An Analysis of Swedish Conscripts’ Values and Attitudes Towards their Military Education

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An Analysis of Swedish Conscripts’

Values and Attitudes Towards their

Military Education

A Principal Component Analysis of Swedish Conscription

En analys av värnpliktigas värderingar och attityder gentemot värnplikten

Megan Weber

Institutionen för sociala och psykologiska studier

Masterprogram i vård och stödsamorning med inriktning Kognitiv Beteendeterapi (KBT) Examensarbete 30 hp

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SAMMANFATTNING ... 3

ABSTRACT ... 4

FÖRORD ... 5

INTRODUCTION ... 6

GENERATIONAL DIFFERENCES AND RECRUITMENT ... 10

SWEDEN’S CURRENT DEBATE ON REINSTATING A CONSCRIPT BASED MILITARY ... 12

THEORY ... 14

AIM AND OBJECTIVE ... 18

QUESTIONS ADDRESSED IN THIS STUDY ... 19

HYPOTHESIS ... 19 METHOD ... 19 PARTICIPANTS ... 19 DESIGN ... 20 MATERIALS ... 20 DATA COLLECTION ... 21 PROCEDURE ... 21

DATA ANALYSIS AND RESTRICTION ... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED. PARTICIPANT DROPOUT ... 22

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY ... 23

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ... 24 RESULTS ... 24 EDUCATION 2002-‐2005 ... 24 EDUCATION 2006 ... 25 EDUCATION 2007 ... 25 TABLE EDU 1 ... 26 TABLE EDU 2 ... 28 TABLE EDU 3 ... 29 EDUCATION 2008 ... 26 EDUCATION 2009 ... 30 EDUCATION 2010 ... 30 TABLE EDU 4 ... 31 TABLE EDU 5 ... 32 TABLE EDU 6 ... 33 DISCUSSION ... 34 INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT ... 34 GROUP COHESION ... 36

COMPETENCE AND STATE OF READINESS ... 37

CONCLUSIONS ... 39

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Sammanfattning

Slutet på militärtjänstgöring i Europa har lett till rekryteringsproblem i flera länder, däribland Sverige. Genom att identifiera komponenter som är relevanta för värnpliktigas framgång i och en positiv inställning till det militära, kan vi kanske göra militär utbildning till ett mer attraktivt alternativ för ungdomar och på så sätt lösa den militära rekryteringskrisen inte bara i Sverige, utan i flera andra europeiska länder. Med hjälp av generations teori, Kegans teori om psykosociala utveckling och interdependence teori, syftar denna studie för att kartlägga och undersöka värnpliktigas värderingar och attityder gentemot sin obligatoriska

militärutbildning som var 3-18 månader mellan 2002 och 2010. Målet med denna studie är att analysera de komponenter som är viktiga för värnpliktiga i den svenska militären för att avgöra vilka komponenter som bör ingå eller betonas i framtida militära utbildningsprogram, vilket gör militären ett mer attraktivt anställningsalternativ för nuvarande och kommande generationer. Data samlades in från 55239 värnpliktiga i den svenska militären mellan 2002 och 2010 med hjälp av ett anonymt kursutvärderingsformulär. Data från 2002-2005

kombinerades och användes som utgångspunkt för att jämföra med data från kommande år. Principal komponentanalys genomfördes för varje år och resulterade i tre komponenter som extraherade för varje år utom 2008, vilket resulterade i två komponenter som extraherade. Komponenter som extraherade för samtliga år var individuell utveckling, grupp

sammanhållning och kompetens eller beredskap. Den viktigaste slutsats som kan dras från denna studie var att värnpliktigas attityder och värderingar håller med dem yngre

generationer och fokus på dessa värderingar, individuell utveckling, grupp sammanhållning och kompetens eller beredskap, skulle kunna leda till att vi utvecklar mer attraktiva

utbildnings och yrkesmässiga möjligheter för ungdomar.

Nyckelord: värnplikt, generations teori, Kegans teori om psykosociala utveckling och

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Abstract

The end of military conscription in Europe has led to recruitment problems in several countries, including Sweden. By identifying components relevant to conscripts’ success in and positive attitudes towards the military, we may be able to make military education a more attractive option for youth, thus solving the military recruitment crisis not only in Sweden, but in several other European countries as well. Using Generational Theory, Kegan’s theory of psychosocial development, and Interdependence Theory, this study aims to identify and examine conscripts’ values and attitudes towards their 3-18 month long mandatory military education, which took place between 2002 and 2010. The objective of this study is to analyze the components important to conscripts in the Swedish military in order to determine what components should be included or emphasized in future military education programs, thereby making the military a more attractive employment option for current and future generations. Data was collected from 55,239 conscripts in the Swedish military between 2002 and 2010 using an anonymous course evaluation questionnaire. Data from 2002-2005 was combined and used as a baseline to compare against data from future years. Principal component analysis was conducted for each year and resulted in 3 components being extracted for each year except 2008, which resulted in 2 components being extracted. Components extracted were individual development, group cohesion, and competence or state of readiness. The most important conclusion of this study was that conscripts’ attitudes and values were more in line with younger generations and that a focus on these values, individual development, group cohesion, and competence or state of readiness, may lead to the development of more attractive educational and career opportunities for todays youth.

