition of Social Media
Social media is an umbrella term used for different digital communication channels that allow users to communicate directly with each other through text, image and video. Social media is set apart from mass media as they build on content that is produced by the users of the medium. While the content of mass media is produced by companies and/or organizations, social media can be seen as a network where many individuals can communicate with each other. Every user on social media can produce and receive content on the same terms.
Social media is a combination of technology, social interaction and user generated content that can be used for social relations, news distribution, marketing, culture and entertainment.
The core of social media is that users do not have to invest lots of money or knowledge to be able to produce and receive content (NE 2017). User Generated Content can be described as a description of the various forms of media content that are publicly available and created by end-users (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010:61).
Kaplan & Haenlein state that social media builds on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0 that allow the creation and exchange of User Generated Content. Web 2.0 refers to a kind of platform whereby content and applications are no longer created and published by individuals, but instead they are continuously modified by all users and in a participatory and collaborative fashion (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010:60-61). Paul Levinson points to some features that distinguishes social media from older types of media that can be used as guiding principles of social media; every consumer is a producer, social media is always free, it is competitive and mutually catalytic, it is more than search engines and email, and it requires underlying platforms beyond the control of the users (2012:3-5).
Scott and Jacka argues that social media enables the democratization of content, giving people the ability to emerge from consumers of content to publishers (2011:5). Further, they note that the most significant outcome of applying social media for companies and organizations is to help foster relationships with people and that the global power of the relationships created on
6 social media is evolving at high speed (Scott & Jacka, 2011:6). Social media have become a part of how people communicate today and in the last decade it has transformed from a way people pass their time to an important part of not only personal, but also corporate culture (Scott & Jacka, 2011:4).
In this research, social media will refer to webpages and mobile applications with which people can interact with each other in different social networks. Social media can include online forums, social networking sites and applications, blogs, vlogs and podcasts.
2.2 The New Communication Landscape
Social media presents new opportunities for users to engage in self-presentation, identity- building and talk with family and friends in a way that was not possible before. Interactions online on social networks differ in a great way from interactions face-to-face in offline environments. Online interaction is often characterized by less restrictive expressions and users may disclose at levels quite different from their face-to-face conversations. As social networks function as a new way for interaction, the maintenance of relationships online becomes more and more common (Webb, Wilson, Hodges, Smith & Zakeri, 2012:4)
Social media provides a new sphere of interaction where the written word weighs heavily as it is always present in contrast to the oral word. It has a different kind of permanence that oral speech cannot attain in the same way (Jones, 2012:31). Almost everyone who engage in digital or electronic media has experienced the ability of electronic media to bypass former limitations of communication. Electronic media have changed the significance of time, space and physical barriers as communication variables (McQuail, 2002:100), and this provides a completely new space, or landscape, for companies, organizations and individuals to talk to each other and explore.
Notions of what is termed the public sphere or public space, which thematise the role of interaction among citizens in the political process can be traced back to the ancient Greeks.
Notions of what is public are of course premised on conceptions on what is private. Habermas conceptualizes the public sphere as the realm of social life where the exchange of information and views on questions of common concern can take place so that public opinion can be formed. The public sphere is created when citizens come together as public bodies to discuss
7 issues of the day. Lately, mass media have become the chief institution of the public sphere (McQuail, 2002:195). The public sphere has in time perhaps not moved, but broadened itself to the internet. Social media allows the public all around the world to gather together and discuss issues that are not necessarily close to them geographically, but close to their heart. In line with Habermas concept of the public sphere, the public sphere exists in the active reasoning of the public, whether offline or online. It is via such discourses that public opinion is generated (McQuail, 2002:195).
For small businesses and organizations, the entry of social media meant that they could also have a voice and gain ground on larger organizations without having the same type of budget.
With the ability to upload text, images, audio and video for global access, traditional media have to a large scale been distorted. Due to this, individuals have become empowered with the ability to act as publishers, creating content and joining conversations regardless of the media format. At the same time as this opens new and fantastic opportunities for businesses to grow closer to their stakeholders, it does not come without a set of substantial risks (Scott & Jacka, 2011: 4-5). With the opportunity for everyone to be a publisher, the companies and organizations are no longer in complete control of its message and reputation. However, the ability to develop and maintain stronger and more meaningful relationships with stakeholders, customers, consumers, and individuals create opportunities to provide much greater values.
Social media has evolved into a diverse set of tools and technologies that enables companies and organizations to communicate with individuals in real-time, and through effective listening, connecting and conversing with them, they can increase their understanding of individuals’ needs (Scott & Jacka, 2011:17).
In this new social media landscape, full of risks and opportunities, the value for companies and organizations lies within relationships. When social media is implemented effectively it provides a method to nurture trust between the company or organization and the individuals.
