Degree Thesis (part 2)

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Degree Thesis (part 2)

for Master of Arts in Primary Education – Pre-School Class and School Years 1-3

Interactive activities in EFL workbooks

A content analysis of interactive activities in Swedish EFL workbooks for primary pupils.

Author: Madeleine Skött Supervisor: Parvin Gheitasi Examiner: BethAnne Paulsrud

Main field of study: Educational work / Focus English Course code: APG246

Credits: 15 hp

Date of examination: 2021-03-26

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Abstract:

English is a global language that surrounds us almost wherever in the world we are.

The school has an important role when it comes to introducing the language to young learners. Using teaching materials such as workbooks has been a common teaching method for a long time. This thesis examines three popular workbooks from different Swedish publishers, Learn English, Magic! and Happy. Through a content analysis, verbal interaction activities within these workbooks were examined based on Becker and Roos’s (2016) model of creative speaking. Additionally, interviews were conducted as a way to give insight to how these workbooks can be used in the classroom. This study shows that pupils are provided with support and guidance in most of the interactive activities within these workbooks. However, activity types as well as in what manner the pupils were requested to interact differed when the workbooks were compared to each other. The activity types that occurred were reading dialogues, sharing information and expressing opinions in English. The teachers reported to work with the activities in full class or pairs.

Key terms: workbook content analysis, verbal interaction, young language learners, English as a foreign language.

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1. Introduction

English is a globally widespread language that enables communication with people all around the world. The British Council (2013) reported that a quarter of the world’s population are able to communicate in English at a basic level or more. It was also reported that there are more non-native English-speakers in the world than there are native speakers, which demonstrates the extent of studies in English as a foreign or second language. In other words, learning English can be considered a necessity in today’s society given the many opportunities that comes with it.

In Sweden, we are exposed to English through various media such as games, television, social media and marketing. This means that young children these days are usually familiar with the English language when they encounter English as a subject in school. The school has therefore an important role when it comes to teaching English to these young learners, in order to motivate them and engage them in activities where they develop versatile communication skills (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2018). Verbal communication such as interacting with others in a foreign language can be daunting and difficult. So, how can we give the young learners the best start when it comes to verbal interaction?

Published teaching materials such as workbooks are popular materials to use when learning and teaching English as a foreign language (henceforth EFL), both internationally and in Sweden. However, the National Union of Teachers in Sweden published an article in their monthly magazine Skolvärlden which reported that Sweden spends the least amount of money on teaching materials in comparison to the other Nordic countries Norway and Finland (Wallin, 2020). This means that the materials that are being used can be outdated or not correspond with the current curriculum.

In the English subject, many teachers seem to rely on teaching materials such as workbooks (Swedish National Agency of Education, 2006). However, there seems to be a research gap regarding analysis on published teaching material used to teach English as a foreign language for younger learners. Several researchers in the field point out that further research regarding analysing and evaluating teaching materials for younger learners in various contexts and countries is needed (Butler et al., 2018;

Baleghizadeh & Aghazadeh, 2014; García Mayo & Imaz Agirre, 2016). Hence, this thesis will examine a part of this research gap.

1.1. Aim and research questions

The aim for this study has been to gain a deeper understanding of what opportunities young learners in grade 2 have in order to practice interaction through EFL workbooks. The research questions presented below specify the focus of this thesis:

• What kind of interactive activities can be found in common EFL workbooks for grade 2 in Sweden?

• How much guidance do the workbooks provide when it comes to the interactive activities?

• How to teachers report using workbooks when teaching interaction?

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2. Background

This section will present relevant background information, beginning with English in the Swedish context and further on interactive methods, meaningfulness and teaching materials used in EFL classrooms. A definition of concepts will be presented, and finally, previous research in the field will be introduced.

2.1. English in the Swedish school

When children enter the school system, they are often excited to learn and acquire new knowledge (Lundberg, 2020). The school must then maintain this excitement throughout all school years, which the Swedish National Agency for Education (2018) states in the initial chapter of the curriculum about the “fundamental values and tasks of the school”. During the many years that pupils spend in school, they should develop a sense of self, as individuals and as citizens in society. Supporting and encouraging this process is an important task for teachers as well as other adults working in schools. Language is one essential aspect of this process, allowing us to communicate and express emotions and opinions (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2018).

Learning English in today’s globalized world enables communication with people all around the world, with different native languages. In order to partake in international media such as movies and books, but also information and news, knowledge in English is essential (Lundahl, 2019). But what does knowledge of the English language really mean? According to the Swedish National Agency for Education (2018), EFL teachers in Swedish schools are expected to teach pupils how to understand written and spoken English as well as how to use the English language in a flexible way.

For the youngest learners of English in the Swedish elementary school system, it is decided by the government that English should be studied for a minimum of 60 hours. These hours must be distributed within the first, second and third grade, but there are no regulations regarding in which grade English studies should begin (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2020). This hour-regulation aims to increase the equivalence between schools all over Sweden, giving pupils the same education regardless of where in the country they are attending school (Ministry of Education, 2017).

In grades 1-3, the level for producing English is expected to be very basic and the adjective “simple” is used several times in the core content. However, when the pupils begin grade 4, the level of production and interaction increases drastically.

Instead of “simple” language production, the pupils should in grades 4-6 develop complex language strategies and reflect on the use of language in different situations (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2018). In other words, it is relevant to let the pupils practice these abilities already in grade 3 in order to prepare them for what is to come.

The Swedish National Agency for Education (2017) divides the concept of verbal presentation in to two parts: production and interaction. Language strategies connected to presentation are about being able to adjust and change the language depending on the receiver. The focus is on pupils’ own production of language, and

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ways to stress certain things when speaking or being able to adapt the language to various recipients. The other part, interaction, is slightly different. Interaction is about a mutual trade between participants. Abilities such as asking for clarifications, expressing understanding, agreement or disagreement is essential for interaction. In addition, gestures and body language also contribute to an interaction between people (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2017).