Key words: Conscription, Generational Theory, Kegan’s theory of psychosocial development,

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Förord

Denna studie var gjort i samband med Försvarshögskolan i Karlstad och är baserad på deras data som har redan används i olika projekt.

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Introduction

The Swedish Armed Forces, SAF, had a long history of having a conscript based military much like the rest of Europe. “When mandatory enlistment for the SAF was in practice, almost the entire yearly group of males aged 18 years with Swedish citizenship underwent a pre-screening for military fitness — where physical, cognitive, emotional and social functioning, and fitness were assessed.” (Österberg & Rydstedt, 2013). However, not all of these young men were considered eligible. Only the top 5-10% of young men were chosen for conscription in the final 5-7 years of Sweden’s conscription based military

(Österberg & Rydstedt, 2013). This is in stark contrast to the current system in Sweden where “a career within SAF now starts with a three month long period of basic training. Hereafter the recruits can apply for an employment in the SAF or for officer education training.” (Österberg & Jonsson 2012).

In 1990 when the Berlin wall came down and the cold war ended, most European countries had large, conscript based armies, which allowed these countries to militarize large

percentages of their population for defense purposes (Szvircsev Tresch & Haltiner, 2006). This was very useful during uncertain times such as the cold war and throughout the 20th century. The end of the cold war caused most countries in Europe to reduce the size of their military forces, thus making conscription based military both costly and seemingly

unnecessary.

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conscription while others are not. In these cases the responsibility of national security falls upon those chosen for conscription. There are of course several ways to look at this issue. In the case of Spain, conscripts were chosen by a lottery-draft. In Belgium and the Netherlands upper and middle class youth were able to avoid military service (Szvircsev Tresch & Haltiner, 2006). These two systems were both unpopular with citizens, thus reducing the status and public acceptance of conscripts. In Austria, Germany, Norway, and Sweden, conscription was able to last longer due to the high level of public acceptance and despite the degree of inequality of drafting (Szvircsev Tresch & Haltiner, 2006).

The current challenges of international politics and war have made it necessary for countries to work together. The development of the European Union made individual nations’ military forces almost obsolete. Today, most military missions are led by the UN or NATO and extend outside of European boarders. “No European nation sends compulsory personnel to service abroad, wich would anyway exceed conscript service duration, unless they volunteer to go. Nothing else could be justified in today’s European democracies” (Szvircsev Tresch & Haltiner, 2006).

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Countries such as Switzerland, which have had what was previously termed “hard core conscription systems”, have been switching over to what is called Universal Conscription. In this type of system all young men are liable for military service. According to Szvircsev Tresch and Haltiner’s (2006) report Switzerland was debating the idea of compulsory

national service, which would allow young men to choose between military service and some type of social work. Szvircsev Tresch and Haltiner stated that one of the main reasons for this debate was that “the European Convention on Human Rights, Article 4, prohibits any

obligation to perform forced or compulsory labor” (Szvircsev Tresch & Haltiner, 2006).

In 2006 Sweden had what was called a pseudo conscript force. This means that conscripts accounted for only a minority of personnel within the Swedish Armed Forces. Starting in 2006 the amount of conscripts in the Swedish armed forces would not be higher than 16% according to a new law (Szvircsev Tresch & Haltiner, 2006). In 2010 conscription in Sweden was suspended.

A report from Försvarshögskolan (the Swedish National Defense College) regarding the 2012 recruitment process, the second year recruitment was entirely voluntary, states that of the 13,809 applicants that year, only 2,823 had the qualifications required of the Swedish Armed Forces. These 2,823 candidates were offered positions in the basic military training program leaving 8% of the open positions vacant. In other words only 20% of voluntary applicants were qualified to participate in the basic military training program. Some applicants turned down the positions offered to them, as they were not offered a position that they were

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number of positions needing to be filled for those specializations (Jonsson & Carlstedt, 2012). The number of open training positions was raised during the 2012 selection process making the ratio of applicants to vacant positions 4.2:1. In 2011, the first year with voluntary recruitment this ratio was 6.5:1. If this trend continues, Försvarsmakten will have a

significant problem in coming years, as its personnel needs increase from 3,057 in 2012 to an estimated 5,000 in both 2013 and 2014 (Jonsson & Carlstedt, 2012).

With rising incidence of international conflict, Sweden is not the only country struggling with military recruitment. Even the United States Army has resorted to questionable recruitment strategies including large cash bonuses, relaxed enlistment standards, coercion, and

manipulation to name a few (Korb & Duggan, 2007). This is resulting in the army being able to recruit the quantity of recruits needed without the quality needed in each recruit. The wars in Iraq and Afghanistan have led to “the first time the (US) military has had to recruit for the all volunteer force during a time of protracted war” (Korb & Duggan, 2007).