The ability to move beyond the monologue way of communicating and embrace an open and honest dialogue on an even level with individuals is of benefit for companies and organizations (Scott & Jacka, 2011:18). Social media have hence created a new space for companies, organizations and individuals to meet and converse where people have more power than they used to have before. This puts quite some pressure on companies and organizations to stay informed and up-to-date with what is going on in this new online social world and it is forcing them to adapt to the individuals’ way of communicating.
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3. Previous Research and Theory
This chapter begins with an account for the previous research concerning companies, organizations and social media. In the theory section the theories through which the collected material will be analysed with is presented.
3.1 Previous Research
A great deal of empirical research has been done regarding companies and social media. As companies lose control over information when individuals post comments and reviews online (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010:60), companies and organizations are beginning to understand the importance of real conversations with individuals (Griffiths & McLean 2015). The importance of social media has resulted in practitioners seeking to harness the potential of it to build enduring relational exchanges with strong emotional bonds (Griffiths & McLean 2015:267). Earlier there was not an equal level arena among companies, organizations and individuals. Companies and organizations could only be contacted through telephone first, then through email or an online formulary which created an uneven power balance in favour of the companies. But as new communication platforms developed, businesses felt the need to become more social and began to adopt to these new social platforms and the relationship with individuals changed (Griffiths & McLean, 2015:148).
Many of the studies available on companies, organizations and social media concerns how they should work with social media and adapt to its potentials. Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) provide five points about using social media as a step guide for companies; 1) choose carefully, 2) pick the application or make your own, 3) ensure activity alignment, 4) media plan integration, and 5) access for all. Further they also provide a five-step guide about being social; 1) be active, 2) be interesting, 3) be humble, 4) be unprofessional, and 5) be honest. It is important for companies to have a set of guidelines that can be applied to any form of social media as it is a fast-moving and active domain, and what is up-to-date today may be gone tomorrow (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010:65). Companies and organizations also need to recognise and understand their social media landscape in order to pay attention to the critical elements of it, including who the main influencers are according to Kietzmann, Hermkens, McCarthy and Silvestre (2011:249) who use a honeycomb framework of seven social media building blocks to address this gap in knowledge. Utilizing these blocks together and separately can help managers to make sense of the social media ecology and to understand
9 their audience and their engagement needs (Kietzmann, Hermkens, McCarthy & Silvestre, 2011:242). Just as companies and organisations need to adapt to the new social media landscape, consumers are utilizing social media platforms to create, modify, share and discuss internet content. This represents a social media phenomenon which significantly can have a great impact on a firm's reputation, sales and survival (Kietzmann, Hermkens, McCarthy &
Silvestre, 2011:241). Social media can have an important consequence for organisational communication processes because they now afford new types of behaviours that previously were difficult or even impossible to achieve before the new technologies were introduced in the workplace (Treem & Leonardi, 2013:178).
Much of the research conducted also concern marketing and PR. Briones, Kuch, Fisher, Liu and Jin argue that practising public relations through social media is effective and necessary in the digital age. The result from their study which included interviews with individuals from the American Red Cross emphasise the increasing importance of social media channels and provides insights to building relationships using social media (2011:37). The importance of having a relationship with customers and individuals is pointed out by many scholars as an important reason for companies to use social media as consumers are adopting more active roles in co-creating marketing content with companies and their brands. Consumers are in other words no longer only passive recipients in the marketing exchange process (Hanna, Rohm & Crittenden 2011:265). In relationship marketing, the idea is to create customer loyalty so that a stable, mutually profitable and long-term relationship is enhanced (Ravald &
Grönroos, 1996:19). People working with advertising are finding new ways to communicate with their customers that capitalise on and leverage the long-term relationship between the advertiser and the customer. By utilising the new media choices and technologies, they are building relationships instead of just trying to make a one time-sell (Copulsky & Wolf, 1990:16). Many social sites are designed primarily to facilitate conversations among individuals and groups, and as the notion of identity is core to many social media platforms, this represents some fundamental implications for companies and organisations seeking to develop their own social media sites or strategies for engaging with other sites (Kietzmann, Hermkens, McCarthy & Silvestre, 2011:244).
With the rise of social media, corporate communication has been democratised and companies and organisations need to decide if they want to seriously get involved with social
10 media or not. Whether they choose to engage in social media or not, it will have a tremendous impact (Kietzmann, Hermkens, McCarthy & Silvestre, 2011:242).
The previous research presented above marks where the emphasis has been put in research concerning companies, organizations and social media. Naturally, it also illuminates the gap in the research field of media and communication. The research shows that individuals have become more empowered through social media as they have become co-producers (Hanna, Rohm & Crittenden, 2011). Creating a relationship with individuals serves as a consistently red line throughout the research presented. Social media have created a new space for conversation where individuals, companies and organizations can elaborate on more equal terms. Above mentioned authors suggest that companies and organizations need to seize this new communication landscape to avoid becoming an outsider in the new communication landscape. Further, the authors suggest different ways in which companies and organizations can and should handle this new media ecology (Kietzmann, Hermkens, McCarthy &
Silvestre, 2011).