2.2. Interaction in a meaningful context

Language learning should take place in a social and meaningful context, through interaction with others. By engaging the pupils in collaborative tasks, such as problem solving or dramatisations, the pupils tend to use more English (Keaveney

& Lundberg, 2014). Further, Pinter (2017) points out that information gap activities, where pupils in pair or groups are given different information and need to share what they know in order to solve a problem, are successful. Additionally, tasks that are familiar to the pupils are helpful in order to promote meaning negotiation between young pupils (Pinter, 2017).

In order to create these interactive learning opportunities for the pupils, the teacher needs to make sure that the social environment within the classroom allows interaction. As Keaveney and Lundberg (2014) points out, supporting the pupils by giving sufficient oral input, with useful vocabulary, phrases and expressions before and during the activity is needed by the teacher. In other words, the teacher is a learning role model for these young learners and should talk as much English as possible. However, it is important that the teacher is not the dominant speaker, but that the pupils are given opportunities to practice their interactive skills as well (Pinter, 2017).

Even though English is considered a foreign language is Sweden, it is still an international language used widely across the world. Therefore, the use of English is not necessarily isolated within the classroom. Pupils practice the language outside of the classroom to a great extent, which means that the teacher must work with the pupils in a way that highlights the connection between the English taught in the classroom with the outside world. In other words, the meaningful context is essential (Keaveney & Lundberg, 2014).

2.3. Workbooks as teaching material

Published teaching materials such as workbooks can contain helpful frameworks and inspiration to teachers. However, the books need to be evaluated in order for the content to fit the pupils’ individual levels and interest. Even if workbooks provide much help, it is also important to be critical and select or ignore exercises that are, or are not, suitable for the pupils within local classrooms (Pinter, 2017).

Historically in Sweden, teaching materials have been evaluated by the state based on criteria such as correspondence to the national curriculum, objectivity, pedagogical language and design (Reichenberg, 2014). Today, teachers and principals have the full responsibility to evaluate and purchase teaching materials available on the market. Reichenberg (2014) conducted a study on 319 Swedish teachers on what factors they considered when selecting teaching materials. Content of the books, past experiences with the books and recommendations from colleagues

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turned out to be the most important factors for teachers. Factors that did not motivate most teachers’ selection of materials were commercials and price.

According to Lundberg (2020), workbooks should be evaluated through a pair of

“language didactic glasses” (p. 187). This means that teachers need to make a well- reasoned decision based on the curriculum as well as reflect on how much and in what way the books should be used. For example, exercises in the workbook can be complemented by various other activities. English teaching that is overly controlled by a workbook is not beneficial, instead, it can impact the pupils’ interest and willingness to learn the language in a negative way. Variation is the key to better results and motivation (Lundberg, 2020).

According to a survey made by the Swedish National Agency for Education (2006), 83% of English teachers in grade 5 reported that they use published teaching materials such as workbooks every or almost every lesson. In comparison to other school subjects, English teachers tend to follow only one specific workbook continuously. However, it is pointed out that the books are often used as a base and are supplemented with other activities in order to vary the lessons. The teachers also describe that it is helpful to follow a predetermined published teaching material in order to ensure that all aspects of the curriculum’s core content are covered. Even if the teachers experience workbooks as advantageous, a few disadvantages are also pointed out, for example unmotivating activities with a monotonous approach.

Also, it is difficult to individualize the work according to the pupils’ different levels (Swedish National Agency of Education, 2006).

In conclusion, the discussion that Pinter (2017) carries out on the advantages and disadvantages with workbooks and textbooks, is similar to how Swedish teachers describe working with them (Swedish National Agency of Education, 2006). Also, variation is important when teaching English, therefore the workbooks need to be complemented with other activities where the pupils get the opportunity to partake in a variety of English activities (Lundberg, 2020). Teachers and principals bear a heavy responsibility when it comes to selecting teaching materials, and the content should be carefully evaluated given that the materials has not been previously evaluated by the state (Reichenberg, 2014).

2.4. Definition of concepts

In this section, key concepts will be presented and defined.

2.4.1. English as a foreign language (EFL)

The term “English as a foreign language” or EFL in short, is the term to be thesis.

The term refers to learning English in a setting where English is not the main language (Cambridge Dictionary, n.d.; Nationalencyklopedin, n.d.-a). Yufrizal (2001) clarifies that when learning English as a foreign language, the interactive and communicative skills are primarily learned within the classroom, given that English is not used widely in the out-of-school-context. As mentioned, Sweden has many influences from the English language, and it has been discussed whether the English language really is foreign to us (Sundqvist, 2009). Nevertheless, the Swedish Language Act (SFS 2009:600) states that the principal language in Sweden is

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Swedish which makes English a foreign language according to the definition presented.

2.4.2. Young language learners (YLL)

The term “young language learners” or YLL in short, is a commonly used term for learners younger than 18 years old, which makes it a vague term that refers to a large group of children with varying needs. It is therefore important that the term is carefully defined, and in this thesis, young language learners refers to learners in the primary years, aged 6-10 (Ellis, 2014).

2.4.3. Interaction

Interaction is a social process with two or more interactors, striving to reach mutual understanding of each other’s perspectives in different contexts and with regard to existing social norms (Seedhouse, 2004). Further, interaction is defined as when actions from the interactors affect each other in some way (Nationalencyklopedin, n.d.-b). This thesis focuses on the spoken aspect of interaction, which is the interaction that takes place verbally between interactors. The term interaction will be used in this thesis based on this definition.

2.5. Previous research

In this section, previous research conducted in the field of interaction proficiency and workbook analysis will be presented.