Dr. Tibor Szvircsev Tresch has investigated military recruitment problems throughout Europe by having 59 experts from 27 countries fill in a questionnaire regarding military recruitment and retention. This study exemplified that the main problem throughout Europe is in

recruitment of enlisted soldiers and retention of mid-level officers, especially in areas

requiring special skills such as computers and technology. This study concluded that the main problems with recruitment are the currently low unemployment rate throughout Europe, the fact that the armed forces cannot compete economically with the private sector, and changing social values amongst young people (Szvircsev Tresch, 2008). Szvircsev Tresch notes

“conscript forces seem to have less difficulty in recruiting enlisted personnel than

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According to a 2005 rapport by Försvarshögskolan, 42% of conscripts were definitely, or maybe going to apply for a traditional type of international military position, 45% of conscripts were interested in applying for a position in a new type of battle group and 38% report having an interest in applying for a position with the United Nations or NATO (Österberg, Carlstedt & Carlstedt, 2005). This would indicate that having a conscript based military, or at least mandatory military education, provides a good base for recruitment, which is consistent with Szvircsev Tresch’s findings (Szvircsev Tresch, 2008). With such high interest among conscripts in furthering one’s military training and career, Sweden should not have such a problem with recruitment. However, 25 % of conscripts who reported interest in applying for an international position did not qualify because they did not receive high enough grades under their basic military education period (Österberg, Carlstedt & Carlstedt, 2005).

Generational Differences and Recruitment

In western society there is an assumption that there are currently four

generations, which include Veterans, Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y (Parry & Urwin, 2011). The definition of these groups, in terms of the years in which they were born varies depending on which researcher is asked and which study is read. “However, in each case the grouping of individuals within these four generations is motivated by the belief that they each share a different set of values and attitudes, as a result of shared events and experiences” (Parry & Urwin, 2011).

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definition implies that each generation is limited to a specific range of potential experiences, which predisposes the generation to a certain mode of thought and experience. Mannheim states that “individuals cannot be members of the same generation simply because they share a year of birth. They must definitely be in a position to participate in certain common

experiences so that a concrete bond is created between members of a generation and so that they share ‘an identity of responses, a certain affinity in the way in which all move with and are formed by their common experiences’” (as cited in Parry & Urwin, 2011). Modern day sociologists have broadened their definition of a generation from the consideration of the impact of historical events to allow for inclusion of cultural elements such as music or other types of popular culture. “Generations therefore build solidarity through shared cultural symbols such as music or fashion” (Parry & Urwin, 2011).

There are two problems with researching generational differences, age effects and cohort effects. Age effects assume that younger adults mature thereby becoming more like older adults. Age effect is often confused with cohort effects, also called generational effects, which assume that attitude and the differences between age cohorts are to remain relatively stable throughout the years, thus supporting generational theory. The complication of age effects, which can easily be explained by human development, makes research methodology especially important in generational research.

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The differences found in these studies can be summarized by generation:

• Baby Boomers valued personal growth more that either Generation X or Generation Y.

• Generation X valued: openness to change more than the other three generations and conservation less that the other three generations. They felt more strongly that hard work indicates worth and less strongly that work should be the most important aspect of ones life. Generation X was less motivated by power and had a stronger desire to be promoted quickly than the Baby Boomers. Generation X, in keeping with

generational stereotypes, was found to be more “me” oriented and less loyal to their employers.

• Generation Y did not differ significantly from Veterans or Baby Boomers with regard to openness to change or conservation. They valued personal growth less and

economic returns more. Generation Y valued freedom and their work environment more than either Baby Boomers or Generation X. They valued an affiliated workplace and are less motivated by power than Generation X.

• Both of the younger generations, X and Y, valued status, progression, and self-enhancement more than Baby Boomers or Veterans.

Sweden’s Current Debate on Reinstating a Conscript Based Military

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According to this poll older men and women are most supportive while only about 1/3 of people ages 15-29 are in favor of having conscription (Åkerman, 2014).

In October 2013 Swedish newspaper Dagens Nyheter reported that Sweden’s Social

Democratic party would like to have mandatory online enrolment test for all Swedish citizens ages 18 and up. From this online test 20% of people would then be called for a mandatory muster where they would undergo physical exams and get more information on the various educational programs offered by the military. The idea is to get more youth in contact with the military and to spark a broader interest in military careers (Delin, 2013). This same

political party was in support of scaling down the military just 10 years ago. They site the rise in military activity in other countries, such as Russia, as a main reason to start mandatory mustering (Delin, 2013).

According to a motion made to the Swedish parliament on September 19, 2013, Sweden’s Vänster Partiet (Left party) agrees with the Social Democrats that there should be a

mandatory muster via the Internet. (Sjöstedt, Holma , Olofsson, Linde, Björlund & Sydow Mölleby, 2013). In this motion, the Left Party states that national defense is everyone’s responsibility. They would like to see a gender equal system put into place that offers possibilities for mandatory military as well as civil service (Sjöstedt, Holma , Olofsson, Linde, Björlund & Sydow Mölleby, 2013).

This is not a new idea in the debate regarding mandatory military service. Dr. Björn

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experience (Ekengren, 2008). This is important because the unemployment rate for young adults in Sweden between the ages of 15 and 25 was 25.8% as of February 2014. This means that 1 in 4 young adults who want to work cannot find a job. Furthermore, 40% of those who are unemployed were under the age of 25. The unemployment rate of young adults in Sweden has been consistently high since 2000. This is partially caused by the fact that it is hard to get a job without work experience and the tradition of last one hired, first one fired impairs youth’s ability to build up an employment history (ekonomifakta, 2014). Mandatory civil or military service could help with this problem by providing youth with work experience.