The previous research leaves a gap in the academic research field of media and communication concerning how companies and organizations use social media in their external communication. Further, there is also a gap concerning if there are any differences in how social media is used by companies and organizations. The natural step to move forward from the previous research concerning how companies and organizations should and could use social media is to examine how companies and organizations use social media on a practical level and to see what role it has for companies and organizations. The value in that kind of research lies in the complement it provides to the already existing research; to create an understanding of how the framework of the previous research have been applied in practice.
3.2 Theoretical Framework
3.2.1 The Transformation of the Media Over Time
Henry Jenkins (2008) discusses the clash between the old and the new media and how it led to some big changes within the media society. The time when media was used for only one purpose has passed by a long time ago, and now it is more multifaceted, interactive and
11 multifunctional (Jenkins, 2008:26). Thanks to the increased availability of channels and portability the communication technology has contributed with, we find ourselves in a time where the media is everywhere. And as Jenkins put it, ready or not, we are a part of that convergence culture and companies and organizations must adapt to it to avoid lacking behind.
Jenkins points out the transformation of the media as a convergence that can be seen as a flow between different media platforms, the co-operation between different media industries, and the flexibility and mobility among the public as they search for different experiences. The ability for media content to spread across different media systems and national boundaries is in big part due to the public’s active participation. As a natural effect of the convergence, media producers’ and media consumers’ power is in an unpredictable way interacting with each other (Jenkins, 2008:14-15). The media industry has been through a paradigm shift; during the ‘90s, predictions concerned the approaching digital revolution and people talked about how the new media would replace the old media. Internet would replace television and radio, and this would lead to an easier access to the media content that is relevant for every individual (Jenkins, 2008:17). Nicholas Negropontes (1996) is one among many that predicted that old “passive” media would be exchanged with new
“interactive” media. He predicted the collapse of television as new and more narrowed media arrived with more choices of time and place for the consumer. However, the convergence is not a static condition, but rather a dynamic one where change is always present (Jenkins, 2008:22). Perhaps remediation is more suitable when talking about how the media have changed and transformed over time. Remediation is when content is presented in a new medium without making a reference to the old medium in the new medium, and Bolter and Grusin (1999) argues that remediation is a defining characteristic of new digital media. They also argue that new media are never completely independent from older media and that different media always borrow modes of expression from each other (Bolter & Grusin, 1999). A new medium can remediate by trying to absorb the older medium as much as possible so that the discontinuities between the two are minimized.
However, the new medium will always be dependent on the old one and the very act of remediation ensures that the older medium cannot be entirely affected (Bolter & Grusin, 1999:47).
12 Jenkins argues that we all, companies, organizations and individuals, need to find a way to cope with the changes that the convergence and remediation throw at us. There is no single group in society that will dictate the terms of this, but companies and organizations must renegotiate and change their relationship to the public and individuals as they now are in the middle of old and new media and demand to be a part of the new convergence culture. If not, companies and organizations will lose in terms of both income and diminished brand reputation (Jenkins, 2008:33).
Paul Levinson claims that older media such as broadcasting and print, as well as Amazon and iTunes have significant social components as well as the “social media” have today.
People talk about the books they read, music they listen to and movies they see, if not even gathering in front of the television to watch it together. Even if this often happens offline, it is an example of the intrinsic social quality of media. The social aspect of the social media is indeed crucial according to Levinson, but not unique enough to rob the old media of its social aspects. He is also arguing that one of the primarily aspects of social media such as the consumer becoming a producer can easily be practiced by one person alone, and not in company of others, removing one of the social aspects of it (Levinson, 2008:3).
The sheer speed of evolution of social media is evident in the importance and existence of new media systems and sites. Levinson talks about how YouTube and Twitter played such an important role in the U.S. election in 2008 and that the role social media will play in future situations such as elections and others, is not possible to predict. However, Levinson predicts that they will have a major, likely decisive, impact where different social media platforms are providing context and elaboration of rapidly changing stories and events (Levinson, 2008:9).
3.2.2 Strategic Communication
When talking about corporate communication both internal and external communication within companies and organizations are referred to. According to Falkheimer and Heide strategic communication can be defined as a company’s or organization’s conscious communication efforts to achieve their goals (Falkheimer & Heide, 2011:13). By using this kind of communication, companies and organizations can generate a better and more loyal
13 relation to the public as the company’s and organization’s identity, values and standpoints are exposed and mediated through different social platforms (Falkheimer & Heide, 2009:41). There are four criteria that characterizes strategic communication; an overall perspective, communication and companies or organizations in focus, many different perspectives are used and it is a global platform (Falkheimer & Heide, 2011:19). Falkheimer and Heide argues that the technique behind new and social media might not be of that big interest, but what is of interest on the other hand is how different forms of communication are transformed and renewed and through that creates a collective meaning (Falkheimer &
Heide, 2011:25). Just like Scott and Jacka (2011) Falkheimer and Heide discuss how the traditional roles of sender and receiver are getting more and more blurred as new structures of communication is emerging. They make a connection to participant-oriented strategic communication where social media is unique in its way of creating opportunities for communication strategists to work with dialogues.