2.5.1. Negotiation of meaning and pair dynamics

When pupils face an activity where they in pairs or groups must collaborate in order to solve a problem, they need to make sure that they understand each other as well as what they are expected to do. Adaptation of output depending on input from a peer is needed in order to understand each other when working together. The pupils have to negotiate meaning, which is a theory that multiple researchers in the field mentions when it comes to interaction (García Mayo & Imaz Agirre, 2016; Súarez Ramíres & Rodrígez, 2018). Negotiation of meaning is described as “… a particular type of interaction, a process whereby conversational routines are modified among partners in order overcome communication breakdowns.” (García Mayo & Imaz Agirre, 2016).

Given that negotiation of meaning takes place between learners, it is important to consider the social dynamics within the class as a whole and between individual pupils. García Mayo and Imaz Agirre (2016) examined collaborative patterns and pupils’ use of negotiation of meaning strategies when repeating a task twice. The study was focused on two age groups, one group of younger pupils between 8-9 years and one group of older pupils between 9-10 years. Similarly, Súarez Ramíres and Rodrígez (2018) looked at patterns of interaction in a group of pupils between 8-12 years, and the impact working together recurrently over a longer period of time had on pair dynamics.

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García Mayo and Imaz Agirre (2016) did not discover any significant difference in pupils’ use of negotiation of meaning strategies when a task was repeated. However, they pointed out that the reason for this could be the extended period of time between the repetitions, or that the task itself was too easy for the pupils. Interestingly, they did find that the younger pupils’ use of their mother tongue decreased when the task was repeated for a second time. Additionally, Súarez Ramíres and Rodrígez (2018) found that pupils’ use of mother tongue is one of the main strategies they turn to when they communicate and need to negotiate meaning. Also, non-verbal interaction, such as gestures and facial expressions, were commonly used as a way to enhance and clarify utterances.

To sum up, the researchers found that pupils tend to use their mother tongue as a tool for negotiation of meaning, but when repeating a task or working together with a project over a period of time, pupils gain more confidence in using the target language (García Mayo & Imaz Agirre, 2016; Súarez Ramíres & Rodrígez, 2018).

One method that was reported to have a positive impact on pair dynamics and interactive patterns was repetition of activities with the same peer (García Mayo &

Imaz Agirre, 2016). Additionally, recurrent collaborative work in the EFL classroom was found to create a positive environment where pupils feel safe and are able to work with each other successfully (Súarez Ramíres & Rodrígez, 2018).

2.5.2. Methods for interactive learning

Several researchers point out task-based activities as beneficial for interactive learning, i.e. information gap activities (Becker & Roos, 2016; Ortiz Neira, 2019).

Interactive information gap activities are when two pupils do not have the same information, i.e. two different pictures, and they need to describe them to each other and make sure that the other person understands. These activities encourage pupils to interact and negotiate meaning when working with the task, without it being too restricted to fixed expressions and phrases. The focus is primarily on the meaning of the activity rather than on language form and accuracy (Becker & Roos, 2016;

Ortiz Neira, 2019).

Ortiz Neira (2019) conducted an action study that examined Chilean pupils in grade 8 and their interactive proficiency when using information gap activities. The findings indicate that information gap activities improve the pupils’ fluency as well as communicative proficiency. The pupils also showed a positive attitude towards these types of activities, expressing that they were able to practice their communication skills in a more creative way than when using a traditional textbook.

The pupils in Ortiz Neira’s (2019) action study are slightly older than the age group that is focused in this thesis. However, given the differences in Swedish and Chilean curriculum, this study is still relevant and provides helpful information about information gap activities for pupils at primary level in Sweden. The communication proficiency level that pupils in grade 8 in Chile need to achieve (CEFR: A2), is the same level that Swedish pupils in grade 6 need to achieve in order to receive an acceptable grade (Ortiz Neira, 2019; Swedish National Agency for Education, 2017).

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It has been discussed whether or not YLL need to have strict guidance and predetermined phrases when learning to communicate in a foreign language. Becker and Roos (2016) created a speaking model based on their research on young learners in Germany. The model is divided into three stages, showing the progression from learning fixed expressions to a more creative and independent use of language.

Learning a foreign language should begin with an introduction to helpful fixed expressions that will work as a base for further learning. Firstly, the pupils need strict guidance and support. Secondly, the challenges should evolve and give more room for pupils to make choices, i.e. on what words to use. Finally, the pupils will be able to use the language in a more creative and independent manner (Becker &

Roos, 2016).

Certainly, all individual pupils are different, but Becker and Roos (2016) express that YLL often are capable of more than what teachers expect. Open and creative activities with little restriction enables the pupils to explore the language, make guesses and mistakes. Neither the teacher nor the pupils should be afraid of making mistakes when interacting, instead, making mistakes are a successful way for the pupils to use their previous knowledge and to receive immediate feedback from the teacher or a peer (Becker & Roos, 2016). Additionally, semi-controlled tasks such as information gap activities, where the pupils are able to complete a task in different ways but with little help from useful expressions, are motivational for the pupils and promote interaction (Ortiz Neira, 2019). Also, Becker and Roos (2016) argue that when pupils are not restricted to certain set dialogues or sentences, they tend to use chunks that they have memorised together with guesses from their existing vocabulary (i.e. “goal man” instead of “goal keeper”).

Given these arguments presented above, information gap activities have a significant impact on pupils’ oral proficiency as well as their attitude towards language learning. The open and creative approach, where pupils are free to make their own linguistic decisions, but at the same time are provided with helpful framework such as fixed expressions is advantageous (Ortiz Neira, 2019). Similarly, the model presented by Becker and Roos (2016) shows a concrete way of working systematically towards creative and independent speaking in a foreign language, from a young age.