Ekengren states that as people today are living longer it is putting a strain on social service agencies. He believes that all citizens need to share the responsibility of ensuring that social services are provided to everyone. He also notes that by having mandatory civil service for everyone that it will raise the feeling of inclusion in society. He states that youth that do not participate in military training, whether they wanted to or not, become outsiders, are made to feel as though they are not good enough, and miss out on the feeling of contributing to the greater good. He also points out that by not having military training be mandatory for

women, that the military has held back the advancement of gender equality (Ekengren, 2008).

Theory

Kegan’s theory of psychosocial development emphasizes the universal

underlying mental structures that determine how people construct their understanding of the external world in relation to themselves. Kegan also emphasizes the important influence of experience, specifically social experience, in prompting people to progress to new

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leadership skills, which is often an important part of military education (Larsson et al. 2006). Kegan’s developmental theory is comprised of six developmental stages (0-5), which begins with birth and continue through stage 5. Stage 5 is achieved sometime in adulthood.

According to Kegan, not everyone reaches this developmental stage. Kegansuggests that most high-level management and leadership roles require a stage 4 perspective in order to be successful (Bartone et al. 2007).

While examining two samples of West Point cadets over time, Bartone et al. “found that the cadets fit very well with Kegan's stage descriptions, that developmental change does occur, and that these changes are sequential and qualitative in nature” (Bartone et al. 2007). These findings support Kegan’s theory with regard to the stage-like nature, sequence, and

progression of psychosocial constructive-development. Bartone et al. findings also suggest that the transition into stage 3 functioning occurs in the college years, which is later than previously expected. It was previously supposed that most individuals transition into stage 4 during the college years. Stage 3 is the Interpersonal level of functioning. In this stage

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47% of these West Point cadets followed in Bartone et al. (2007) study showed a significant increase in developmental level across two time points. For this college age group,

psychosocial growth mainly involved the transition from a stage 2 to a stage 3. Few students in their sample showed any evidence of stage 4 “autonomous” thinking.”

Stage 4 (Institutional) involves a new separation or objectification of the views of others from how one sees oneself” (Bartone et al. 2007). “While for the stage 3 person others' views are essentially confounded with how he thinks about himself, the stage 4 person can distance himself from others' views and formulate a more independent or autonomous perspective on himself and the surrounding world. This broader stage 4 perspective makes it possible to independently decide on values and make choices, even in the absence of positive social feedback. Bartone et al. 2007

This conclusion is supported by a study examining Kegan’s developmental levels in a sample of college freshman from a large state (non-military) university “As with cadets, most of these civilian college students were found to be at stage 2, or in the stage 2 to stage 3

transition zone” (Bartone et al. 2007). That being said, individual growth and maturity, which are often considered to be byproducts of military training, may in fact simply be due to growing up and experiencing new things.

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more psychologically mature in Kegan's terms are also more effective in managing

interpersonal relationships, understanding multiple perspectives as well as their own in the overall context of organizational missions and goals, it makes sense that peers and

subordinates would also perceive them as more effective leaders” (Bartone et al. 2007). Bartone et al.’s findings clearly show that a higher level of psychosocial maturity contributes to effective leadership, or at least a perception of more effective leadership.

Interdependence theory is based on Deutsch’s theory of cooperation and competition

(Deutsch 1949). According to Deutsch’s original theory, social interaction often takes one of two forms of interdependence, either promotive or contrient. Promotive interdependence occurs when individuals only can achieve their goals if all others involved also achieve their goals. Contriente interdependence occurs when individuals only can achieve their goals if some or all of the other group members do not achieve their goals (DeOrtentiis, Summers, Ammeter, Douglas, & Ferris 2013). “Interdependence influences effectiveness by affecting the behaviors of individuals subjected to interdependence. Promotive interdependence results in a greater increase in teamwork, because individuals will be more likely to work together in order to achieve their goals” (DeOrtentiis et al. 2013).

There is a spectrum of interdependency within teams or groups. The low end of this spectrum represents the minimum amount of interdependency required to maintain a team. In

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on the team’s overall level of effectiveness. This promotes positive interdependence. Individual-based reward structures reward group members based on a member’s individual performance rather than team-level effectiveness, resulting in negative interdependence (DeOrtentiis et al. 2013). “The presence of positive interdependence results in interactions where individuals encourage, help, and are willing to work with each other to achieve their goals. The presence of negative interdependence results in interactions where individuals not only avoid the behaviors present in positive interdependence, but also discourage, hinder, and are not willing to work with each other” (DeOrtentiis et al. 2013). Based on this theory, components related to the willingness and ability of individuals to work together for a common goal should lead to a more effective team. These components include, but are not limited to, trust between team members, cohesion within a team, and an individuals’ satisfaction within the team.