With the blurred lines of sender and receiver and the new communication structure, the lines between strategic communication and marketing is challenged. Research on participant- oriented strategic communication involves co-production which Prahalad and Krishnan (2008) means build on participation and individual focus as they argue that customers play an active role in co-creating value (Falkheimer & Heide, 2011:30). It is not unusual that users of social media act for a company or organization. The line for who works as a communication strategist is no longer as clear as it was before. Through social media individuals act as communication strategists by mentioning, making visible and rating companies, organizations and products they like. However, Falkheimer and Heide (2011) does not believe that companies and organizations are losing control over the information, but it does make it harder to control the public(s). Moreover, people seem generally interested in focusing on a certain matter and belonging to a community on social media according to Smith (2010) and that people’s activity online is more based on interest in a subject, cause or value.
3.2.3 Two-way Communication
Two-way communication is often seen as a dialogue rather than a monologue. Put in a simple way, two-way communication is when a sender transmits a message to a receiver. The receiver then sends a message back, acknowledging the message was received and perhaps
14 gives some feedback or response. In relation to companies and organizations, two-way communication means that communicators act as eyes and ears of their organizations. The two-way communication is based on the use of formal and informal research and communication departments with the knowledge to practice this kind of communication conduct more research than the ones without this kind of knowledge (Dozier, Grunig, Grunig, 1995:51). This knowledge consists of advanced practices that rightfully treat communication as a two-way process. Communicators sometimes use what they know about the public to persuade them to act the way dominant coalitions want. This is called two-way asymmetrical communication. Two-way symmetrical communication on the other hand refers to when communicators use what they know about the public to negotiate win-win solutions for both parties. By doing so, they build mutually beneficial relations with publics (Dozier, Grunig, Grunig, 1995:39). Communicators have recently begun to learn research techniques to gather information about what publics know, feel, and how they might even behave. By gathering this kind of information and organizing it is in such ways that dominant coalitions can understand it, communicators master the essential skills for practising two-way communication models (Dozier, Grunig, Grunig, 1995:45).
The symmetrical practices reflect important values about how organizations ought to behave in society. The two-way symmetrical model from Grunig’s Excellence Theory provides a framework for ethical communication practices. Communicators using the symmetrical model play key roles in adjusting or adapting behaviours of dominant coalitions, thus bringing publics and dominant coalitions closer together (Dozier, Grunig, Grunig, 1995:47). The model does not only focus on the gathering of information from and about the public, but it is also emphasizing a dialogue with the public. The dialogue is meant to create a relationship and to thus be able to handle conflicts. The communication is indeed two-way and more symmetrical, where convincing and behavioural change can occur in both the public and the company or organization (Grunig & White 1992:39). A clear focus in in this model is applied to understanding rather than persuasion.
Companies and organizations can nowadays choose to create deeper relationships with individuals by using new ways to communicate. Instead of only working with one-way communication and mass media, companies and organizations can engage in more interactive relationships by using two-way communication on internet. Communication through internet have led to a development of customer relationships. Companies or organizations and
15 individuals now have a good opportunity to interact with each other in a two-way communication to create a relationship (Kotler, Armstrong, Harris, Piercy, 2013:16).
3.2.4 Relation and Social Media Marketing
According to Koiranen (1995) relationship marketing is described as an approach with the aim to establish, maintain, and enhance long-term relations with customers and stakeholders.
Evans and Laskin (1994) agrees with Koiranen and argues that relationship marketing is a customer-oriented approach which enables companies and organizations to seek long-term relationships with individuals. The goal is to create and maintain lasting relationships between companies or organizations and individuals that are of equal benefit according to Rapp and Collins (1990). The main component of relationship marketing constitutes communicating and to get involved with individuals and thereby develop an ongoing relationship. Drury (2007) argues that using social media is a useful way of building conversation and relationship as it is an engaging way of sharing and exchanging perception and ideas.
Companies and organizations must build close brand relationships and experiences with individuals according to Kotler, Armstrong, Harris and Piercy (2013:xxii). Relation marketing in their meaning refers to the process where companies and organizations are creating and capturing customer value. Well-positioned brands with strong brand equity provides the basis upon which they build customer value and profitable customer relationships. The main aim of marketing is to create value for customers and capture value from customers in return (Kotler, Armstrong, Harris, Piercy, 2013:2). The two-fold goal of marketing is to attract new customers by promising superior value and keep and grow current customers by delivering satisfaction. It is more important than ever to build strong customer relationships based on real and enduring value (Kotler, Armstrong, Harris, Piercy, 2013:4).
Marketing exists of actions taken to build and maintain exchange relationships with target audiences involving a product, a service or an idea. Companies and organizations want to retain customers and grow their businesses, and marketers want to build strong relationships by consistently delivering superior customer value (Kotler, Armstrong, Harris, Piercy, 2013:7).