2.5.3. Interactive contents in EFL workbooks

The content of workbooks used in the EFL classroom needs to give the pupils opportunities to practice all four language skills: reading, writing, speaking and listening. Additionally, as previously mentioned, a meaningful context is beneficial.

Butler, Kang, Kim and Liu (2018) found that in elementary EFL workbooks used in Korea and China, exercises are mostly so-called non-tasks. Non-tasks are activities that do not live up to Ellis’s (2003) criteria for a task. A task must have focus on meaning rather than on form, let the pupils choose their linguistic resources themselves, involve an authentic context where English is used, should be cognitively challenging and finally, involve communication. Activities that do not involve all of these criteria are considered non-tasks.

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Butler et al. (2018) found that when tasks did occur in the ELF workbooks, they were mostly presented as a PPP-exercises, which stands for a process of presentation, practice and production. These exercises firstly introduced the pupils to examples on how the final product should look like, secondly the pupils got a chance to practice the procedure themselves, and finally the pupils presented their final product in oral or in written form. These PPP-exercises have limited opportunities to involve the pupils in meaningful and authentic use of English (Butler et al., 2018).

Further, Baleghizadeh and Aghazadeh (2014) found that guided activities, where the pupils have to complete a task that is already partially completed, is the most common type of activity in the EFL workbooks. Given that these activities are strictly guided, the pupils have no or little possibilities to make errors. Becker and Roos (2016) highlight that in the beginning of learning a foreign language, guided activities are helpful because when pupils do not make mistakes, they will feel more confident in using the language.

The least frequent activities in the workbooks were the shared ones, where the pupils needed to interact with a classmate. This corresponds with the analysis of workbooks that Butler et al. (2018) conducted, the non-tasks with no communicative outcome was most frequent. Overall, the EFL workbooks did mostly focus on language form rather than on meaning, and it was also pointed out by Baleghizadeh and Aghazadeh (2014) that the workbooks should simply prepare pupils for future communication.

2.5.4. The teacher as a central role

Multiple researchers (Baleghizadeh & Aghazadeh, 2014; Becker & Roos, 2016;

Butler et al., 2018) point out that the workbooks do not always contain meaningful, interactive or task-based activities. Instead, the teacher has a significant role when deciding how to work with the activities provided. The teacher can change and adapt the content of the workbooks in order for the exercises to be on the right level for individual pupils. In other words, the teacher has the opportunity to make the exercises more meaningful to the pupils.

Additionally, the teacher is not only responsible for making workbook activities meaningful for the individual pupils, but also for the overall interaction in the classroom. The teacher must create opportunities for the pupils to interact with each other in a meaningful way (Súarez Ramíres & Rodrígez, 2018). Also, the teacher has to be aware that interactive tasks can easily become a non-task if the teacher is too strict with the framework, not allowing the pupils to use their own previous knowledge, vocabulary and interests. At the same time, turning non-tasks into tasks is also possible, provided that the teacher is aware of the characteristics of a task (Butler et al., 2018).

2.5.5. Research summary

The previous research presented gives essential background information when understanding both the aspect of learning interaction and the content of workbooks.

In order to understand what is important when it comes to teaching interaction in a foreign language, research on strategies that young pupils tend to use when working

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with interactive activities was necessary. Repetition, opportunities to negotiate meaning and working with tasks were mentioned as beneficial when working with interaction. It is also important to be aware of the progression from learning fixed expressions towards an independent and fluent speaking proficiency, and how to guide pupils in their learning.

3. Theoretical perspective

In this section, the theoretical framework for this thesis will be presented. At first, the socio-cultural perspective and its most relevant concepts will be presented, followed by a presentation of Krashen’s input hypothesis. At last, the interaction hypothesis including negotiation of meaning will be presented.

3.1. Socio-cultural perspective

The socio-cultural theory is based on Lev Vygotsky’s perspective on learning, language and development and has highly influenced education in Sweden since the curriculum reformation in 1994 (Säljö, 2014). Learning through interaction and communication is the main idea of the socio-cultural perspective and it opposes the traditional view on learning that considers knowledge as something transferable.

Instead, learning is a process that we take part in, socially and culturally (Säljö, 2014).

Within the socio-cultural perspective, mediational tools are an important concept. A mediational tool is described as something that all humans use when making sense of the surrounding world. These tools can be both physical and mental. For instance, a hammer is a physical tool that can be used to accomplish something; similarly, we use different symbols as mental tools when communicating with others. Though it has been argued within the socio-cultural perspective that physical and mental tools should not be separated. Mental tools like symbols and signs need physical tools such as books and paper in order to be read and interpreted. The term cultural tools, includes both the mental and physical tools, are instead preferred (Säljö, 2014).

Further, language is considered to be our main mediational tool, since we through our language can express ourselves and communicate with others. Language is, as Vygotsky described it, a sign system, that is used for us to reach understanding with other humans. Similarly, pictures can be used as mediational tools alone or together with the written or spoken language (Säljö, 2014). Language within the socio- cultural perspective is not considered a rigid phenomenon, but something dynamic and constantly changing. Language and thought are not to be seen as two separate actions; instead, language as a cultural mediational tool is what forms our view on the world (Säljö, 2014; Vygotsky, 1986).

When communicating with others, we use words in order to express ourselves.

Words are useless unless they are associated with a meaning. Communication with others, which is the main purpose of language, is successful only if the interactors have the same meaning associated with the words (Vygotsky, 1986). In example, the word “kitchen” can be used successfully only when the meaning of the word has been established. Either from seeing a kitchen and connecting that experience with the word, or by having the word explained. Children start to associate words with a concept at an early age. The same word can have different meanings throughout the

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child’s development. It is through conversation with others that the child develops an understanding of words and their meaning. The meaning of words can change depending on the situation in where they are used. Further, the meaning of a word cannot simply be taught through repetition and transfer from teacher to pupil. The pupils must also understand the context to fully understand the meaning of a word (Vygotsky, 1986).