The better members of a group are able to do their jobs (soldier task support), the more likely an individual is able to perform his or her job tasks (individual performance), and the more likely all members can perform tasks (group performance). This is likely the case in the military units where many tasks rely on interdependencies among soldiers. Performing one’s job well and working cooperatively and effectively with others likely provides a sense of meaning and purpose to one’s job (well-being) and functionally ties the individual to the larger group (identification and solidarity). Griffith 2002

Aim and Objective

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about something”(Oxford Dictionary 2014a) The objective of this study is to analyze the components important to conscripts in the Swedish military in order to determine what components should be included or emphasized in future military education programs, thereby making the military a more attractive employment option for current and future generations.

By identifying components relevant to conscripts’ success in and positive attitudes towards the military, we may be able to solve the military recruitment crisis not only in Sweden, but in several other European countries as well. The military is not only important in times of war but also in terms of national security, disaster relief, defense and continued independence of a nation, humanitarian efforts, and protection of politicians and other esteemed individuals.

Questions Addressed in this Study

What components of a military educational program are important to conscripts? What values and attitudes do conscripts have with regards to their military

education?

Hypothesis

Military education is usually associated with personal development, leadership, teamwork, and learning new skills associated with being a soldier. It can be hypothesizes that these will be components of interest or importance to conscripts.

Method

Participants

Participants were 55,239 Swedish conscripts participating in military

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participants being age 18 or 19. The breakdown of number of participants per year is as follows: 2002-2005 n=29,436 2006 n=7,063 2007 n=7060 2008 n=1,745 2009 n=7,607 2010 n=2,328 Design

This study has a cross-sectional design, which means that the study includes different groups of people who differ in the variable of interest, but share other characteristics such as ethnicity, educational level, and age. In this study, the variable of interest is year of conscription. The shared characteristics are having been a conscript that year.

Materials

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The questionnaire was developed as a course evaluation and its original purpose was to gain information about conscripts’ experiences in order to improve the educational program in future years. The questionnaire was not designed or distributed with research in mind, which accounts for the low reliability of the leadership, experience, and attitude subscales.

Data Collection

Data was collected by the Swedish military, Försvarsmakten, between 2002 and 2010 using an anonymous 10-page self-report inventory.

Procedure

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A separate principal component analysis was conducted for each subscale of questions each year. This study will focus on the subscale related to education. This was done in part because of the large amount of data, but also to examine differences over time.

Försvarshögskolan had already combined the data from 2002-2005 into one file. As the questionnaires from these years were for the most part the same, the combined data from these years served as a good reference to compare against the other years.

Reliability was tested for each extracted component using Chronbach’s alpha

Constriction

The focus on this study is on the subscale related to Education. This subscale had a high rate of reliability and the questions on this subscale remained almost identical from year to year where as the other subscales had much lower reliability due to the fact that questions on the other three subscales varied greatly from year to year.

Most questions from the education subscale were identical from 2002 through 2010. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was used to determine that all variables provided an adequate sample. That being said, not all KMO items had a value over the acceptable limit of .5. In those cases the questions that had a KMO value below .5 were excluded from the analysis and principal component analysis was run again for that year without those questions being included. Furthermore not all questions loaded onto a component and questions loaded differently from year to year.

Participant Dropout

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Due to the large sample size, participant dropout is not an issue. The response rate for each year is as follows:

2002-2003= Data from 2002-2005 had been combined before the response rate for this year was calculated. 2003-2004=89% response rate 2005=74% response rate 2006=77% response rate 2007= 87% response rate 2008= 95% response rate 2009= 92% response rate

2010: The response rate for 2010 could not be calculated because conscription ended half way through the year, July 2010. When conscription ended, conscripts were given the choice to complete their education or return home.

Reliability and Validity

Reliability and internal consistency was calculated for the education subscale of each year’s questionnaire using Chronbach’s alpha. This analysis showed that the education subscale had high internal consistency and reliability.

2002-2005: α= .891 2006: α= .893 2007: α= .896 2008: α= .889 2009: α= .884 2010: α= .889

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corresponding tables for each year’s analysis. Chronbach’s alpha also tests for reliability, or the degree to which the items of a measure (component) assess a common characteristic. Validity is difficult to measure in this study because there is no way of knowing if the questions asked by the questionnaire are related only to education as answers on the questionnaire reflect conscripts’ own perceptions of themselves and their educational experience. There is also no way of knowing how much though conscripts put into their answers and some participants may have answered quickly, with out taking the course evaluation seriously.

Ethical Considerations

Data was not collected with research in mind and therefore informed consent was not given. Participants could, however, choose to not turn in their course evaluation. As the questionnaire was anonymous and the data does not include any personal information, no punishment or consequence could be given for not turning in the questionnaire thereby implying that participation was optional. Furthermore, the data is analyzed on a group level. The lack of personal information and focus on patterns in the group data make an application to the ethics board redundant and unnecessary as the identity of participants is completely protected.

Results

Education 2002-2005

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correlated, the sum of square loadings could not be added to obtain total variance after rotation. Table EDU 1 shows the component loadings after rotation. The items that cluster on the same component suggest that component 1 represents competence or sense of readiness, component 2 represents trust and group cohesion and component 3 represents individual growth and development.