With social media, the opportunity for anyone to create and distribute their own content grows. Companies and organizations no longer need to pay publishers, distributers and
16 advertisers a large amount of money to embed their messages, now they can make their own content with endless possibilities of reaching millions of people almost for free. Traditional media such as television, newspapers, radio, and magazines are one-way, static broadcast technologies (Zarella, 2010:1-3). Social media comes in many forms and provide the possibilities for companies and organizations to take charge themselves of their marketing.
Many companies and organizations have embraced the opportunities of social media and used them for their convenience. For example, both IBM and Starbucks have websites created for customers to share their own ideas for new products, Burger King has made headlines several times using social media to spread innovative viral and social marketing campaigns, and several companies use social media as platforms for customer service. Of course, social media also comes with some risks for companies and organizations as individuals can spread negative output that the companies and organizations cannot control (Zarella, 2010:3-5). At the same time as big companies can be outsmarted on social media, small companies are moreover provided with the opportunity to make big names for themselves without huge investments (Zarella, 2010:7).
Social media in a marketing perspective can be used to announce offers and events, promote new products, keep up with the public and gain consumer insight (Zarella, 2010:31). Social networking sites are websites where people can connect with friends and these kinds of sites are very useful for marketers as they present a great number of opportunities for interacting with individuals (Zarella, 2010:53). However, it is important that companies and organizations know their customers well to know where to find them. To understand the special features of each social media platform and how to use them allow companies and organizations to build direct and personal relationships with individuals (Zarella, 2010:76).
The social media marketing can be divided into two different types: ongoing strategy and campaigns. The ongoing strategy refers to the ongoing activity that takes place on a regular basis, such as posting photos on Instagram or updating Facebook with new posts. Once companies and organizations have built a stable foundation of social media engagement they can start launching campaigns. However, the campaigns should be in line with the ongoing strategy and have specific goals and finite timelines. Campaigns are the kind of social media efforts that results in large, but rather temporary, peaks in traffic (Zarella, 2010:197).
17 3.2.5 Relationships Between Companies/organizations and Individuals
To create a relationship between a company or organization and individuals within modern marketing is often seen as a two-way-communication according to Philip Kotler (2011).
Christian Grönroos (2008) argues though that the relationship with individuals can only grow if the contact they have is genuine. Companies and organizations need to preserve and keep a good communication with individuals in order to facilitate a good relationship with them.
Social media provides an excellent opportunity for companies and organizations to inform and engage with individuals. Facebook for example, allows companies and organizations to create pages which other users may “like” and be a part of. On these pages, companies and organizations can provide information, customer service and promote games which creates a loyal community of individuals (Long, 2012:156) where a conversation between the company or organization and individuals can take place, creating a kind of relationship between the them.
Organization-public relationship refers to the relationship between a company or organization and its public. According to Ledingham and Bruning (1998) organization- public relationships are a condition which both parties are in together on equal conditions and where they both are affected of each other’s acting. They also argue that companies and organizations can have different kinds of relationships with their publics and that communication to some extent lay the groundwork for its shape. They argue that the characteristics of organization-public relationships can be of society orientation, professional or personal. While professional relationships grow from communication that is more business-like, personal relationships grow from a communication that is more informal and contributes to a more personal attitude between the company or organization and the public. This type of communication is often mentioned as one of the distinct features of social media (Kelleher & Miller, 2006). To reach relationships of more personal character, individuals must invest time, energy, emotions and thoughts into the relationship. The company or organization on the other hand should show that they care about the relationship and foster the individuals’ interests to be able to continue more personal relationships (Ledingham & Bruning, 1998:58).
18 Engagement is at the very heart of relationship building and can determine if one makes it or breaks it. Engagement sets forth the promise made to the public in terms of what value will be delivered (Scott & Jacka 2011:33). Kent and Taylor (1998) argued early that relationships between companies or organizations and the public could be created, adapted and changed through the World Wide Web (www). Thuy provide five principles that offers guidelines for successful integration of dialogic public relations on the www (Kent &
Taylor, 1998:326). The first principle is the dialogic loop, which allows publics to ask questions to companies and organizations and provides companies and organizations in turn with the opportunity to respond to questions, concerns and problems (Kent & Taylor, 1998:326-327). The second principle is the usefulness of information which means that websites should make efforts to post information that are of general value to all publics. This principle suggests that relationships with publics must be cultivated not only to serve the public relation goals of the companies and organizations, but also so that the interests, values and concerns of the public are addressed (Kent & Taylor, 1998:327-328). The third principle is the generation of return visits and explores ways to create the foundation for long lasting relationships. Sites should contain features and information that makes them attractive for repeat visits, such as updated information, changing issues, special forums and so on. The communication professionals in this sense is only one part of generating repeat visits, the other part is that websites must also be easy to use (Kent & Taylor, 1998:329).