Children meet a huge number of words in their everyday life, that they associate with meaningful concepts from their surroundings. However, there are several words that are often not encountered outside of school. In order to learn these often abstract words and terms, a teacher or a more knowledgeable classmate is needed (Säljö, 2014). Through help from adults that have already learned the meaning of a word, the child can obtain the associations the adult has already made and does not need to start from nothing (Vygotsky, 1986).

Further, the zone of proximal development is a principle that Vygotsky developed, that highlights the importance of an adult, or a more knowledgeable peer within a learning context. Vygotsky described the zone of proximal development as

…the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.

(Vygotsky, 1979, p. 86)

He further defines the meaning of what “the actual developmental level” really is, and explains that it is what the pupils can do independently, without help (Vygotsky, 1979). In other words, when a child has acquired a new skill, and have the ability to use it independently, acquiring another skill is within reach for the child but with help from a teacher or a more knowledgeable peer (Säljö, 2014). At the beginning of such process, the pupil will need much support, but with time, the support can decrease, similar to a scaffold when building a house. This pedagogical concept is called scaffolding (Säljö, 2014).

3.2. Krashen’s Input Hypothesis

The input hypothesis is based on the question of how we acquire a second language.

For this hypothesis, learning and acquiring need to be separated and defined.

Acquiring language is a subconscious process similar to the one when we acquire our mother tongue. Through hearing the language, input, from parents or other adults, we eventually gain the competence to produce language ourselves. The ability to communicate in a comprehensible way is the most important. Correctness does not come from grammar studies, but is instead based on “what sounds and feels right” (Krashen, 1982, p. 10).

In comparison, the process of learning is conscious, and includes knowledge and awareness about the grammar structures and rules within the language (Krashen, 1982). Based on this separation between learning and acquisition, the input hypothesis focuses on the input that we receive in a second language. According to the input hypothesis, the input needs to be comprehensible for the pupils but at the same time, it needs to provide something new that the pupil is not yet familiar with.

This is defined as i+1 , where the i refers to where the pupil is currently, and +1

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means the next level (Krashen, 1982). In other words, the i+1 principle means that the pupils need comprehensible input that is slightly above their current ability. This principle is similar to Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development, as mentioned earlier, where pupils need a teacher or a more competent peer in order to reach the next level (Vygotsky, 1979). Krashen (1982) describes further that, in order to understand something in a foreign language, we do not simply use the linguistic form, but also information from our context and previous knowledge. This is what makes it possible to understand words or structures in a second language that we do not yet have knowledge about. Again, similarly to the socio-cultural theory earlier described, the social context is important (Vygotsky, 1979).

The progression from meaning to form, is an essential part of the input hypothesis.

It is through communication with others we also acquire knowledge about structure and grammatical rules. Strict grammar lessons, where different structures are taught according to a preplanned scheme and without regard of the i+1 principle, do not help the individual pupils with the input that they need in order to develop their linguistic competence (Krashen, 1982). In other words, the progression should not go from isolated practice of grammatical structures and then move on to communication, but rather the opposite.

Further, exercises within the classroom that aim to explicitly teach grammatical structures in a specific order are disadvantageous. The reason for this is that all pupils within a class do not have the same i (current competence), which means that the structure taught a specific time might not be on the next comprehensible level +1. Often, pupils do not get another chance to practice that specific structure later on either, given that it has already been taught. Instead, through natural communicative input that does not focus on specific grammatical structures, comprehensible i+1 input will be available for all individual pupils (Krashen, 1982).

A question that might have arisen at this stage of the presentation, given that this thesis is focusing on the pupils’ own interaction and production is; how does all this input in turn affect the pupils’ ability to produce language themselves? Krashen clarifies that ”speaking ability emerges on its own after enough competence has been developed by listening and understanding” (1982, p. 27). Moreover, speaking is not something that can be explicitly taught, but something that emerges depending on the comprehensible input. Which demonstrates the importance and relevance of i+1 when it comes to second language communication and production (Krashen, 1982).

However, Krashen’s input hypothesis is a controversial theory that has been discussed and criticized by scholars in the field. For instance, the definition of the i+1 principle as well as the commonly used term comprehensible input is deficient and not clearly defined by Krashen (Liu, 2015). Due to this lack of definition, various interpretations of the concepts has been made. Further, it has been argued that pupils also learn through other methods, i.e. by memorizing formulaic expressions, which do not need to be comprehensible but simply something that the pupils automatically memorize and can use when needed (Liu, 2015).

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3.3. Interaction hypothesis and negotiation of meaning

The interaction hypothesis developed by Long and described here by Mackey et al.

(2012), is influenced by Krashen’s input hypothesis. However, instead of only focusing on the impact input has on acquisition of a second language, Long’s interaction hypothesis highlights the interactional aspect of language learning. The hypothesis focuses primarily on what happens in an interaction between a learner and a more proficient interactor, and how they overcome communicational problems when they do not understand each other.

The interaction hypothesis builds on Krashen’s view on the importance of comprehensible input in order to acquire a second language. However, the concept of comprehensible input is described more clearly. According to Long, comprehensible input derives from the modifications made by native speakers in interaction with non-native speakers when they encounter a problem in understanding each other (Mackey et al., 2012). Based on this, Long introduces the theory of negotiation of meaning.

Negotiation of meaning takes place when the interactors encounter a problem, in example if they do not understand each other and they need to find different ways to make themselves understood. Language strategies such as asking questions for clarification or repetition are necessary (Mackey et al., 2012). Negotiation like this is beneficial since it is based on what the individual learner actually comprehends or not. The negotiation of meaning theory is also applicable on interaction between two non-native speakers. Within an EFL context, native speakers are not always available and instead, non-native speakers have mainly their peers as resources (Pica, Lincoln-Porter, Paninos & Linnell, 1996). Pica et al. (1996) found that in interactions between non-native language learners, negotiation of meaning occurred when a communication problem was encountered, but to a lesser extent compared to interactions between language learners and native speakers.