Education 2006

A principal component analysis was conducted on the 16 items with oblique rotation (direct oblimin). The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure verified the sampling adequacy for the analysis, KMO=.928 and all KMO items were greater than the acceptable limit of 0.5 with the lowest item being 0.892. An initial analysis was run to obtain eigenvalues for each component in the data. Three components had eigenvalues over Kaiser’s criterion of 1 and in combination explained 52.98% of the variance before rotation. Because components were correlated, the sum of square loadings could not be added to obtain total variance after rotation. The scree plot showed a point of inflexion after the third component. Three

components were retained because of the large sample size and convergence of the scree plot and Kaiser’s criterion on this value. Table EDU 2 shows the component loadings after rotation. The items that cluster on the same component suggest that component 1 represents individual growth and development, component 2 represents trust and group cohesion, and component 3 represents competence or sense of readiness.

Education 2007

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component in the data. Three components had eigenvalues over Kaiser’s criterion of 1 and in combination explained 53.43% of the variance before rotation. Because components were correlated, the sum of square loadings could not be added to obtain total variance after rotation. The scree plot showed a point of inflexion after the third component. Three

components were retained because of the large sample size and convergence of the scree plot and Kaiser’s criterion on this value. Table EDU 3 shows the component loadings after rotation. The items that cluster on the same component suggest that component 1 represents individual growth and development, component 2 represents trust and group cohesion, and component 3 represents competence or sense of readiness.

Education 2008

A principal component analysis was conducted on the 10 items with oblique rotation (direct oblimin). The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure verified the sampling adequacy for the analysis, KMO=.869 and all KMO items were greater than the acceptable limit of 0.5 with the lowest item being 0.818. An initial analysis was run to obtain eigenvalues for each component in the data. Two components had eigenvalues over Kaiser’s criterion of 1 and in combination explained 54.62% of the variance before rotation. Because components were correlated, the sum of square loadings could not be added to obtain total variance after rotation. The scree plot showed a point of inflexion after the second component. Two

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Table EDU 1

Item

Component 1 Component 2 Component 3

Competence State of Readiness Group Cohesion Individual Development I have enough skills to handle my duties in

a "critical situation"

.726 I have confidence in the team’s skills to

handle our duties in a "real situation" .720 I would be prepared to go into battle and

do what I trained to do

.625 I have confidence in the equipment and

weapons, we have

.593 The education feels realistic and I've got a

good idea of how the battle environment can be

.530 I have a clear picture of the overall goal of

my training

.487 Human equality characterize the working

atmosphere at my platoon / ship

.727 During training, we have a natural way to

discuss ethical and moral standpoints

.676

I trust the members of my team .603

I have confidence in my nearest commanding officer

.545 I feel confident that current safety

regulations are always followed

.475 I feel that training gives me the space to

take responsibility

-.781 The task I trained feels meaningful and

important

-.699 The training has positively contributed to

my development as a human being

-.669 Follow-up has been used continuously to

develop education

-.531 I think I am reasonably able to influence

how training is conducted

-.525

Initial Eigenvalues 6.135 1.203 1.083

Initial % of Variance 38.35 7.52 6.77

α .781 .728 .812

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Table EDU 2 Items Component 1 Individual Development Component 2 Group Cohesion Component 3 Competence and State of Readiness I feel that training gives me the space to

take responsibility

.762 The task I trained feels meaningful and

important .693

The training has positively contributed to

my development as a human being .673

Follow-up has been used continuously to

develop education .518

I think I am reasonably able to influence

how training is conducted .462 .425

Human equality characterize the working

atmosphere at my platoon / ship .746

During training, we have a natural way to

discuss ethical and moral standpoints .708

I feel confident that current safety

regulations are always followed .590

I trust the members of my team _.568

I have confidence in my nearest

commanding officer .535

I have enough skills to handle my duties

in a "critical situation" .761

I have confidence in the team’s skills to

handle our duties in a "real situation" .688

I would be prepared to go into battle and

do what I trained to do .679

I have confidence in the equipment and

weapons, we have .527

The education feels realistic and I've got a good idea of how the battle environment

can be

.521 I have a clear picture of the overall goal

of my training .438

α .806 .772 .790

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Table EDU 3 Items Component 1 Individual development Component 2 Group Cohesion Component 3 Competence and State of Readiness I feel that training gives me the space to

take responsibility

.788 The training has positively contributed to

The task I trained feels meaningful and

important .719

how training is conducted .469

I have enough skills to handle my duties

in a "critical situation" .791

I would be prepared to go into battle and

do what I trained to do .736

The education feels realistic and I've got a good idea of how the battle environment

can be

.451 I have a clear picture of the overall goal

of my training .435

weapons, we have .405 .434

α .799 .784 .788

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Education 2009

A principal component analysis was conducted on the 16 items with oblique rotation (direct oblimin). The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure verified the sampling adequacy for the analysis, KMO=.922 and all KMO items were greater than the acceptable limit of 0.5 with the lowest item being 0.886. An initial analysis was run to obtain eigenvalues for each component in the data. Three components had eigenvalues over Kaiser’s criterion of 1 and in combination explained 52.13% of the variance before rotation. Because components were correlated, the sum of square loadings could not be added to obtain total variance after rotation. The scree plot showed a minor point of inflexion after the third component. Three components were retained because of the large sample size and convergence of the scree plot and Kaiser’s criterion on this value. Table EDU 5 shows the component loadings after rotation. The items that cluster on the same component suggest that component 1 represents individual growth and development, component 2 represents trust and group cohesion, and component 3 represents competence and state of readiness.