The fourth principle which is called the intuitiveness or ease of the interface. Websites ought to provide convenience for the visitors, in other words, it should not be hard to figure it out and understand how to navigate it (Kent & Taylor, 1998:329-330). The last principle is the rule of conversation of visitors and implies that companies and organizations should be careful to put links that can lead their visitors astray. The principle suggest that dialogic communication should be the goal of the interaction and not only a means to an end such as for marketing and advertising (Kent & Taylor, 1998:330-331). These principles can also be applied to social media, but even though companies and organizations use social media with the hope of creating a better relationship with the public, many companies and organizations fail according to Bortree and Selzer (2009). They suggest that there is a gap between the companies’ and organizations’ goal to work with social media to strengthen the relationship with the public and the genuine level of commitment to nurture that dialogue and relationship (Bortree & Selzer, 2009:318).
19
4. Method and Material
The method and material chapter starts with presenting the main method, analysis method and steps taken to achieve the results. Reliability, validity and research ethics principles are also discussed. The material section thenceforth presents the participating companies and organizations.
4.1 Method
4.1.1 Interviews
As the interest in this study partly lies with reasoning, experiences and interpretations from companies and their employees working with communication and social media, a qualitative method was deemed to be appropriate. Interviews intend to present knowledge, experiences, opinions and values from the person being interviewed (Krag, Jacobsen, 1993:10).
Reflections and experiences are reachable through interviews in order to get a better understanding of people’s experiences and opinions about the subject. There are many kinds of interviews that are used within research, but qualitative interviews make a good use of the knowledge-producing potentials in the data retrieved in contrast to more quantitative methods (Brinkmann, 2013:21). Qualitative interviews were therefore chosen to gain a deeper understanding of participating companies’ and organizations’ work with social media and to be able to see patterns among their thoughts and experiences.
Qualitative interviews are neither fully open nor completely closed but somewhere in between. However, “open questions” are often used which creates a space for the interviewee to talk openly and freely as the questions are hard to answer with a simple yes or no. With open questions, the opportunities for different answers grow as the interviewee is more encouraged to express an opinion or feeling, or even elaborate on a reasoning (Krag Jacobsen, 1993:99-100). When conducting qualitative interviews an interview guide is often used (Trost, 2010:71). An interview guide is a list of themes with several sub-questions to each theme. By using an interview guide, the researcher can make sure that all interviewees will meet relevant and similar questions. The themes and questions do not need to be mentioned in the same order in every interview, but it is up to the researcher to make sure all themes and questions of importance for the study is mentioned and answered. When using an interview guide rather than a pre-set sheet with many fixed questions, new and unexpected aspects can
20 be brought to light (Krag Jacobsen, 1993:19). The interview guide used in this research can be found in appendix 8.2 on page 58.
Kvale divides the qualitative interview process into seven different steps (Kvale, 1996).
However, Trost have made some small modifications to suit his theoretical perspective which differs from Kvale’s in the sense that the interview is seen as an exchange of opinions between the interviewee and the researcher. Trost disagrees and believes the researcher should not share his or her own opinions as it might influence the interviewee in a way that is not desirable (Trost, 2010:52). The seven steps of the interview process, which is also followed within the framework of this research are;
1. Thematizing. In this first stage the researcher formulates the aim of the study and clarify the research problem. One may also start thinking about theoretical framework.
2. Designing. The details of the study should be planned and looked upon in relation to one another and later stages of the study. The selection of methods should here be made and an interview guide for qualitative methods should be created.
3. Interviewing. In this stage, the interviews should be conducted.
4. Transcribing. The material collected from the interviews need to be accessible for processing and analysis, therefore it is important to transcribe the interviews.
5. Analysing. The material is processed and analysed based on the theoretical framework.
6. Verifying. The analysis should have given some clues of the result one will end up with. In this step one also needs to verify the answers and make sure they can stand for a critical review. One should think about reliability, validity and credibility not only within the answers but also within the analysis.
7. Reporting. The final step is to report one’s findings and it is important to include ethical considerations and to ensure the confidentiality (Trost, 2010:50-51).
In this research both semi-structured interviews face-to-face and over telephone were conducted. Usually telephone interviews are not a major way of collecting data as it lacks face-to-face non-verbal cues that researchers normally use to pace their interviews and determine the direction to move in (Berg, 2001:83). Due to the geographic locations of some of the companies and organizations as well as a tight time-schedule of the interviewee, face- to-face interviews were not always possible to conduct. According to Trost telephone interviews can vary in structure and are normally standardized as they are not suitable for more in-depth questions and answers (2010:42). However, the same interview guide and
21 questions were used for both the interviews face-to-face and telephone. Even though Trost (2010) argues that telephone interviews are not as suitable for in-depth questions, it worked very well in this research. Not only did it make several interviews feasible that otherwise would have been impossible, it also saved lots of time for the research that would have been devoted to travelling to and from the interviews that now could be used for further development of the research.