3.4. Theory discussion

The aim of this thesis is to examine interactive activities in workbooks as well as how teachers report on implementing these activities into their teaching. In order to do so, the socio-cultural view on interactional learning and language provides an essential framework connected to the aim of this thesis. For instance, workbooks that are used within the classroom can be seen as mediational tools, where the physical object (the book) and signs (words and pictures) are helpful tools for learning.

Other perspectives on learning that were considered for this thesis, pragmatism and constructivism, did not provide the same profound framework including both the importance of the outer social context, interaction with others as well as the inner processes of thought and language. Hence, the socio-cultural perspective was considered the most appropriate theory. The socio-cultural perspective involves many important aspects on learning and language, but additional theories regarding learning a second or foreign language were needed in order to include the whole aim for this thesis.

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Krashen’s input hypothesis and the interaction hypothesis developed by Long were chosen in order to focus the theoretical framework on second language acquisition through input and interaction. Krashen’s input hypothesis alone was not enough in order to also involve the interactional aspect. Therefore, the interaction hypothesis including the process of negotiation of meaning was added to the framework.

Previous research in the field pointed out negotiation of meaning as an important aspect of interaction among EFL learners. Based on this, the interaction hypothesis, in comparison to other relevant hypotheses such as Swain’s output hypothesis, was considered the most appropriate.

4. Method

This section presents the methods used for the collection of empirical data. The methods will be presented, potential sources of error will be pointed out as well as the study’s reliability and validity. In the end of the section, ethical considerations connected to the methods will be presented.

4.1. Chosen methods

For this thesis, a combination of methods was used in order to establish a more complete understanding (Denscombe, 2018) of the interactional aspects in workbooks using both a quantitative and qualitative approach. A content analysis provided this study with a quantification of the content in the EFL workbooks, regarding the activity types and guidance. The content analysis aims to answer the first two research questions on what type of interactive activities that are provided in the workbooks, as well as the amount of guidance. In order to analyse workbooks that are relevant and used by teachers, a web-based questionnaire was sent out to teachers in a large Facebook group (see appendix 3). Distributing questionnaires via internet and social media are advantageous when collecting information from a large group of people in a short amount of time (Denscombe, 2018).

As a way to answer the third research questions, on how teachers describe working with the interactive activities and support in the workbooks, semi-structured interviews were used as a method. Semi-structured interviews make it possible for the participants to elaborate their ideas further, but related to a predetermined set of questions that needs to be answered (Denscombe, 2018). The data collected from the interviews was compiled using a thematic approach connected to the categories related to the content analysis (Bryman, 2018). The interview questions were designed based on the interactive content that was found in the content analysis, focusing on how the teachers used these workbooks in the classroom, supported their pupils’ interaction and their experiences with using workbooks. From the responses, central themes regarding support, the structure of the books and challenging the pupil’s interaction was identified.

4.2. Selection

In this section, information about the selected workbooks and participants will be presented as well as the process of selection.

4.2.1. Selection of workbooks

The selection of workbooks for the content analysis was based on which books teachers in the initial questionnaire reported using for teaching EFL. In total, 11

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teachers responded to the questionnaire, and the result showed that 8 teachers reported using Learn English and 3 teachers reported that they use Magic! as teaching material. A third book, Happy, was then selected based on what was most recently published and available in the university library.

This type of selection is described as a non-probability selection, given that not all workbooks available have the same probability to be selected. One workbook was also selected based on availability in the library and convenience, making it a convenience selection (Denscombe, 2018). The table below introduces the selected workbooks.

Table 1. Information about workbooks for the content analysis.

Learn English- Second Book is for pupils learning EFL in grade 2. The material consists of a workbook for the pupils, web-based teaching material and a teacher’s guide. The material has been designed based on the core content in English in the Swedish curriculum and with consideration to the 60 hour-regulations for the English subject in grade 1-3. The web-based teaching material includes movies, songs and listening exercises. The teacher’s guide includes additional activities that are not provided in the workbooks, such as games, flashcards and vocabulary wheels for each chapter. The book uses symbols, pictures and a short instruction in English to each activity in order for the pupils to understand what to do. There is no Swedish in the workbook.

Magic! 2 is a teaching material that is based on the core content in the Swedish curriculum. The material comes with a workbook for the pupils, that can be used both as a physical book and digitally. In the digital workbook, the pupils can click around on the picture, listen to words, songs and dialogues. Also, a teaching guide with explanations for each chapter and additional games to play with the class is included. Each chapter begins with a big picture and an activity to do with that picture, often dialogues to read and/or listen to. In the end of each chapter, the pupils are requested to do more activities with the digital teaching material. All instructions and texts are in English.

Happy year F-2 does not explicitly say what exact grade it is aimed for, but the chapters are divided into three different levels depending on where the pupils are in

Code-name

in analysis Title Author Year of

publication Publisher

WB1 Learn

English- Second Book

Sofia Hession, Sofia

Panagiotidou, Roderick Hunt and Alex Brychta

2016 Majema, Stockholm

WB2 Magic! 2 Cecilia

Augutis 2013 Studentlitteratur, Lund

WB3 Happy Year

F-2 Catarina

Hansson 2012 Gleerups, Malmö

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their reading and writing development. This means that this book can be used for pupils in grade 2, similar to the previous books. This material consists of a workbook for the pupils, with instructions for the teacher at the bottom of each page. There is also a web-based material for the teacher including recordings of songs and rhymes as well as lesson plans. Each chapter in the workbook ends with a section of “fun”

with different activities such as songs, games and colouring. Also, each chapter begins with stating the learning goals. The instructions for the pupils are mostly in Swedish, although titles of the chapters and activities are in English. The activities in the books are based of the core content for the English subject in the Swedish curriculum.