Education 2010

A principal component analysis was conducted on the 16 items with oblique rotation (direct oblimin). The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure verified the sampling adequacy for the analysis, KMO=.921 and all KMO items were greater than the acceptable limit of 0.5 with the lowest item being 0.881. An initial analysis was run to obtain eigenvalues for each component in the data. Three components had eigenvalues over Kaiser’s criterion of 1 and in combination explained 52.96% of the variance before rotation. Because components were correlated, the sum of square loadings could not be added to obtain total variance after rotation. The scree plot showed a point of inflexion after the third component. Three

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rotation. The items that cluster on the same component suggest that component 1 represents individual development, component 2 represents group cohesion, and component 3 represents competence and state of readiness.

Table EDU 4 Items Component 1 Individual Development, Competence, and State of Readiness Component 2 Safety, Security, and Group Cohesion The task I trained feels meaningful and

important .805

The training has positively contributed to my

development as a human being .758

I feel that training gives me the space to take

responsibility .716

I have enough skills to handle my duties in a

"critical situation" .708

I would be prepared to go into battle and do

what I trained to do .700

I feel confident that current safety regulations

are always followed .525

I think I am reasonably able to influence how

training is conducted .511

Initial Eigenvalues 4.284 1.178

Initial % of Variance 42.84 11.78

α .821 .720

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Table EDU 5 Items Component 1 Individual Development Component 2 Group Cohesion Component 3 Competence and State of Readiness I feel that training gives me the space to take

responsibility .794

The task I trained feels meaningful and

important .755

The training has positively contributed to

how training is conducted .431

The education feels realistic and I've got a good idea of how the battle environment can

be

.528 I have confidence in the equipment and

I have a clear picture of the overall goal of

my training .447

α .783 .756 .782

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Table EDU 6

Items Component 1 Individual

Development Component 2 Group Cohesion Component 3 Competence and State of Readiness The task I trained feels meaningful and

important .851

I feel that training gives me the space to take

responsibility .809

The training has positively contributed to my

development as a human being .659

I think I am reasonably able to influence how

training is conducted .605

The education feels realistic and I've got a good

idea of how the battle environment can be 5.35

I have a clear picture of the overall goal of my

training .505

discuss ethical and moral standpoints. .673

I trust the members of my team _.641

I feel confident that current safety regulations

are always followed .540

I have confidence in my nearest commanding

officer .458

I have confidence in the team’s skills to handle

our duties in a "real situation" .667

α .845 .728 .726

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Discussion

The use of principal component analysis is exploratory. The results are to be used as a guide for future hypotheses or to gain information about patterns with-in the given data sets. Three components were extracted for education for each year except 2008, which resulted in only two components being extracted. This may be due to the smaller sample size for the 2008 data. Chronbach’s alpha for all of these components was over .700 every year indicating that there is a high level of internal consistency. This can be interpreted to mean that these components are in fact measuring common characteristics each year. These common characteristics have been labeled individual development, group cohesion, and competence or state of readiness. It is quite logical that these three components have been extracted as earlier research using interdependence theory shows that they strongly influence one another.

Individual Development

Individual development was extracted as the first component every year after 2005 and was extracted as the third component for the combined data from 2002-2005. This is somewhat consistent with Parry and Urwin’s findings, which stated that the younger generations, to which the participants in this study belong, value self-enhancement (Parry & Urwin, 2011). These results are similar to those of Dar and Kimhi who conducted a study on Self-perceived maturation related to service in the Israeli army. They found that

“Respondents attributed to their military service increasing independence, self-confidence, self-control, efficacy, self-awareness, social sensitivity, and ability to form intimate

relationships” (Dar & Kimhi 2000).

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• The task I trained feels meaningful and important

• I feel that training gives me the space to take responsibility

• The training has positively contributed to my development as a human being

The high loading of these three questions implies that conscripts value a meaningful experience that leads to their own development as human beings and allows them to take responsibility for themselves, their education, and other group members. This could also be summarized as the development of leadership skills, which is traditionally an important part of military education.

Larsson (2006) found that processes involved everyday social interaction between the young officer and his or her peers, and superiors were a critical part of leadership development. We can assume that conscripts who participated in this study engaged in social interaction with both peers and superiors during their military education which according to Larsson, leads to the development of leadership skills (Larsson et al. 2006).

Using Kegan’s theory of psycho-social development, it can be assumed that most of the participants in this study would be in the same stage 2 to stage 3 transition that was observed in the study conducted by Bartone et al. (2007), as conscripts in this study were mostly college age. If that was the case, then conscripts may be responding more to their changed developmental stage, which may simply be caused by getting older, rather than the actual effect that their conscription had on their self-development. It is also possible that

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development of civilians of the same age. More research is needed on this topic in order to determine the actual effects of military education on individual development.