4.1.1.1 Thematic Analysis
The analysis of the interviews will be done with what Creswell (2009) calls the basic qualitative analysis, or thematic analysis. After conducting the interviews and transcribing them, the researcher analyses the data by themes or categories and reports up to five of them.
When analysing the data collected, one should go from the specific to the general (Creswell (2009:184). Creswell presents six steps to follow when analysing qualitative data that is applied in this research:
1. Organize and prepare the data for analysis.
2. Read through all the data to obtain a first general sense of the information and to reflect of its overall meaning.
3. Begin the analysis process with coding. Coding refers to the process of organizing the material into different segments before bringing meaning to it.
4. Use the coding process to generate a description of the setting or people as well as categories or themes for analysis. A deductive approach to coding will be used, which according to Hsieh and Shannon (2005) means that the material is interpreted from a predetermined coding scheme. The coding scheme is often theoretical, but in this research the different themes for coding originates from the interview guide.
5. Advance how the description and themes will be presented in the qualitative narrative.
This might be a discussion of several themes.
6. The final step in the data analysis involves making an interpretation or meaning of the data. By asking questions like “what were the lessons learned?” or trying to find out what meaning is derived from a comparison of findings with information gleaned from the literature or theories, authors suggest that the findings confirm past information or diverge from it (Creswell, 2009:185-189).
The developed thematic structures can in a good way serve for comparing cases and groups as one analyse and assess the social distribution of perspectives on the definition on the issue
22 under study (Flick, 2009:321). In this sense, thematic coding of the material obtained through the interviews is particularly suitable as this research wish to illuminate possible differences and similarities between companies and organisations in relation to how they use and work with social media as well as what part social media play in the daily external communication work.
4.1.2 Research Ethic Principles
When conducting an interview study, there are several ethical issues to consider. Consent, confidentiality, consequences and the role of researcher are just a few (Kvale & Brinkman, 2014:105). There are certain requirements and guidelines that are of importance when conducting interviews that imply as a researcher; one must inform the participants that it is completely voluntary to participate, the purpose of the research, how it will be used and published, and that the informants always have the right to reject or terminate their participation in the study. Normally, the interviewee has the right to privacy and personal dignity and as a researcher, it is important to keep this in mind throughout the whole research process (Trost, 2010:124). None of the representatives from the companies and organizations expressed a wish to be anonymous.
4.1.3 Reliability and Validity
Reliability implicates that different measurements should result in the same results from what is being investigated. However, when talking about reliability, it is often assumed that the conditions are static, which they often are in quantitative research, but not in qualitative research. With a symbolic interactionist approach, it is assumed to be participating processes rather than static conditions. Since this research investigates how companies and organizations themselves perceive their use of social media, it may be difficult to obtain the same results if the study would be carried out again later when the informants’ thoughts and feelings may have changed (Trost, 2010:131). Since the data in this study is collected though a limited number of interviews to be analysed on a deeper level to see possible patterns of companies’ and organizations’ use of social media, the results are not generalizable. Further, the generalizability can be questioned as the informants are well-aware of the research situation and might provide answers that are modified or polished. More data would be needed to avoid the problem of generalizability and due to the results not being repeatable, it is difficult to check for plausibility.
23 Validity makes sure that the paper examines what it intends to. When using qualitative interviews, researchers usually want to investigate how the interviewee perceives a phenomenon and reflects about it, and to show that the results are credible can be a problem for qualitative researchers. One must in such cases make sure that the outcome is credible and that the data collected is relevant to the research questions (Trost, 2010:133).
4.2 Material
4.2.1 Sampling
The sampling method used was a convenience sample which is a common and useful method within qualitative research (Trost, 2010:140). Convenience sampling refers to the selection of material that are the easiest to access under given circumstances. This method of sampling is often used when the resources of time and manpower is limited (Flick, 200:140). 30 companies and organizations in total were contacted by e-mail. Some of them replied and regretted they could not participate due to different circumstances, but some did not reply at all. The companies and organizations contacted by e-mail were chosen to explore a wide range of different industries. However, all companies and organizations were known to the author beforehand and were easy to find contact information to. Despite the loss of many companies and organizations, a sample of five companies and five organizations in rather different size and industries were established, which nonetheless serve as a meaningful and relevant sample for this research. The person interviewed from each company and organization was either responsible for, or working with the communication related to social media platforms.
4.2.2 Companies and Organizations
The material for this research consists of recorded interviews with five companies and five organisations. The companies interviewed are Löwengrip Care & Color, Oatly, Smålandsvillan, GöteneHus and Panini Internazionale. The organisations interviewed are Ung Cancer, Världsnaturfonden WWF, Min Stora Dag, Hela Människan and Rättviseförmedlingen. The companies and organizations vary in size and industry and are presented shortly below. To see representatives from each company and organization, please see chapter 7 “References”, section 7.3 “Oral Sources, Interviews”.