4.2.2. Selection of participants

It was initially planned to select participants based on if they filled in their email address in the questionnaire. After not receiving any answers this way, public schools in six municipalities were contacted with a request to participate in this study. This way, two teachers responded and agreed to participate. Hence, this shows an exploratory selection, where participants are selected in order to gain insight to a certain thing rather than to represent the whole population (Denscombe, 2018). The two selected teachers work at different schools in different municipalities. In order to ensure their anonymity, their real names have been changed to pseudonyms.

Emma is a second-grade teacher in a large school with pupils from preschool class to grade nine. She uses the material Learn English for teaching EFL. She has worked as a teacher for two years and thinks that English is a fun and rewarding subject to teach.

Stina is a second-grade teacher in a smaller school with pupils from preschool class to grade six. She currently uses the material Learn English but has previously worked with both Happy and Magic! Stina has worked as a teacher for 14 years and has experience with teaching English in grades 1-6 . She is not certified to teach English but feels comfortable teaching it.

4.3. Pilot study

Conducting a pilot study is a helpful way to test if the instrument for data collection is ready to be used in practice with real participants. Potential problems can be made visible and the researcher has a chance to adapt the instrument (Denscombe, 2018).

Given these arguments, the interview questions for this study were tested in a pilot study before the collection of data. The pilot study was done by interviewing a teacher, and afterwards discussing if anything was unclear. The pilot study highlighted the need for more clearly formulated questions and adaptation in the order of the questions. Also, some follow-up questions were added in order to specify the aim.

4.6. Implementation

Firstly, a small questionnaire was sent out to a big group of teachers in a Facebook- group in order to establish an insight of which workbooks that are being used by teachers teaching EFL to young learners in Sweden. In the same questionnaire, teachers interested in participating in the interview study could fill in their email

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address. This was not a successful way in order to find participants for the interview.

Instead, emails were sent out to public schools in six different municipalities, and two teachers were willing to participate in the interview.

In the initial questionnaire, teachers reported using two different books and the second step was to collect these books. An additional book that was available at the university library was added to the selection. These three books along with their teacher’s guides constituted the selection of text for the content analysis. A thorough review of all activities in the workbooks was done with help from the teacher’s guides. Activities where the pupils in some way were requested to speak were marked with a post-it note and summarized in a document. After this, the activities were reviewed again and compared to the summaries in order to ensure that nothing was missed.

Secondly, the content was analysed according to the steps described by Denscombe (2018) and based on Becker and Roos’s (2016) model of creative speaking. A coding chart was made in order to systematically be able to count the frequency of each activity. The process of analysis is further explained in section 4.4.1. After the content analysis was completed, the interviews were carried out. The first interview with Emma was conducted at the school where she worked at, face-to-face. The whole interview was recorded on my phone, and he file was immediately transferred to a locked file on the computer. The total time for the recorded interview was 20 minutes. The second interview with Stina was conducted in a digital meeting room and the meeting was recorded, both audio and video were automatically recorded.

However, the video recording was deleted immediately and only the audio-file was saved on the computer and put in a locked file on the computer. The total time for this interview was 25 minutes and the audio were transcribed after one day. A written consent from all participants was collected.

4.4. Data analysis

In this section, the method of analysis and processing of data will be presented.

4.4.1. Content analysis

In order to answer the first two research questions, a content analysis of three Swedish EFL workbooks was carried out. Denscombe (2018) describes six steps to follow when conducting a content analysis and these steps were strictly followed.

The first thing to do was to select pieces of text for the analysis. This process has been described in section 4.2.1, about the selection of workbooks. The second step was to break down the texts into smaller units. This was done by looking through the workbooks and teachers guides and highlighting all activities that engaged the pupils in various speaking activities in some way. The third step in the content analysis was to divide the content of the units into categories. In order to connect these categories to the previous research, the categories were based on the activity types in Becker and Roos’s (2016) model for creative speaking activities (see figure 1). This model was selected because it shows a clear progression on pupils’ verbal language development when it comes to learning EFL. It also includes other aspects from the previous research such as the advantages with task-based activities, information-gap activities and communicative activities promoting negotiation of meaning (Butler et al., 2018; García Mayo & Imaz Agirre, 2016; Ortiz Neira, 2019).

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Figure 1. Model of creative speaking by Becker and Roos (2016).

The three levels found in Becker and Roos’s model, reproductive language use, creative language use and creative and productive language use constitutes the base for the main categories in the content analysis. The roots of the tree visualize the importance of support and imitation when beginning to learn a new language (Becker & Roos, 2016). This first level was named “guided activities” in the content analysis, which is the term to be used in the content analysis. This term also relates to the guided activities found in Baleghizadeh and Aghazadeh's (2014) study of ESL workbooks. The second level in the model, pupils are able to use their individual knowledge to some extent but still have essential guidance and framework (Becker

& Roos, 2016). Activities in this level will be categorized as “partly guided activities”. At the top of the tree, the third level in the model, the pupils have enough linguistic knowledge and confidence that they do not need any support or guidance (Becker & Roos, 2016). Activities that belong to this level will be categorized as a

“not guided activity”.

The third step, dividing the content into relevant categories, was carried out further in order to also find sub-categories. The sub-categories were based on how Becker and Roos (2016) describes and exemplifies the three levels in their model.

Dialogues, opinion-gap and information-gap activities were mentioned within all three levels and was selected as sub-categories. For the activities that did not fit into any of these, a fourth sub-category of “other” activities was created. Based on these categories, a coding scheme was created (see appendix 4).