Group Cohesion

Group cohesion was extracted as the second component every year. Two questions loaded highest on this component every year. The highest loading question was always “Human equality characterize the working atmosphere at my platoon / ship” followed by “During training, we have a natural way to discuss ethical and moral standpoints.”

Interestingly, the question related to trusting group members loaded third or fourth each year. This would imply that conscripts were more concerned with fairness, equality, and ethical or moral dilemmas, possibly related to how they themselves were being treated. This is also consistent with Parry and Urwin’s findings, which stated that the younger generations value their status, in this case being treated as an equal member of the group (Parry & Urwin, 2011).

Recent research on this topic shows that group cohesion is important for many reasons. “Cohesion’s value stems from its presumed and demonstrated relation to individual and group performance in social psychology and in relation to combat effectiveness and

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According to interdependence theory, groups with higher levels of interdependence will have a higher level of group cohesion (DeOrtentiis et al. 2013). The idea that everyone is focused on achieving the same goal and that no one is deliberately trying to sabotage the attainment of said goal, logically would lead to a stronger feeling of group involvement and cohesion and is in line with interdependence theory.

Competence and State of Readiness

Competence and state of readiness was extracted as the third component each year except for the 2002-2005 combined data where it was extracted as the first component and in 2008 where it was combined with individual development and was extracted as the first

component. Three questions loaded highest each year. These questions were: • I have enough skills to handle my duties in a "critical situation"

• I have confidence in the team’s skills to handle our duties in a "real situation" • I would be prepared to go into battle and do what I trained to do

For each year the question related to the individual’s skills and abilities to handle a critical situation loaded highest. This seems to be in keeping with the younger generations focus on themselves (Parry & Urwin, 2011). For 2002-2005 and 2006 the question related to the team’s skills and ability to handle their duties loaded second highest and the question related to the individual being prepared to go into battle loaded third highest. Starting in 2007, but not in 2009, the second and third questions switch so that the two questions related to

individual abilities become the two highest loading questions (I have enough skills to handle my duties in a "critical situation" and I would be prepared to go into battle and do what I trained to do) where as the question related to group abilities becomes the third highest loading question. This could represent a trend towards greater focus on individual

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with the younger generation’s values as defined by Parry and Urwin. This would also support Szvircsev Tresch (2008) argument that military recruitment problems are linked to the

changing values of society, and especially the values of the younger generations.

When examining research on competence in the military, most researchers considered it to be related to group cohesion. Griffith found that “the notion that soldiers’ experience of

supportive unit leadership and cooperative peer relations, both individually and as a group, build their identification with the unit, lessen the likelihood of their leaving the unit and the Army, and enhance their perceptions of combat readiness” (Griffith 2002).

According to Griffith, competence, or perceived competence leads to increased group cohesion, which in turn leads to a more effective military unit, or higher state of readiness. This is in agreement with DeOrtentiis et al. who states that when team members trust one another, their propensity to perceive their team as a cohesive unit that will aid each other in achieving their goals increases (DeOrtentiis et al. 2013). “This perception of cohesion

represents individuals’ beliefs in the ability of the team to work together, which is a necessary criterion in order to obtain interdependent goals” (DeOrtentiis et al. 2013).

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If we combine Griffith (2002) and DeOrtentiis (2013) findings we see that trust and

competence are antecedents to group cohesion and that group cohesion leads to more goals being achieved. We can then conclude that as the group achieves more goals, the feelings of competence and trust would increase thereby reinforcing the feelings of group cohesion. In other words, improving group cohesion should lead to more competent military personnel, which would in turn improve soldier performance. Improved performance would lead to more successful missions, or completed goals, thus reinforcing group cohesion and further improving the soldiers’ competence.

Conclusions

It is quite clear that military recruitment has become a problem since conscription was abolished in 2010. Issues such as burden sharing and equality in the

recruitment process become less important when a country is left without enough volunteers to make up a competent military. The increase in international conflict makes having a military absolutely necessary, even if it’s only task is to provide soldiers for UN and NATO missions. On the other hand, the military may be a less attractive career path for youth who do not want to be sent abroad on UN or NATO missions. These difficulties with military recruitment have led to the current debate in Sweden on whether or not conscription should be reinstated.

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make a career in the military a more attractive option for today’s youth thereby solving military recruitment problems in Sweden.

Limitations and Areas for Future Study

This study was limited in that it relied on self-report data. Participants may or may not have taken the course evaluation questionnaire seriously. This limitation can be overcome by the large sample size and the fact that the data from 2002-2005 was used as a base to compare data from later years using systematic replication. The fact that results for each year were so similar provides good evidence for the results and conclusions of this study.

This study did not examine the difference between military careers based entirely in Sweden, for example work in homeland security, compared with overseas positions or positions that could result in overseas placement. There may be a difference in values and attitudes of soldiers or military recruits who choose to participate in UN or NATO missions compared with recruits or soldiers who wish to work in homeland security. As the data for this study is taken from conscripts who’s military service took place solely in Sweden, we may be able to conclude that the findings of this study are more applicable to recruitment for homeland security positions, however more research is needed to determine if there is in fact a difference in values and attitudes of soldiers in these two types of employment groups.

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showing that a military education, rather than an education at a non-military college, leads to increased or faster individual development.

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