24 4.2.2.1 Companies
Löwengrip Care & Color
Löwengrip Care & Color (LCC) is a brand developed by Isabella Löwengrip which produce and sells beauty care products that are produced in Sweden. “LCC produces gentle products that are adapted for the demands of the Nordic climate.” LCC communicate all their product development through social media where customers can speak up and influence the characteristics of the products, fragrances, packing and so on (Löwengrip Care & Color, 2017).
Social media platforms as of 2017-05-09: Facebook (3101 likes) and Instagram (19,000 followers).
Oatly
“Oatly’s agenda is to make it easy for people to eat and drink in a way that makes them feel good and at the same time not to have to worry about the strain on the planet’s resources.”
Oatly was founded in the ‘90s by researchers of Lund University who discovered that the natural enzymes could convert corn fibre into nutritious liquid food. The Oatly brand is available in more than 20 countries in Europe and Asia (Oatly, 2017).
Social media platforms as of 2017-05-09: Facebook (116,360 likes), Twitter (4869 followers), YouTube (854 subscribers) and Instagram (42,000 followers).
Smålandsvillan
Smålandsvillan was founded in 1997 and is part of Sweden’s leading housing group OBOS Sweden AB. Their idea as house manufacturers is “to offer a careful selection of house types with fixed layouts developed by architects with focus on functionality”. Smålandsvillan are represented by 33 offices on different location around Sweden and the house factories can be found in Vrigstad and Sundsvall (Smålandsvillan, 2017).
Social media platforms as of 2017-05-09: Facebook (12,092 likes), YouTube (665 subsrcibers), Instagram (2163 followers) and Pinterest (39 followers).
25 Götenehus
“Götenehus has a history spanning over 80 years in time and have during that time become one of the leading house manufacturers. Götenehus always strive to give the best possible service.” Götenehus is a wholly owned subsidiary of Götenehus Group AB (Götenehus, 2017).
Social media platforms as of 2017-05-09: Facebook (8424 likes) and Instagram (979 followers).
Panini Internazionale
Panini Internazionale (Panini) was founded in 1990 and strives for a food culture that fits into the puzzle of everyday life without compromising their guests’ taste experience or health.
“All food at Panini is cooked from scratch using natural ingredients without unnecessary additives with care for people’s health” (Panini Internazionale, 2014).
Social media platforms as of 2017-05-09: Facebook (16,424 likes) and Instagram (1019 followers).
4.2.2.2 Organizations Ung Cancer
Ung Cancer is a non-profit organization that is unengaged with religion or politics. The organization was founded in 2010 and is today gathering thousands of young adults, cancer sick or cancer concerned, and their experiences through physical and online venues. “Ung Cancer is working to improve conditions for people who are between 16 and 30 that suffer from cancer or others that have cancer in their life one way or another. Together with the health care system, government and other sectors of society are they working towards a change” (Ung Cancer, 2017).
Social media platforms as of 2017-05-09: Facebook (151,911 likes), Twitter (6205 followers), YouTube (990 subscribers), Instagram (50,000 followers) and LinkedIn (258 followers).
Världsnaturfonden WWF
“Världsnaturfonden WWF (WWF) is working to protect the most endangered and unique species and habitants on the planet.” WWF is presented in more than 100 countries across the
26 world and has more than 5 million supporters. The organization works both at a political level, in the field and in close collaboration with local communities around the world (Världsnaturfonden WWF, 2017)
Social media platforms as of 2017-05-09: Facebook (492,669 likes), Twitter (9792 followers), YouTube (2118 subscribers) and Instagram (16,000 followers).
Min Stora Dag
“Min Stora Dag is a nationwide organization that strives to realize dreams for children and young adults with serious illness and diagnoses in Sweden”. They cooperate with all hospitals in Sweden and involves around 300 volunteers each year and has 14 employees who coordinate, market and ensure that operations are of as high quality as possible (Min Stora Dag, 2007).
Social media platforms as of 2017-05-09: Facebook (85,451 likes), Twitter (2110 followers), YouTube (not shown) and Instagram (10,000 followers).
Hela Människan
Hela Människan consists of around 85 associations that run social work on Christian principles from Skåne in the south, to Norrbotten in the north of Sweden. The organization’s target audience is people in vulnerable situations and organizationally Hela Människan constitutes a large network of public non-profit organizations that are linked to the movement through collaborative agreements and common guidelines in their by-laws (Hela Människan, 2017).
Social media platforms as of 2017-05-09: Facebook (707 likes), Twitter (557 followers) and Instagram (142 followers).
Rättviseförmedlingen
“Rättviseförmedlingen is a politically independent organization that uses its network of over 100.000 followers on social media to widen the selection lists in different contexts”. The lists help the organization to find knowledgeable panellists, speakers or experts to break the stereotypical boundaries for positions in different industries (Rättviseförmedlingen, 2017).
27 Social media platforms as of 2017-05-09: Facebook (87,174 likes), Twitter (29,000 followers), Instagram (13,000 followers) and LinkedIn (2553 followers).