The forth step in the content analysis was to carefully code the activities. This was done by using coloured post-it notes and marking the interactive activities in each

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of the workbooks. Pink post-it notes marked the guided activities, green notes marked the partly guided activities and yellow notes marked the not guided activities. On the notes, short code names (see chart 1) was written depending on the activity type. The chart below illustrates the code name that was used for the activity types. The right column contains the name of the activity type, and the left column contains the code name that was used.

Full name Code name

Reading and/or dramatization of fixed dialogues.

RD

Information-gap

activities IG

Opinion-gap

activities OG

Other activity O

Table 2. Code names of sub-categories.

To exemplify how these code names were used, a guided information-gap activity was marked with a pink post-it note and the code name “IG” was written on it.

The fifth step in the analysis was to count the frequency of the activities in the workbooks. The data from the coding process was inserted to an Excel document, which made it easy to transform the data into charts. Finally, the sixth step in the content analysis was carried out by compiling the number of activities into diagrams, which made it possible to compare the different books and the activities with each other. These diagrams will be presented in the results section.

It is necessary to point out that the extra materials in the teacher’s guides were not included in the analysis. These materials consisted of games, songs or video clips and were described as additional material for the teacher. Given that the aim of this content analysis is to examine what is explicitly provided in the workbooks, these materials were chosen not to be a part of the analysis. However, the teacher’s guides were a helpful source and was used to fully understand how the activities in the workbooks were intended to be carried out by the authors.

4.4.2. Definitions of categories

As mentioned, the categories for the content analysis are based on the three levels in Becker and Roos’s model (2016) as well as Baleghizadeh and Aghazadeh's (2014) definition of guided activities. The activity types including reading dialogues, information-gap activities and opinion-gap activities have been defined based on Becker and Roos (2016) and Ortiz Neira (2019) definitions of these activities. Below follow the definitions that was used for the content analysis.

Guided activities include the activities that relates to the first level in Becker and Roos’s model. Here, pupils have full guidance when it comes to phrases and words to use. Activities where the pupils have everything provided in the workbook or said

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to be introduced to it in the teacher’s guide beforehand, are categorized as a guided activity.

Information-gap

activities Opinion-gap

activities Other

Activities where the pupils have a fixed dialogue or phrases that they should repeat.

Activities where two peers have different information about something and have to explain and describe to each other about their information. For example, if they have two different pictures and need to describe them to their peer.

Phrases and words to use are fully provided.

Activities where pupils should talk about what they like or do not like, the language and phrases to use are fully provided.

Activities that are guided but do not fit in within the other categories.

This can be activities that involve giving instruction or present a previous exercise to a peer.

Table 3. Definitions of guided activities.

Partly guided activities are activities where the pupils have some but not full support. The pupils need to, in some way, rely on their own vocabulary and knowledge in order to carry out the activity. In example, activities where a few phrases or expressions are provided, but the pupils must also use their individual vocabulary and knowledge are categorized as partly guided activities.

Information-gap

activities Opinion-gap

activities Other

Activities where phrases in the dialogue are partly provided and the pupils are encouraged to adapt and change the words in the dialogue depending on their individual knowledge. They need to use their individual vocabulary and resources in order to carry out the activity.

Activities where pupils exchange information in some way, but the phrases to use are partly provided.

Activities where pupils are encouraged to express their opinions of what they like of do not like, but words and phrases to use are only partly provided.

They need to use their individual vocabulary and resources.

Activities that are partly guided but does not fit into the other categories.

Table 4. Definitions of partly guided activities.

Not guided activities are activities where the pupils have no guidance or support from the book but instead have to rely completely on their own vocabulary and knowledge in order to carry out the activity.

Information-gap

activities Opinion-gap

activities Other

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Activities such as role-play and improvisation, are activities where the pupils are introduced to a topic and then they have to create their own dialogues.

Activities where the pupils exchange information between each other, without help from fixed phrases or words.

Activities where the pupils have to express their opinion about something, not being limited to phrases or words to use.

Activities that does not provide any phrases or words as guidance but instead rely on the pupils’

previous experiences, knowledge and vocabulary in some way. Without it being introduced earlier in the workbook.

Table 5. Definitions of not guided activities.

4.4.3. Interview

In order to prepare the data for analysis, the audio recordings collected from the interviews were transcribed. The interview transcripts were then analysed based on a thematic approach, where the participants’ answers were categorized into a thematic framework. The thematic framework was created based on Bryman's (2018) instructions and consisted of a table where statements from the interviews were connected to central themes related to the content analysis. From the responses that the teachers gave, central themes regarding support, structure of the books and challenging pupils’ interaction were identified. This analysis aims to answer the third research question on how teachers describes working with interaction related to the selected workbooks. Based on this aim, as well as the content analysis, the interview questions were designed (see appendix 2).

4.5. Reliability and validity

When it comes to the reliability and validity of this study, there are several aspects that needs to be discussed.

Reliability is the term used for explaining the accuracy of measurement methods or instruments. A study has a high reliability if other researchers can conduct the study in the same way, using the same measurement methods but in a different context, and still obtain the same results. In other words, the results have not been affected by outer circumstances such as informants mood the day for the interview, or the researcher’s incorrect calculations (Stukát, 2011). In order for the content analysis to have reliability, the analysis process needs to be carefully and precisely described (Krippendorff, 2019). However, it is important to keep in mind that my role as a teacher student, my background knowledge and interests can impact the results.

The workbook series that was analysed will not change over time, their content is static, which is an advantage for the reliability of the study. However, for the interviewed teachers, their answers may differ depending on the time and context of the interview. Hence, the reliability for this study is not high, but it can still contribute to a new way of understanding and work with teaching material such as workbooks.

Validity on the other hand, is a quality of research that describes how well the measurement instrument actually measure what it was said to measure (Krippendorff, 2019). Even if the measurement instruments used in a study have

Degree Thesis (part 2)